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Experiment no: 08

Frequency modulation using VCO

1. What do you understand by Frequency Modulation (FM)? Explain your answer by

drawing waveforms for the message signal, carrier signal and the FM signal.

Ans: In Frequency Modulation, we try to transmit a message signal over a certain

distance and for that we have a carrier signal.

Carrier signal is a waveform (usually sinusoidal) that is modulated (modified) with an

input signal for the purpose of conveying information. This carrier wave is usually a
much higher frequency than the input signal.

Message signal is nothing but the input signal.

2. What are the advantages of FM? Why FM is better than AM (Amplitude

Modulation)?

Ans: Resilient to noise: One of the main advantages of frequency modulation that has
been utilised by the broadcasting industry is the reduction in noise. As most noise is
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amplitude based, this can be removed by running the signal through a limiter so that
only frequency variations appear. This is provided that the signal level is sufficiently high
to allow the signal to be limited.

Resilient to signal strength variations: In the same way that amplitude noise can be
removed, so too can any signal variations. This means that one of the advantages of
frequency modulation is that it does not suffer audio amplitude variations as the signal
level varies, and it makes FM ideal for use in mobile applications where signal levels
constantly vary. This is provided that the signal level is sufficiently high to allow the
signal to be limited.

Does not require linear amplifiers in the transmitter: As only frequency changes are
required to be carried, any amplifiers in the transmitter do not need to be linear.

Enables greater efficiency than many other modes: The use of non-linear amplifiers,
e.g. class C, etc means that transmitter efficiency levels will be higher - linear amplifiers
are inherently inefficient.

AM works by modulating (varying) the amplitude of the signal or carrier transmitted

according to the information being sent, while the frequency remains constant. This
differs from FM technology in which information (sound) is encoded by varying the
frequency of the wave and the amplitude is kept constant. That’s why FM is better than
AM.

3. What sort of a current source lies inside a VCO? What is its purpose inside?

Ans: Inside a VCO, there is a constant current source. Its function is to charge and
discharge an external capacitor.

4. How does a Schmitt trigger circuit work? What does it do inside the VCO? What
would have happened if the Schmitt trigger circuit was not present in the VCO?

Ans: A Schmitt trigger is actually a comparator circuit with two different threshold
voltage levels. In a Schmitt trigger circuit, output swings occur only when the magnitude
of the input voltage crosses the upper threshold from smaller values to larger values
and when the magnitude of the input voltage crosses the lower threshold from larger
values to smaller values.
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If Schmitt trigger wasn’t there in the VCO, then the square waves wouldn’t have met our
desired expectation. We would have just got normal comparator output, which is also
square waves but not that efficient as Schmitt trigger.

5. Explain with the aid of graphs how a square wave is generated by the Schmitt
trigger circuit?

Ans:

The first graph is a varying DC input voltage with 3 dotted horizontal lines in it. The first
dotted horizontal line (from the top) is the upper threshold voltage of the Schmitt
trigger. The second (in the middle) dotted horizontal line is the reference voltage of a
comparator and the third dotted horizontal line is the lower threshold voltage of the
Schmitt trigger. The second graph is how a comparator output would look like with the
reference voltage as stated here. The last graph shows the output of a Schmitt trigger
circuit. Overall, these graphs help to illustrate the operation of the Schmitt trigger and
also clarify the difference between a comparator and a Schmitt trigger.

6. What is a source follower? What purpose does it serve inside a VCO? What are the
other names of a source follower?

Ans: In a source follower, the gate terminal of the transistor serves as the input, the
source is the output and the drain is common to both (input and output). The purpose
of the source follower is simply to amplify the output of the Schmitt trigger circuit.
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Other names: Buffer amplifier, common-drain amplifier etc.

7. Describe the operation of a VCO briefly using a block diagram.

Ans:

Inside the VCO there is a constant current source; its function is to charge and discharge
an external capacitor labeled C1 in the diagram. The rate at which this charging and
discharging occurs is controlled by the input voltage and the external resistor R1. Thus,
C1, R1 and the input voltage altogether determine the output frequency of the VCO. A
Schmitt trigger is employed to switch the current source from charging and discharging
the capacitor C1. The component left to mention is a source follower which is also
known as a buffer amplifier. The purpose of source follower is to amplify the output of
the Schmitt trigger circuit.

8. What is the free running frequency of the VCO? State the factors which determine
the oscillating frequency of the VCO?

Ans: Free running frequency is the frequency of oscillation of a VCO when the input
voltage is zero.
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The frequency of oscillation depends mainly on the control voltage applied to it as input
and the combination of capacitor(s) and resistor(s) connected to it to make it work.

9. Explain how it is possible to generate a FM signal using a VCO.

Ans: In this experiment, instead of using any voice if we can alter/vary the control
voltage of the VCO then its frequency of oscillation will change accordingly. This
matches with the criteria of FM (in FM, frequency of the carrier signal changes with the
amplitude of the message signal) and hence our message signal is the control voltage.
Here, carrier signal is the signal at which the control voltage is zero but the VCO still
operates at a certain frequency (that would be the carrier frequency). We must keep in
mind that when there is no control voltage applied to the VCO then the frequency at
which it operates is known as free running frequency of the VCO. Thus, in the end we
can generate a FM signal using VCO.

10. Explain how the free running frequency can be changed? Why is it important to
have control over the free running frequency if we want to do FM broadcasting using
VCO?

Ans: VCO can have a control voltage and still be un-locked. Steering a VCO with a
voltage from say a variable bench PSU does not make it locked. Free-running is anything
outside the closed PLL loop. A loop can be opened and the control voltage can go either
pin high or low, depending on the design. Electronic devices such as RF (Radio
Frequency) receivers, transmitters and various other devices include a VCO operating
within a PLL (Phase Locked Loop) to maintain a desired oscillation frequency.

It is conventional practice to tune a VCO to a particular initial frequency before it leaves

its factory. This is typically accomplished by using factory equipment to measure the
frequency of the VCO while it is free-running (i.e., the PLL is opened).

It is needed to have control over the free running frequency in terms of FM

broadcasting using VCO, so that the VCO can still operate if there’s no control voltage
applied to it.

11. Draw a IC Pin configuration diagram for a 4046 IC stating only the connections
necessary for a VCO to operate. State the name of the 4046 IC.
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Ans:

4046 IC is a Phase Locked Loop IC.

12. Instead of grounding Pin 8 if we had connected a 2V input at Pin 8 then what other
changes we need to do to make the circuit work?

Ans: Capacitor should be properly coupled to avoid any unwanted currents.

13. Suppose you are observing a square waveform from Pin 4 and a 5V dc voltage is
provided at Pin 5. How will the waveform change?

Ans: Pin 5 is to inhibit input. So a voltage input of 5V or any input through this pin would
completely disable the VCO and we won’t any kind of output whatsoever.

14. What is the purpose of the resistor at Pin 12? Will the circuit work without any
resistor connected to Pin 12?

Ans: The resistor at Pin 12 is an optional resistor which enables the VCO to have a
frequency off-set (frequency off-set is an intentional slight shift of broadcasted radio
frequency to reduce interference with other transmitters) if required. So, yes, the circuit
will work if there’s no resistor connected at Pin 12.

15. State the connections of the two probes of the CRO (Cathode Ray Oscilloscope) if
you want to see (a) Square waveform and (b) Triangular waveform.

Ans: CRO at Schmitt trigger (Pin 4) Square

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CRO at capacitor (common connection of Pin 6 and 7) Triangular.

16. Guess a reason why the VCO characteristics graph is flat at the start and in the
end.

Ans: It takes few seconds to enter one state from another, that’s why it remains
flat/constant and then the value of the frequency rises with an increase in VCO input.

17. What important feature of the VCO does the characteristics graph reveal?

Ans:

The graph also shows that we will be still be getting output frequency when the VCO
input is zero, i. e, free running frequency. The value of frequency rises with increased
input but it takes time to change state. If we section the graph, we will see the sections
in the rising period is twice the sections in the flat/horizontal/constant region.

Important questions for quiz, lab set up & viva:

1. Remember from where did you take the input and output.

2. Remember the pin config.

3. Remember the waveform type.

4. Why do we get triangular waveform if we take output directly from capacitor?

Ans: Due to charging and discharging process. The upper part is the charging phase and
the lower part is the discharging phase.