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Tofu
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Main page For other uses, see Tofu (disambiguation).

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Tofu (豆腐, tōfu), also known as bean curd, is a food prepared by coagulating soy milk Tofu
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and then pressing the resulting curds into solid white blocks of varying softness; it can be
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Contact us silken, soft, firm, extra firm or super firm. Beyond these broad textural categories, there are
Donate many varieties of tofu. It has a subtle flavor, so it can be used in savory and sweet dishes.
It is often seasoned or marinated to suit the dish and its flavors, and due to its spongy
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texture it absorbs flavours well.[1]
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Nutritionally, tofu is low in calories, while containing a relatively large amount of protein. It
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is high in iron, and can have a high calcium or magnesium content depending on the
Recent changes coagulants (e.g. calcium chloride, calcium sulphate, magnesium sulphate) used in
Upload file manufacturing. A block of raw silken tofu from Japan

Alternative Bean curd

Tofu first originated in China and has been consumed within China for over 2,000 years
Tools names
dating back to the Han dynasty.[2] It is also a traditional component of the cuisines of East Place of origin Anhui, China
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and Southeast Asia, including in Indonesia, Japan, Korea, Singapore, Thailand and Associated East & Southeast Asian
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Special pages Vietnam.[3][4] national cuisine cuisine (Chinese ·
Japanese · Korean ·
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Contents [hide] Indonesian ·
Page information Singaporean · Thai ·
1 Etymology
Cite this page Vietnamese)
Wikidata item 2 History Main Soy milk
2.1 Theories of origin ingredients
Print/export 2.2 East Asia Cookbook: Tofu
Download as PDF 2.3 Southeast Asia Media: Tofu
Printable version 2.4 Elsewhere
3 Production Regional names
In other projects
3.1 Salt coagulants
Wikimedia Commons
3.2 Acid coagulants
Wikibooks "Tofu" in Chinese characters
3.3 Enzyme coagulants
3.4 Color Chinese name
Languages
3.5 Flavour Chinese ⾖腐
Беларуская
Deutsch 4 Varieties Hanyu Pinyin dòufu

Lietuvių 4.1 Unpressed fresh Literal meaning "bean curd/ferment"

ြမန်မာဘာသာ 4.2 Pressed fresh Transcriptions [show]
Polski 4.3 Processed tofu
Burmese name
Русский 4.4 By-products
Burmese တိ# ဟူး toé hu
ไทย 4.5 Tofu-like foods
Vietnamese name
Українська 5 Preparation
Vietnamese đậu hủ, đậu phụ
Tiếng Việt 5.1 East Asia
Chữ Hán ⾖腐
5.2 Southeast Asia
66 more Thai name
5.3 Elsewhere
Edit links Thai เ"า$
6 Nutrition and health
6.1 Protein
RTGS taohu

6.2 Allergies Korean name

6.3 Traditional Chinese medicine (TCM) Hangul 두부

7 Chemistry Hanja 豆腐
8 Proteins Transcriptions [show]

9 See also Japanese name

10 Notes Kanji 豆腐
11 References Kana とうふ
12 Sources Transcriptions [show]
13 Further reading
Malay name
14 External links
Malay tauhu
Indonesian name
Etymology [ edit ] Indonesian tahu
Filipino name
The English word "tofu" comes from Japanese tōfu (豆腐), a borrowing of Chinese ⾖腐
Tagalog tahô, tokwa
(Mandarin: dòufu) 'bean curd, bean ferment'.[5][6][7][8]
Bengali name
The earliest documentation of the word in English is towfu, in a 1770 letter from the Bengali !"#$# %&'(, !)#*+
English merchant James Flint to Benjamin Franklin.[9]:73 The term "bean curd(s)" for tofu Tamil name
has been used in the United States since at least 1840.[10][11] Tamil !"#$% ṭōḥpu

Khmer name
History [ edit ] Khmer !"ហ$% tauhu

Tofu-making was first recorded during the Chinese Han dynasty about 2000 years ago.[2]
Chinese legend ascribes its invention to Prince Liu An (179–122 BC) of Anhui province. Tofu and its production technique were
introduced to Japan[12][13][14] during the Nara period (710–794). Some scholars believe tofu arrived in Vietnam during the 10th and
11th centuries.[9]:305 It spread to other parts of Southeast Asia as well.[15] This probably coincided with the spread of Buddhism as it
is an important source of protein in the vegetarian diet of East Asian Buddhism.[12] Li Shizhen, during the Ming Dynasty, described a
method of making tofu in the Compendium of Materia Medica.[16] Since then, tofu has become a staple in many countries, including
Vietnam, Thailand, and Korea, with regional variations in production methods, texture, flavor, and usage.

Theories of origin [ edit ]

The most commonly held of the three theories of tofu's origin maintains that tofu was discovered by Lord Liu An, a Han Dynasty
prince. While plausible, the paucity of reliable sources for this period makes this difficult to conclusively determine. In Chinese history,
important inventions were frequently attributed to important leaders and figures of the time.[17] In 1960, a stone mural unearthed from
an Eastern Han dynasty tomb provided support for the theory of the Han origin of tofu; however some scholars maintain that tofu
during the Han dynasty was rudimentary and lacked the firmness and taste for it to be considered as tofu.[18]

Another theory suggests that the production method for tofu was discovered accidentally when a slurry of boiled, ground soybeans
was mixed with impure sea salt. Such sea salt would probably have contained calcium and magnesium salts, allowing the soy mixture
to curdle and produce a tofu-like gel.

The last group of theories maintains that the ancient Chinese learned the method for curdling soy milk by emulating the milk curdling
techniques of the Mongolians or East Indians. Despite their advanced culture, no technology or knowledge of culturing and
processing milk products existed within ancient Chinese society. The primary evidence for this theory is the etymological similarity
between the Chinese term rǔfǔ (乳腐), which literally means "milk curdled", used during Sui Dynasty (AD 581–618), for dishes with
consistency like yoghurt or soft cheese), later influenced by Mongolian milk products and methods of production, and the term dòufu
(⾖腐, "beans curdled" ) or tofu. Although intriguing and possible, there is no evidence to substantiate this theory beyond academic
speculation.[17]

East Asia [ edit ]

China [ edit ]
See also: List of Chinese inventions

A form of tofu may have been discovered during the Han dynasty (220 BC – AD 220), but it did not become a popular food in China
until the Song dynasty (960–1279).[8]

In China, tofu is traditionally used as a food offering when visiting the graves of deceased relatives. It is claimed that the spirits (or
ghosts) have long lost their chins and jaws, so that only tofu is soft enough for them to eat. Before refrigeration was available in
China, tofu was often only sold during winter, since tofu did not spoil as easily in cold weather. During the warmer months, tofu, once
made, spoiled if stored for more than a day.

Japan [ edit ]

Tofu was introduced to Japan during the Nara period (late 8th century) by Zen Buddhist monks, who initially called it "Chinese curd"
(唐腐, tōfu).[8] A firm variation of tofu was introduced in Tosa Province, today's Kochi Prefecture, by a Korean doctor and prisoner of
war following the Japanese invasions of Korea (1592–1598).[19][20][21] Much of tofu's early use in East Asia was as a vegetarian
substitute for meat and fish by Buddhist monks, especially those following Zen Buddhism.[8][22]

The earliest Japanese document concerning tofu refers to the dish being served as an offering at the Kasuga Shrine in Nara in
1183.[23] The book Tofu Hyakuchin (豆腐百珍), published in 1782 of the Edo period, lists 100 recipes for cooking tofu.[24]

Southeast Asia [ edit ]

In Southeast Asia, tofu was introduced to various regions by Chinese from Fujian province, as evidenced by many countries in
Southeast Asia referring to tofu using the Min Nan Chinese pronunciations for either soft and firm tofu, or "tāu-hū" and "tāu-goan"
respectively. In Indonesia, Malaysia, Singapore, Thailand, Cambodia, Myanmar, the Philippines and Vietnam, tofu is widely available
and used in many local dishes.

Tofu is called tahu in Indonesia, and Indonesian dishes such as tahu sumbat, taugeh tahu, asinan, siomay and some curries, often
add slices of tofu. Tahu goreng, tahu isi and tahu sumedang are popular fried tofu snacks.

Tofu is called tauhu in the Malay language. Malaysian and Singaporean Indians use tofu in their cuisine, such as in Indian mee
goreng, and rojak pasembor. Peranakan cuisine often uses tofu, as in Penang curry noodles and Singapore's Katong laksa.
Indonesia, Thailand, Malaysia and the Philippines are major producers of tofu and have plants in many municipalities.

Tofu in the Philippines is widely eaten as the breakfast snack tahô (soft tofu, from Philippine Hokkien ⾖腐 "tāu-hū"), or as tokwa (dry,
firm tofu that is usually fried, from Philippine Hokkien ⾖⼲ "tāu-goan"), which is a staple alternative to meat in main meals and in
numerous regional dishes. Tofu was introduced to the archipelago in the 10th to 13th centuries by Song dynasty Chinese mariners
and merchants, along with many other foods that became staples of the Philippine diet. The use and production of tofu were first
limited to urban centres with influential Chinese minorities, such as Cebu or Tondo, but quickly spread to even remote native villages
and islands.

Elsewhere [ edit ]
Benjamin Franklin was the first American to mention tofu, in a 1770 letter to John Bartram.[9]:73[25] Franklin, who encountered it during
a trip to London, included a few soybeans and referred to it as "cheese" from China.[26] In 1770, Franklin also corresponded with
James Flint on the subject of how the Chinese converted callivances (soybeans) into tofu. Flint's writing "Towfu" in his letter is the
earliest documented use of "tofu" in the English language.[9]:73 The first tofu company in the United States was established in
1878.[27] In 1908, Li Yuying, a Chinese anarchist and a vegetarian with a French degree in agriculture and biology, opened a soy
factory, the Usine de la Caséo-Sojaïne. This was the world's first soy dairy and the first factory in France to manufacture and sell
beancurd.[28] However, tofu was not well known to most Westerners before the middle of the 20th century. With increased cultural
contact between the West and East Asia and growing interest in vegetarianism, knowledge of tofu has become widespread.
Numerous types of pre-flavored tofu can be found in supermarket chains throughout the West. It is also used by many vegans and
vegetarians as a source of protein.

Production [ edit ]

Regardless of the product or scale of the production, the production of tofu essentially consists of:
Making tofu
1. The preparation of soy milk
2. The coagulation of the soy milk to form curds (douhua)
3. The pressing of the soybean curds to form tofu cakes

It is similar to the production of dairy cheese by coagulating the milk of dairy animals to form curds
and pressing and aging the curds to form cheese. Typical tofu making procedures are cleaning, Coagulated soy curds
soaking, grinding beans in water, filtering, boiling, coagulation, and pressing.[29]

Coagulation of the protein and oil (emulsion) suspended in the boiled soy milk is the most
important step in the production of tofu. This process is accomplished with the aid of coagulants.
Coagulation depends on complex interactions. There are many variables including the variety and
percentage of protein in the soybeans used, slurry cooking temperature, coagulation temperature, Curds in a tofu mold
and other factors.[30]

Soybean proteins are mainly composed of 7S and 11S proteins. The negative surface charges on these globulins usually cause them
to repel each other. Heating soy milk denatures the proteins and exposes hydrophobic groups normally oriented toward the inside of
the globulin structure. Cations from coagulants bind the negatively charged groups.[31] As the net charges of the protein molecules
are neutralized, attractive hydrophobic interactions dominate over repulsive electrostatic charges, and protein aggregates are
formed.[32]

Two types of coagulants (salts and acids) are used commercially.[33]

Salt coagulants [ edit ]

Calcium sulfate (gypsum) (Chinese: ⽯膏; pinyin: shígāo) – a traditional and most widely used Tofu tools
coagulant to produce Chinese-style tofu, it produces a tofu that is tender but slightly brittle in
texture. The coagulant itself is tasteless. Also known as gypsum, calcium sulfate is quarried
from geological deposits and no chemical processing or refining is needed, making it the
cheapest coagulant used in tofu production. When used in production, the coagulation reaction
is slower due to its low solubility, forming a smooth, more gelatinous tofu with relatively high
water content and soft texture.[29] Use of this coagulant also makes a tofu that is rich in
calcium. As such, many tofu manufacturers choose to use this coagulant to be able to market
Dubu-teul ('tofu mold') from Korea
their tofu as a good source of dietary calcium.[citation needed]
Chloride-type Nigari salts or Lushui (Traditional: ⿄⽔, 滷⽔; Simplified: ⻧⽔; Pinyin: lǔshuǐ) –
Magnesium chloride and calcium chloride: Both of these salts are highly soluble in water and
affect soy protein in the same way, whereas gypsum is only very slightly soluble in water and
acts differently in soy protein precipitation, the basis of tofu formation. These are the
coagulants used to make tofu with a smooth and tender texture. In Japan, a white powder
called nigari, which consists primarily of magnesium chloride, is produced from seawater after
the sodium chloride is removed and the water evaporated. Depending on its production Dubu-kal ('tofu knife') from Korea

method, nigari/Lushui may also contain small quantities of magnesium sulfate (Epsom salt),
potassium chloride, calcium chloride, and trace amounts of other naturally occurring salts. Although the term nigari is derived from
nigai, the Japanese word for "bitter", neither nigari nor pure magnesium chloride imparts a perceivable taste to the finished tofu.
Calcium chloride is not found in seawater in significant quantities, and therefore is not regarded as nigari. It is used extensively in
the United States due to its flavor and low cost.[9]:73[34] Fresh clean seawater itself can also be used as a coagulant.[35]

Acid coagulants [ edit ]

Glucono delta-lactone (GDL): A naturally occurring organic acid also used in cheesemaking, this coagulant produces a very fine
textured tofu that is almost jelly-like. It is used especially for "silken" and softer tofus, and confers a faint sour taste to the finished
product.[36] GDL is derived from glucose and takes the form of a white powder at room temperature. Its molecular structure
contains a six-membered heterocyclic ring that is hydrolyzed upon contact with water, slowly converting GDL to gluconic acid.[37]
When added to soy milk, it gradually lowers the pH and causes proteins to coagulate evenly throughout the mixture,[38] forming a
single, smooth gel free of air gaps that resist breaking during transportation. Using GDL as a coagulant, silken tofu can be formed
directly in its container, as it does not require pressing.[39] This acid coagulant is also commonly used together with calcium
sulfate to give soft tofu a smooth, tender texture.
Other edible acids: Though they can affect the taste of the tofu more, and vary in density and texture, acids such as acetic acid
(vinegar) and citric acid (such as lemon juice), can also be used to coagulate soy milk and produce tofu.[40]

Enzyme coagulants [ edit ]

Among enzymes that have been shown to produce tofu are papain, and alkaline and neutral proteases from microorganisms.
Papain, moreover, has been studied as a gelling agent to produce "instant tofu" from soy protein isolate and soy glycinin (11S)
protein.[41][42]

Contemporary tofu manufacturers may choose to use one or more of these coagulants, since each plays a role in producing a desired
texture in the finished tofu.[36] Different textures result from different pore sizes and other microscopic features in the tofu produced
using each coagulant. The coagulant mixture is dissolved in water, and the solution is then stirred into boiled soy milk until the mixture
curdles into a soft gel.[33]

Coagulants are typically added at concentrations between 1.5 and 5.0 g/kg. In all coagulants consisting of calcium or magnesium
salts, the positive double bonded ions of the calcium or magnesium are responsible for the coagulation of the soy proteins which
become part of the tofu, thereby enhancing its nutritional value. Only 1 part per 1000 of the tofu eaten is coagulant; most of the
coagulant reacts with soy protein and is broken down into ions. The non-reactive portion dissolves in the whey and is discarded.[43]

The curds are processed differently depending on the form of tofu that is being manufactured. For soft silken tofu (嫩⾖腐; nèndòufu
in Chinese or 絹漉し豆腐 kinugoshi-dōfu in Japanese) or tofu pudding (⾖花, dòuhuā OR ⾖腐花, dòufuhuā in Chinese or おぼろ豆腐
Oboro-dōfu in Japanese) the soy milk is curdled directly in the tofu's final packaging. For standard firm East Asian tofu, the soy curd is
cut and strained of excess liquid using cheesecloth or muslin and then lightly pressed to produce a soft cake. Firmer tofus, such as
East Asian dry tofu (⾖⼲' in Chinese or 凍み豆腐 Shimi-dōfu in Japanese) or Western types of tofu, are further pressed to remove
even more liquid. In Vietnam, the curd is strained and molded in a square mold, and the end product is called đậu khuôn (molded
bean) or đậu phụ (one of the Vietnamese ways to pronounce the Chinese dòufu). The tofu curds are allowed to cool and become
firm. The finished tofu can then be cut into pieces, flavored or further processed.[citation needed]

Although tartness is sometimes desired in dessert tofu, the acid used in flavoring is usually not the primary coagulant, since
concentrations sufficiently high to induce coagulation negatively affect the flavor or texture of the resulting tofu. A sour taste in tofu
and a slight cloudiness in its storing liquid is also usually an indication of bacterial growth and, hence, spoilage.

Color [ edit ]
The whiteness of tofu is ultimately determined by the soybean variety, soybean protein composition and degree of aggregation of the
tofu gel network. The yellowish beige color of soybeans is due to the color compounds including anthocyanin, isoflavones and
polyphenol compounds; therefore the soybean variety used will predicate the color of the final tofu product.[44] Ways to reduce the
yellow color include reducing isoflavone content by changing the pH of the soy milk solution used in the production of the tofu so that
the relevant compounds precipitate out and are removed during the extraction of okara.[45] The opacity of tofu gel and the off-white
color typical of standard uncooked firm tofu is due to the scattering of light by the colloidal particles of the tofu. The addition of higher
levels of calcium salts or a high protein content will contribute to forming a denser and more aggregated gel network which disperses
more light, resulting in a tofu with a whiter appearance.[46]

Flavour [ edit ]
Tofu flavour is generally described as bland, which is the taste desired by customers in North America. A more beany flavour is
preferred in East Asia. The beany or bland taste is generated during the grinding and cooking process, and either a "hot grind" or a
"cold grind" can be used to influence the taste. The hot grind method reduces the beany flavour by inactivating the lipoxygenase
enzyme in the soy protein that is known to generate off flavours. Eliminating these off flavours makes a tofu that is "bland". If a cold
grind is used lipoxygenase remains and produces the aldehyde, alcohol and ester volatile compounds that create beany notes.[43]

Varieties [ edit ]

A wide variety of types and flavors of tofu is available in both Western and Eastern markets. Despite the range of options, tofu
products can be split into two main categories: 'fresh tofu', which is produced directly from soy milk, and 'processed tofu', which is
produced from fresh tofu. Tofu production also creates important by-products that are used in various cuisines.

Unpressed fresh [ edit ]

Unpressed fresh tofu is gelled soy-milk with curd that has not been cut and pressed of its liquid. Depending in whether the soy-milk is
gelled with bittern (magnesium chloride) solution or a suspension of gypsum (calcium sulphate), different types of unpressed tofu is
produced. Gypsum-gelled soft tofu has a smooth and gel-like texture and is commonly known as soft tofu, silken-tofu, or douhua (⾖
花). The bittern-gelled variety has a very soft spongy curdled texture and is known as extra-soft or sun-dubu (순두부).

Unpressed tofu is so soft that it is directly ladled out for serving or sold with its gelling container.

Extra soft [ edit ]

Unpressed bittern-gelled soft tofu is called sun-dubu Extra soft tofu

(순두부; "mild tofu") in Korean. Soy milk is mixed with Korean name
seawater,[47][48][49][50][51] or saline water made with Hangul 순두부
sea salt, so that it curdles.[52][53] The curds remain Hanja 순豆腐
loose and soft. Freshly made sun-dubu is eaten Literal meaning mild tofu
boiled with little or no seasoning. Manufactured Transcriptions [show]

Sun-dubu (extra soft tofu)

sundubu is usually sold in tubes. It is also the main
ingredient in sundubu-jjigae (순두부찌개; "soft tofu stew").

Although the word sun in sun-dubu doesn't have a Sino-Korean origin,[54] sun-dubu is often translated into Chinese and Japanese
using the Chinese character 純, whose Korean pronunciation is sun and the meaning is "pure". Thus in China, sun-dubu is called
chún dòufu (純⾖腐; "pure tofu"), and in Japan, it is called jun-tōfu (純豆腐) or sundubu (スンドゥブ).

Soft [ edit ]

Soft tofu, also known as "silken tofu", is called Soft tofu

nèndòufu (嫩⾖腐; "soft tofu") or huádòufu (滑⾖腐, Chinese name
"smooth tofu") in Chinese; kinugoshi-dōfu (絹漉し豆 Chinese 嫩⾖腐
腐; "silk-filtered tofu") in Japanese; and yeon-dubu Literal meaning "soft tofu"
(연두부; 軟豆腐; "soft tofu") in Korean. Gelled with Transcriptions [show]

gypsum, this tofu is undrained, unpressed and Alternative Chinese name

Soft tofu contains a high moisture content.[43] Silken tofu is Chinese 滑⾖腐
produced by coagulating soy milk without cutting the Literal meaning "slippery tofu"
curd.[55][56] Silken tofu is available in several Transcriptions [show]
consistencies, including soft and firm, but all silken tofu is more delicate than regular firm
Korean name
tofu (pressed tofu) and it has different culinary uses.[57] Silken tofu can be used as a
Hangul 연두부
substitute for dairy products and eggs, especially for smoothies and baked desserts.[58]
Hanja 軟豆腐
Similar to silken, but is typically served a few hours after it is made is douhua (⾖花, also Literal meaning "soft tofu"
known as ⾖腐花, dòufuhuā in Chinese), or tofu brain (⾖腐腦 or ⾖腐脑, dòufunǎo in Transcriptions [show]
Chinese) or dau fa (Cantonese) and tau hua (Fujianese) (⾖花; "bean flower"). It is most Japanese name
often eaten as a hot dessert, but sometimes salty pickles or hot sauce are added. This is a Kanji 絹漉し豆腐
type of soft tofu with a very high moisture content. Because it is difficult to pick up with Kana きぬごしどうふ
chopsticks, it is generally eaten with a spoon. With the addition of flavorings such as finely Transcriptions [show]
chopped spring onions, dried shrimp, soy sauce or chilli sauce, douhua is a popular
breakfast dish across China. In Malaysia, douhua is usually served warm with white or dark palm sugar syrup, or served cold with
longans. It is frequently served at breakfast or for dessert. It is usually served either with a sweet ginger syrup, or a mushroom gravy
called da lu (打⻧). It's normally coagulated at the restaurant into a serving container. Douhua is not always considered a type of tofu,
but rather a type of food in its own right.

Some variation exists among soft tofus. Black douhua (⿊⾖花, hēidòuhuā) is a type of silken tofu made from black soybeans, which
is usually made into dòuhuā (⾖花) rather than firm or dry tofu. The texture of black bean tofu is slightly more gelatinous than regular
douhua and the color is greyish in tone. This type of tofu is eaten for its earthy "black bean taste". Edamame tofu is a Japanese
variety of kinugoshi tōfu made from edamame (fresh green soybeans); it is pale green in color and often studded with whole
edamame.

Pressed fresh [ edit ]

Depending on the amount of water that is extracted from the cut and pressed curds two types of tofu are produced: firm, and extra
firm. Fresh tofu is usually sold completely immersed in water to maintain its moisture content and freshness, and to suppress
bacterial growth.

Firm [ edit ]

Firm tofu (called ⽼⾖腐 lǎodòufu in Chinese; 木綿豆 Firm tofu

腐, momen-dōfu in Japanese, "cotton tofu"; 모두부, Chinese name
mo-dubu in Korean): Although drained and pressed, Chinese ⽼⾖腐
this form of fresh tofu retains a high moisture Literal meaning "old tofu"

content. It has the firmness of raw meat and Transcriptions [show]

bounces back readily when pressed. The texture of Korean name

Firm tofu the inside of the tofu is similar to that of a firm Hangul 모두부
custard. The skin of this form of tofu retains the Hanja 모豆腐
pattern of the muslin used to drain it and the outside is slightly more resistant to damage Literal meaning "block tofu"
than the inside. It can be picked up easily with chopsticks.[17][43] Transcriptions [show]

A very firm type of momen-dōfu is eaten in parts of Japan, called ishi-dōfu (⽯⾖腐, "stone Japanese name
tofu") in parts of Ishikawa, or iwa-dōfu (岩⾖腐, "rock tofu") in Gokayama in the Toyama Kanji 木綿豆腐
Prefecture and in Iya in the prefecture of Tokushima. These types of firm tofu are produced Kana もめんどうふ
with seawater instead of nigari (magnesium chloride), or using concentrated soy milk. Transcriptions [show]
Some of them are squeezed using heavy weights to eliminate excess moisture. These
products are produced in areas where traveling is inconvenient, such as remote islands, mountain villages, and heavy snowfall areas.

Extra-firm [ edit ]
Main article: Dougan

Dòugān (⾖⼲, literally "dry tofu" in Chinese) or su ji

Extra firm tofu
(素鸡, vegetarian chicken) is an extra firm variety of
Chinese name
tofu where a large proportion of the liquid has been
Chinese ⾖⼲
pressed out. Dòugān contains the least moisture of
Literal meaning "dry tofu"
all fresh tofu, the firmness of fully cooked meat, and Transcriptions [show]
a somewhat rubbery feel similar to that of paneer.
Korean name
When sliced thinly this tofu can be crumbled easily.
Hangul 건두부
The skin of this form of tofu has the pattern of the
Dòugān (extra firm tofu) Hanja 乾豆腐
muslin used to drain and press it. Western firm tofu
Literal meaning "dry tofu"
is milled and reformed after pressing.
Transcriptions [show]
Su ji is a more common type of unflavored, extra-firm tofu. It cannot be crumbled and has a
more rubbery texture. One variety of dried tofu is pressed especially flat and sliced into long strings with a cross section smaller than
2 mm × 2 mm. Shredded dried tofu (⾖⼲絲, dòugānsī in Chinese, or simply ⼲絲, gānsī), which looks like loose cooked noodles, can
be served cold, stir-fried, or added to soup, as with Japanese aburaage.[17][59]

Processed tofu [ edit ]

Many forms of processed tofu exist. Some processing techniques probably[citation needed] originate before the days of refrigeration
from the need to preserve tofu, or to increase its shelf life. Other production techniques are employed to create tofus with different
textures and flavors.[60]

Fermented [ edit ]
Pickled tofu (⾖腐乳 in Chinese, pinyin: dòufurǔ, or 腐乳 fŭrŭ; chao in Vietnamese), also
called "preserved tofu" or "fermented tofu", consists of cubes of dried tofu that have been
allowed to fully air-dry under hay and slowly ferment with the help of aerial bacteria.[60] The
dry fermented tofu is then soaked in salt water, Chinese rice wine, vinegar or minced chiles,
or in a mixture of whole rice, bean paste, and soybeans. In the case of red pickled tofu (紅⾖
腐乳 in Chinese, Pinyin: hóng dòufurǔ), red yeast rice (cultivated with Monascus purpureus) Pickled tofu
is added for color.[a] In Japan, pickled tofu with miso paste is called tofu no misodzuke, and
is a traditional preserved food in Kumamoto. In Okinawa, pickled and fermented tofu is
called tofuyo (⾖腐餻). It is made from Shima-doufu (an Okinawan variety of large and firm tofu). It is fermented and matured with
koji mold, red koji mold, and awamori.
Stinky tofu (臭⾖腐 in Chinese, Pinyin: chòudòufu) is a soft tofu that has been fermented in a vegetable and fish brine.[60] The
blocks of tofu have a pungent cheese smell, sometimes resembling rotting food. Despite its strong odor, the flavor and texture of
stinky tofu is appreciated by aficionados, who describe it as delightful. The texture of this tofu is similar to the soft East Asian tofu
from which it is made. The rind that stinky tofu develops when fried is said to be best when especially crisp, and fried stinky tofu is
usually served with soy sauce, sweet sauce or hot sauce.[citation needed]

Frozen [ edit ]
Thousand-layer tofu (千葉⾖腐, qiānyè dòufu, literally "thousand-layer tofu", or 凍⾖腐
dòngdòufu, 冰⾖腐 bīngdòufu in Chinese, both meaning "frozen tofu") is a frozen tofu. The
ice crystals that develop within it result in the formation of large cavities that appear to be
layered. Frozen tofu takes on a yellowish hue in the freezing process. Thousand-layer tofu
originates from the Jiangnan region of China and is commonly made at home from soft tofu.
It is also commercially sold as a specialty in Hong Kong, Taiwan, and other areas with
Jiangnan emigrants. It is regularly paired with tatsoi as a winter dish. Frozen tofu is
defrosted before serving and sometimes pressed to remove moisture prior to use. Thawed and sliced frozen tofu

During freezing, the ice crystals puncture cell walls and facilitate the release of free and bound
water and cause a decrease in total water content in tofu after freezing then thawing. The initial
protein-water bonds are irreversibly replaced by protein-protein bonds, which are more elastic
which cause a structural change to the gel network and lead to an increase in textural
properties such as hardness, springiness, cohesiveness and gumminess.[61][62]

In Japan, two kinds of freeze-dried tofu are produced. Those are usually rehydrated by being
soaked in water prior to consumption. In their dehydrated state they do not require refrigeration.

Kori tofu (凍り⾖腐, literally "frozen tofu") is freeze-dried.[63] Koya-dofu (kōya-dōfu, ⾼野

Koya-dofu after soaking in water
⾖腐 in Japanese) is a freeze-dried tofu from Mount Kōya, a center of Japanese Buddhism
famed for its shōjin ryōri, or traditional Buddhist vegetarian cuisine. It is said that the method
of Koya-dofu was discovered by accident by leaving tofu outdoors in the winter season. It is sold in freeze-dried blocks or cubes
in Japanese markets. It is typically simmered in dashi, sake or mirin and soy sauce. In shōjin ryōri, vegetarian kombu dashi, made
from seaweed, is used. When prepared in the usual manner, it has a spongy texture and a mildly sweet or savory flavor. The taste
and flavor depend on what soup or cooking stock it was simmered in. A similar form of freeze-dried tofu, in smaller pieces, is
found in instant soups (such as miso soup), in which the toppings are freeze-dried and stored in sealed pouches.
Shimidofu (凍み⾖腐) is mainly consumed in Tohoku region. While Koya-dofu is made by shade-drying, shimidofu is made by
sun-drying.

By-products [ edit ]

Tofu skin [ edit ]

Tofu skin is produced when soy milk is boiled in an open, shallow pan, thus producing a film or
skin composed primarily of a soy protein-lipid complex on the liquid surface.[64] The films are
collected and dried into yellowish sheets known as "soy milk skin" (腐⽪, fǔpí in Chinese; 湯葉,
yuba in Japanese). Its approximate composition is: 50–55% protein, 24–26% lipids (fat), 12%
carbohydrate, 3% ash, and 9% moisture.[citation needed]

The skin can also be dried into a product known as "tofu bamboo" (腐⽵, fǔzhú in Chinese; phù
trúc in Vietnamese; kusatake, Japanese), or into many other shapes. Since tofu skin has a soft
Tofu skin
yet rubbery texture, it can be folded or shaped into different forms and cooked further to imitate
meat in vegan cuisine. Some factories dedicate their production to tofu skin and other soy
membrane products. Tofu skin is commonly sold in the form of dried leaves or sheets. Other people would put the "tofu bamboo" into
congee (a watery rice mixture that is eaten in breakfast) so that the congee becomes more silky and smooth, and gives a whole new
texture. Also, a soft, fragile skin would be on the congee once it cools down.[citation needed]Tofu skin is cooked with noodles.[65]

Soy pulp [ edit ]

Main article: Okara (food)

Okara, from the Japanese 雪花菜(おから) is known as 雪花菜 xuěhuācài, in Chinese, lit. "snowflake vegetable"; ⾖腐渣, dòufuzhā,
also Chinese, lit. "tofu sediment/residue"; and 콩비지, kongbiji, in Korean).

Sometimes known in the west as "soy pulp" or "tofu lees",[66] okara is a tofu by-product consisting of the fiber, protein, and starch left
over when soy milk has been extracted from ground soaked soybeans.[67] It is often used as animal feed in most tofu producing
cultures, but also has other uses in Japanese and Korean cuisines, such as in the Korean stew kongbiji jjigae (콩비지찌개). It is also
an ingredient for vegetarian burgers in many Western nations. In Japan, it is used to make ice cream.[68]

Tofu-like foods [ edit ]

The term tofu is used by extension for similarly textured curdled dishes that do not use soy products, such as "almond tofu" (almond
jelly), tamago-dōfu [ja] (egg), goma-dōfu [ja] (sesame), or peanut tofu (Chinese 落花⽣⾖腐 luòhuāshēng dòufu and Okinawan jīmāmi-
dōfu [ja]).

Due to their East Asian origins and their textures, many food items are called "tofu", even though their production processes are not
technically similar. For instance, many sweet almond tofus are actually gelatinous desserts hardened using agar or gelatin. Some
foods, such as Burmese tofu, are not coagulated from the "milk" of the legume but rather set in a manner similar to soft polenta,
Korean muk, or the jidou liangfen of Yunnan province of southwest China.

Almond tofu [ edit ]

"Almond tofu" (Chinese: 杏仁⾖腐 xìngrén dòufu; Japanese: annindōfu) is a milky white and gelatinous substance resembling tofu, but
it does not use soy products or soy milk and is hardened with agar. A similar dessert made with coconut milk or mango juices may
occasionally be referred to as "coconut tofu" or "mango tofu", although such names are also given to hot dishes that use soy tofu and
coconut or mango in the recipe.

Chickpea tofu [ edit ]

Main article: Burmese tofu

Burmese tofu (to hpu in Burmese) is a legume product made from besan (chana dal) flour; the Shan variety uses yellow split pea flour
instead. Both types are yellow in color and generally found only in Myanmar, though the Burman variety is also available in some
overseas restaurants serving Burmese cuisine.[69] Burmese tofu may be fried as fritters cut into rectangular or triangular shapes.

A variety called hsan to hpu (or hsan ta hpo in Shan regions) is made from rice flour (called hsan hmont or mont hmont) and is white
in color with the same consistency as yellow Burmese tofu when set. It is eaten as a salad in the same manner as yellow tofu.

Egg tofu [ edit ]

Egg tofu [ja] (Japanese: 玉子豆腐, 卵豆腐, tamagodōfu) (Chinese: 蛋⾖腐, dàndòufu; often called ⽇本⾖腐, Rìbĕn dòufu, lit. "Japan
bean curd") is the main type of savory flavored tofu. Whole beaten eggs are combined with dashi, poured into molds, and cooked in a
steamer (cf. chawanmushi). This tofu has a pale golden color that can be attributed to the addition of eggs and, occasionally, food
coloring. This tofu has a fuller texture and flavor than silken tofu, due to the presence of egg fat and proteins. Plain "dried tofu" can be
flavored by stewing in soy sauce (滷) to make soy-sauce tofu. It is common to see tofu sold from hot food stalls in this soy-sauce
stewed form. Today Egg "Japanese" tofu is made of eggs, water, vegetable protein, and seasoning.[70]

Egg tofu was invented in Japan during the Edo period. The book《万宝料理秘密箱》written in 1785 recorded how to make Japanese
tofu. Later the Japanese form of tofu entered Southeast Asia, being introduced to China in 1995 from Malaysia.[71][citation needed]

100 grams of Egg tofu has 17 mg calcium, 24 mg magnesium, and 5 grams protein while 100 grams tofu has 138 mg calcium, 63 mg
magnesium and 12.2 grams protein. Compared with tofu, Japanese tofu's nutritional value is lower.[citation needed]

Tofu dishes common in Japan include: three delicacies (三鲜) Japanese tofu; shrimp Japanese tofu; Japanese tofu in ketchup;
teppanyaki Japanese tofu; and Japanese fish-flavored tofu.[citation needed]

Peanut tofu ​[ edit ]

In Okinawa, Japan, jīmāmi-dōfu [ja] a peanut milk, made by crushing raw peanuts, adding water and straining, is combined with
starch (usually sweet potato, known locally as umukuji or umukashi (芋澱粉)) and heated until curdling occurs.

The Chinese equivalent is 落花⽣⾖腐 luòhuāshēng dòufu.

Sesame tofu [ edit ]

The tofu known as goma-dōfu [ja] is made by grinding sesame into a smooth paste, combining it with liquid and kudzu starch, and
heating it until curdling occurs. It is often served chilled as hiyayakko.

Preparation [ edit ]

Tofu has very little flavor or smell of its own. Consequently, tofu can be used in both savory or sweet dishes, acting as a bland
background for presenting the flavors of the other ingredients used. In order to flavor the tofu it is often marinated in soy sauce, chillis,
sesame oil, etc.

In East Asian cooking, tofu is prepared in many ways, including raw, stewed, stir-fried, in soup, cooked in sauce, or stuffed with
fillings. The idea of using tofu as a meat substitute is not common in East Asia.

East Asia [ edit ]

China [ edit ]

Many Chinese tofu dishes such as jiācháng dòufu (家常⾖腐) and mápó dòufu (麻婆⾖腐) include meat.

In Chinese cuisine, Dòuhuā (⾖花) is served with toppings such as boiled peanuts, azuki beans, cooked oatmeal, tapioca, mung
beans, or a syrup flavored with ginger or almond. During the summer, "dòuhuā" is served with crushed ice; in the winter, it is served
warm.[72] In many parts of China, fresh tofu is eaten with soy sauce or further flavored with katsuobushi shavings, century eggs (皮蛋
pídàn), and sesame seed oil.

With the exception of the softest tofus, all forms of tofu can be fried. Thin and soft varieties of tofu are deep fried in oil until they are
light and airy in their core ⾖泡 dòupào, ⾖腐泡 dòufupào, 油⾖腐 yóudòufu, or ⾖⼘ dòubǔ in Chinese, literally "bean bubble",
describing the shape of the fried tofu as a bubble.

Depending on the type of tofu used, the texture of deep fried tofu may range from crispy on the outside and custardy on the inside, to
puffed up like a plain doughnut. The former is usually eaten plain in Chinese cuisine with garlic soy sauce, while the latter is either
stuffed with fish paste to make Yong Tau Foo or cooked in soups.[72] In Taiwan, fried tofu is made into a dish called "A-gei", which
consists of a fried aburage tofu package stuffed with noodles and capped with surimi.

Tofus such as firm East Asian and dòugān (Chinese dry tofu), with their lower moisture content, are cut into bite-sized cubes or
triangles and deep fried until they develop a golden-brown, crispy surface (炸⾖腐 in Chinese, zhádòufu, lit. "fried tofu"). These may
be eaten on their own or with a light sauce, or further cooked in liquids; they are also added to hot pot dishes or included as part of
the vegetarian dish called luohan zhai.

A spicy Sichuan preparation using firm East Asian tofu is mápó dòufu (麻婆⾖腐). It involves braised tofu in a beef, chili, and
fermented bean paste sauce. A vegetarian version is known as málà dòufu (麻辣⾖腐).[citation needed]

Dried tofu is usually not eaten raw but first stewed in a mixture of soy sauce and spices.[citation needed] Some types of dried tofu are
pre-seasoned with special blends of spices, so that the tofu may either be called "five-spice tofu" (五⾹⾖腐 wǔxiāng dòufu) or "soy
sauce stewed tofu" (⿄⽔⾖腐 lǔshuǐ dòufu). Dried tofu is typically served thinly sliced with chopped green onions or with slices of
meat for added flavor.[72]

Tofu bamboos are often used in lamb stew or in a dessert soup. Tofu skins are often used as wrappers in dim sum.[citation needed]
Freeze-dried tofu and frozen tofu are rehydrated and enjoyed in savory soups. These products are often taken along on camping trips
since a small bag of them can provide protein for many days.[citation needed]

Pickled tofu is commonly used in small amounts together with its soaking liquid to flavor stir-fried or braised vegetable dishes
(particularly leafy green vegetables such as water spinach). It is often eaten directly as a condiment with rice or congee.

Chinese soft tofu dish, Prepared dried tofu Chòudòufu is a very Sichuan-style (málà Tofu and potatoes
pidan doufu threads (⼲絲, gānsī pungent type of tofu chòudòufu) numbing grilled at a street stall
spicy stinky tofu in Yuanyang, Yunnan
province, China

Douhua (⾖花), is a soft A dish prepared from

tofu dish. The fresh Sichuan style tofu
tofu is served warm
and dressed with sweet
syrup.

Japan [ edit ]

In Japan, a common lunch in the summer months is hiyayakko (冷奴), silken or firm East Asian tofu served with freshly grated ginger,
green onions, or katsuobushi shavings with soy sauce. In the winter, tofu is frequently eaten as yudofu, which is simmered in a clay
pot in kombu dashi, with vegetables such as Chinese cabbage or green onion.

Deep fried tofu is called atsuage (厚揚げ) or namaage (⽣揚げ) in Japan. The thinner variety, called aburaage (油揚げ), develops a
tofu pouch often used for inarizushi.

In Japan, cubes of lightly coated and fried tofu topped with a kombu dashi-based sauce are called agedashi dōfu (揚げ出し豆腐). Soft
tofu that has been thinly sliced and deep fried, known as aburage in Japan, is commonly blanched, seasoned with soy sauce and
mirin and served in dishes such as kitsune udon.

In Gifu Prefecture, there is a local specialty called komo-dofu, which consists of tofu that has been wrapped in a komo, or mat of
woven straw, which leaves its imprint on the exterior. The wrapped tofu is then boiled in soup stock. Voids within the tofu develop
during the boiling process, allowing the soup stock flavor to penetrate and giving it a distinctive porous appearance.[73][74]

Soft tofu can also be broken up or mashed and mixed with raw ingredients prior to being cooked. For example, Japanese ganmodoki
is a mixture of chopped vegetables and mashed tofu. The mixture is bound together with starch and deep fried. Chinese families
sometimes make a steamed meatloaf or meatball dish from equal parts of coarsely mashed tofu and ground pork.[citation needed]

Japanese miso soup is frequently made with tofu.

Japanese-style silken Atsuage, thick fried tofu Goma tofu, made from Yudofu, or tofu in hot Inarizushi, tofu skin
tofu with soy sauce and sesame seeds and water with various fillings
a decorative carrot kudzu starch
slice

Tofu in miso soup Ganmodoki (がんもど Local specialty komo-

き) dofu on sale in a
market in Takayama

Korea [ edit ]

Dubu plays an important part in Korean cuisine.[75] Tofu is often pan-fried and served as banchan with a dipping sauce.[76] It is also
used in many soups. Cubes of firm tofu can be seasoned with soy sauce, garlic, and other ingredients before pan-frying. A dish of
tofu cubes simmered with similar spicy seasoning is called dubu-jorim.[77] Dubu-kimchi features blanched tofu served in rectangular
slices around the edges of a plate with pan-fried kimchi. This is a popular food to accompany alcoholic drinks (anju).[78] Soft,
unpressed sun-dubu is used as the main ingredient of sundubu-jjigae (soft tofu stew),[79] while other soups and stews such as
doenjang-guk (soybean paste soup), doenjang-jjigae (soybean paste stew), and kimchi-jjigae (kimchi stew) tend to have diced firm
tofu in them. As in many other East Asian countries, tofu is also enjoyed in a hot pot dish called dubu-jeongol (tofu hot pot).

Pan-fried tofu served Dubu-kimchi (blanched Boiled sun-dubu (extra Sundubu-jjigae (spicy Dallae-doenjang-guk
with seasoned soy tofu served with stir- soft tofu) served in soft tofu stew) (soybean paste soup
sauce for dipping fried kimchi) ttukbaegi with wild chives and
tofu)

Chilled tofu served with Crumbled tofu and

soy sauce seasonings mashed broccoli salad

Southeast Asia [ edit ]

Indonesia [ edit ]