Chapter-1

Trigonometric Leveling

Subject:Surveying III Department of Civil Engineering Lecture by: Suraj Rayamajhi

 Trigonometric Leveling
• Trigonometric leveling is the process of
determining the different elevation of station from
observed vertical angle and known distance.
• The vertical angle are measured by means of
theodolite.
• The horizontal distance may either measured or
computed.
• Relative heights are calculated using
trigonometric formula.
• If the distance between the instrument station
and object is small, correction of earth
curvature and reflection is not required.
• If the distance between the instrument station
and object is large the combined correction =
0.0673 D2, for earth’s curvature and reflection
is required, were D = distance in Km.
• If the vertical angle is +ve, the correction is
taken as +ve.
• If the vertical angle is –ve, the correction is
taken as –ve.
 Methods of Observation
• There are two method of observation in
trigonometric leveling.

1 • Direct method

2 • Reciprocal method
 1. Direct Method
• This method is useful where it is not possible to
set the instrument over the station, whose
elevation is to be determine.
• Ex: To determine the height of the tower.
• In this method the instrument is set on the station
on the ground whose elevation is known.
• If the distance between two point is so large,
combined correction = 0.0673 D2 for earth
curvature and refraction is required. (D in Km)
 2. Reciprocal Method
• In this method the instrument is set on each of
the two station alternatively and observation
are taken.
• Difference in elevation between two station A
and B is to be determine.
• First set the instrument on A and take
observation of B then set the instrument on B
and take the observation of A.
Method of determining the elevation of
a point by theodolite
• There are main three cases to determine the
R.L of any point.
• Case : 1 :- Base of Object accessible.
• Case : 2 :- Base of object inaccessible,
instrument station in the vertical plane as the
elevated object.
• Case : 3 :- Base of the object inaccessible ,
instrument stations not in the same vertical
plane as the elevated object.
Case : 1 :- Base of Object accessible.
• Here
• A = Instrument station
• B = Point to be observed
• h = Elevation of B from the instrument axis
• D = horizontal distance between A and the base of
object
• h1 = height of the instrument
• Bs = Reading of staff kept on BM
• α = Angle of elevation
Case : 2 :- Base of object inaccessible, instrument
station in the vertical plane as the elevated object.

• When it is not possible to measure the

horizontal distance between the instrument
station and the base of the object, this
method is employed to determine the R.L of
the object.
• There may be two case
A. Instrument axis at the same level
B. Instrument axis at the different level
A. Instrument axis at the same level
B. Instrument axis at dif erent level
• In the field it is difficult to keep the height of the
instrument at the same level.
• The instrument is set at the different station and
height of the instrument axis in both the cases is
taken by back sight on B.M.
• There are main two cases
1. Height of the instrument axis nearer to the
object is lower.
2. Height of the instrument axis near to the object
is higher.
1. Height of the instrument axis
nearer to the object is lower.
2. Height of the instrument axis near
to the object is higher.
 Case : 3 :- Base of the object inaccessible , instrument
stations not in the same vertical plane as the elevated object.

• Let A and B be the two instrument station not

in tha same vertical plane as that of P.
• Select a two station A and B on leveled ground
and measure b as horizontal distance between
them.
• Set the instrument at A and level it.
• Set the vertical vernier 00.
• Bring the altitude bubble at the center and take a
back sight hs on the staff and kept at B.M.
• Measure the angle of elevation α1 to P.
• Measure the horizontal angle at A,
• Shift the instrument to B and measure the angle of elevation
α2 to P.
• Measure the horizontal angle at B as α.
• α1 = angle of elevation from A to P
• α2 = angle of elevation from A to P
• θ = Horizontal angle BAC at station A
• α = Horizontal angle CBA at station B
• h1 = PP1 = height of the object P from instrument axis of A.
• h2 = PP2 = height of the object P from instrument axis of B.
• Now,
• h1 = AC tanα1
• h2 = BC tanα2
• Values of Ac and BC are obtained from equation (1) and
(2) as above
• R.L of P = height of the instrument axis at A + h1
or
• R.L of P = height of the instrument axis at B + h2
• Height of the instrument axis at A = R.L of B.M + B.S
• Height of the instrument axis at B = R.L of B.M + B.S
 Chapter 2
Tacheometric Surveying

Subject:Surveying III Department of Civil Engineering Lecture by: Suraj Rayamajhi

Introduction

2
Tacheomertic is the branch of the
surveying in which the horizontal
distance between the instrument station
to the staff station and also the vertical
distance of a point are determine.
Chaining operation is completely
eliminated in this method.
Less accurate as compare to chaining.

3
 Use of Tacheometry
• When obstacle (Step, broken ground,
stretches of water)
• In rough country both horizontal and
vertical measurement are tedious and
chaining is inaccurate, difficult and slow.
• This method is used for find out the
contour.

4
 Purposes of Tachometry
• Prepare contour map.
• Used in hydrographic survey.
• Location survey for road, railway, reservoir
etc.
• Checking of the distance which measured with
the help of the tap.
• To measure the horizontal distance at which
the distance measured by the tap or chain is
difficult.
5
 Principle of Tacheometry
• The principle of techeometry is based on
the property of isosceles triangle.

• Statement :-
• In isosceles triangle the ratio of the
perpendiculars from the vertex on their
bases

6
• Here; PQR, PQ’R’,
PQ”R” are all
isosceles triangle
whose base are QR,
Q’R’ and Q”R” and
their vertex is at P. and
here PO, PO’ and PO”
are the perpendicular
to their respective
bases.

7
Instrument used

Instrument

8
 A Tacheometer
• A tacheomtry is usually transit theodolite
having a stadia diaphragm.
• The diaphragm is equipped with two
horizontal hairs called stadia hair in addition
to regular cross hair.
• The additional hairs are equidistance from
the central.
• The diaphragm commonly used in second
slide.
9
10
 Levelling Staff or Stadia Rod
• The stadia rod or staff used with tacheometry may
be usual type of levelling staff having least count
of 0.005m.
• Stadia rod is usually in one piece but for easy
transport it may be folding.
• Width of the staff is 5cm to 15cm.
• Height may be 3m to 5m.
• It is graduated in meter, Centimeter.
• The graduation must be simple and clear.

11
 Methods of Tacheometry

Fixed Hair
Method
Stadia
Method
Methods of Movable
Tacheometry Hair method
Tangential
Method

12
 Stadia Method
• In the stadia method, a tacheometry is setup at
a station P and a staff is held at another station
Q.

13
• The staff intercept (S) between the upper
stadia hair and the lower stadia hair is
measured.
• The vertical angle ( ) is also measured.
• The horizontal distance D between P and Q,
and the difference of elevation of P and Q is
calculated from the staff intercept (S) and the
vertical angle (

14
 Fixed hair method
• The upper and lower stadia hair is fixed.
(stadia interval is fixed)
• The distance between the upper stadia hair and
lower stadia hair, called stadia interval (i) is
fixed.
• The value of the staff interval (S) varies with
the distance.
• Generally stadia method means fixed hair
method.
15
 Movable hair method
• In this method the stadia hairs (i) is not fixed.
• Stadia hairs can be moved or adjusted by the
micrometer screws.
• In this method the staff intercept (S) is fixed.
• The stadia interval measured corresponding to
the staff intercept.

16
 Dif erence
Fixed hair method
• Stadia interval (i) is fixed.
• Staff intercept (S) is not
fixed.
• Fixed hair method is most
commonly used to take staff
reading speedy.
• Tacheometry and staff are
used.
Movable hair method
• Stadia interval (i) is not fixed.
• Staff intercept (S) is fixed.
• This method is not generally
used because unconvenient to
measure the stadia interval
accurately.
• Substance theodolite and staff
are used.
17
 Tangential Method
• In this method diaphragm of the tacheometer is
not provided with the stadia hair.
• Reading are taken by the central horizontal hair.
• Staff with two targets at a fixed distance (S) is
used for taking reading.
• The vertical angles
•

18
 Dif erence
Stadia hair method
• Diaphragm of the tacheometer
is provided with three stadia
hair.
• Looking through the telescope
the three stadia hair readings
taken.
• One vertical angle is observed.
• This method is most
commonly used in practice.
Tangential method
• Diaphragm of the
tacheometer is not provided
with stadia hair.
• The readings are taken by
the single horizontal hair
adjust upper and lower
target respectively.
• Two vertical angle is
observed.
• This method is not
commonly used in practice
19
 Fixed hair method
• There are main three cases for finding the distance
and Elevation.
• Case : 1 When the line of sight is horizontal and
staff is held Vertical.
• Case : 2 When the line of sight is inclined and staff
is held Vertical. ((a) considering angle of elevation
+θ (b) considering angle of depression -θ)
• Case : 3 When the line of sight is inclined but staff
is held normal to the line of sight.
20
 Case : 1 When the line of sight is
horizontal and staff is held Vertical.
Horizontal Distance Formula

21
• O = The optical center of the object glass.
• p,q,r = the top, axial, and bottom hair reading.
• pr = i = Length of the image.
• f = Focal length of the image glass.
• S = Staff in intercept on PQ.
• x = Horizontal distance from O to the staff.
• x’= Horizontal distance from O to the plane of the hairs.
• d = Horizontal distance from O to the vertical axis of the
instrument.
• D = Horizontal distance from axis to the staff.

22
23
24
 Vertical Distance formula
• When the line of sight is horizontal V = 0

25
 Case : 2 When the line of sight is
inclined and staff is held Vertical.
• Considering angle of elevation +θ

26
• Let A is the instrument station
• A’ is the position of the instrument axis
• P is the staff station
• DBC are the points on the staff cut by the hair
of the diaphragm.
• CA’K = is an inclined of the line of sight
A’C to the horizontal
• BD = S is the staff intercept (difference
between the top and bottom hair reading) 27
• CP = h is the central hair or axial hair reading.
• A’C = L is the distance along the line of collimation from A’ to C
• A’K = D is the horizontal distance from the instrumental to the staff
station P
• CK = V is the vertical distance from the instrument axis to point C
(Central hair reading)
• Draw a perpendicular line through C to the line of sight A’C so that it
cuts A’D in D’ and A’B in B’ is the projection of DB perpendicular to
A’C as shown in figure
• Line BD is perpendicular to the line A’K and B’D’ is perpendicular to
A’C
28
• From ∆S DD’C and BB’C
• D’C = DC Cosθ
• B’C = BC Cosθ
• D’C + B’C = DC Cosθ + BC Cosθ
• D’B’ = (DC + BC) Cosθ
• D’B’ = DB Cosθ
• D’B’ = S Cosθ

30
31
32
33
* Elevation of the staff station for angle of
elevation
• Elevation of staff station= Elevation of
instrument + R.L. of B.M. + V- h

34
* Elevation of the staff station for the angle of
depression.
• Elevation of staff station= Elevation of
instrument + R.L. of B.M. - V- h

35
• Horizontal Distance D:

• Vertical Distance V

36
Case : 3 When the line of sight is inclined and
staff is held normal to the line of sight.
Considering angle of Elevation +θ

37
• Horizontal distance formula :-

From the figure the Horizontal distance D :-

D = L Cosθ + h Sinθ
= (KS + C) Cosθ + h Sinθ
= KS Cosθ + C Cosθ + h Sinθ

38
• Vertical distance formula :-
• Vertical distance V = L Sinθ
= (KS + C) Sinθ
= KS Sinθ + C Sinθ

39
• Elevation of the staff station :-
• Elevation of staff station= Elevation of
instrument + R.L. of B.M. + V- h Cosθ

40
• Considering angle of depression – θ
• Horizontal distance formula:-
• Horizontal
distance D = L Cosθ - h Sinθ
= (KS + C) Cosθ - h Sinθ
= KS Cosθ + C Cosθ - h Sinθ

41
• Vertical distance formula :-
Vertical distance V = L Sinθ
= (KS + C) Sinθ
= KS Sinθ + C Sinθ

42
• Elevation of the staff station :-
Elevation of staff station = Elevation of
instrument + R.L. of B.M. - V- h Cosθ

43
 Tangential method
• This method is used only when the theodolite
is simple and transit type.
• This method is also used when the staff is far
away from the instrument.
• In this method the staff consist of two vanes or
target (S) 2m to 3 m apart.
• The vertical angle θ1 and θ2 are measured in
theodolite

44
• There are main three cases for finding the
Distance and Elevation.
• Case : 1 Both the angle are angles of elevation
in this case, staff is held vertically.
• Case : 2 Both the angle are angles of
depression in this case, staff is held vertically.
• Case : 3 When the one angle is the angle of
elevation and the another angle is the angle of
depression and the staff held vertical.
45
Case : 1 Both the angle are angles of elevation in this
case, staff is held vertically.

46
• From the fig.
V + S = D tanθ1
V = D tanθ2
S = D tanθ1 – V
S = D tanθ1 – D tanθ2
S = D (tanθ1 - tanθ2)
D= S
(tanθ1 - tanθ2)
V= S tanθ2
(tanθ1 - tanθ2)
R.L of Q = R.L of H.I + V - h

47
Case : 2 Both the angle are angles of depression in this
case, staff is held vertically.

48
• From the fig.
V - S = D tanθ1
V = D tanθ2
S = V – D tanθ1
S = D tan θ2 – D tan θ1
S = D (tanθ2 – tanθ1)
D= S
(tanθ2 – tanθ1)
V= S tanθ2
(tanθ2 – tanθ1)
R.L of Q = R.L of H.I - V - h

49
Case : 3 When the one angle is the angle of elevation
and the another angle is the angle of depression
and the staff held vertical.

50
• From the fig.
S - V = D tanθ1
V = D tanθ2
S = V + D tanθ1
S = D tan θ2 + D tan θ1
S = D (tanθ2 + tanθ1)
D= S
(tanθ2 + tanθ1)
V= S tanθ2
(tanθ2 + tanθ1)
R.L of Q = R.L of H.I - V - h

51
Disadvantages of the tangential method
• Two vertical angles are measured.
• It require comparatively more time.
• This method is very tedious.

52
 CHAPTER – 3
Horizontal Curve

Subject:Surveying III Department of Civil Engineering Lecture by: Suraj Rayamajhi

 Introduction
• Generally used on Highway and Railway.
• Use for change the direction.
• Always tangential to the straight direction.
• The two line connected by a curve are called
tangents.
 Types of Curves

Circular
Horizontal curve
Curves Transition
Curves
Vertical curve
curves
 Types of Circular Curve
• There are three type of the circular curve.

Simple Curve

Compounded
Curve

Reserve Curve
 1. Simple Curve
• Consist of a single Arc.
• Tangential to both the straight line.
 2. Compound Curve
• Two or more simple arc.
• In fig arc radius R1 and centre O1
• In fig arc radius R2 and centre O2
 3. Reverse Curve
• Two circular arcs.
• Centre in opposite direction.
• Reverse curve are provided for low speeds
roads and railway.
 Definition and Notations for simple
• Back tangent
curve
point :-
• The tangent (AT1)
previous to the
curve is called tha
back tangent or
first tangent point.

• Forward tangent
Point :-
• The tangent (T2B)
following the
curve is called the
forward tangent
point or second
tangent point.
• Point of Intersection
(P.I) :-
• If the tangents AT1 and
AT2 are produced they
will meet in a point,
called the point of
intersection (P.I).
• It is also called vertex
(V)

• Point of Curve (P.C) :-

• It is the beginning point
T1 of a curve, at this
point alignment is
changes from a tangent
to a curve.
• Point of tangency
(P.T) :-
• The end point of
the curve (T2) is
called the point of
tangency.

• Intersection angle
(Φ) :-
• The angle AVB
between tangent
AV and tangent
VB is called
intersection angle.
• Deflection angle
(Δ) :-
• The angle at P.I
between tangent
AV produce and
VB is called the
deflection angle.

• Tangent distance
:-
• It is the distance
between the P.C to
P.I, it is also
distance between
the P.I to P.T
• External distance
(E) :-
• It is the distance
from the mid point
of the curve to P.I.

• Length of Curve
(l) :-
• It is the total
length of curve
from P.C to P.T.
• Long Chord :-
• It is chord
joining P.C to
P.T T1, T2 is a
long chord.

• Normal chord
:-
• A chord between
two successive
regular station
on a curve is
called normal
chord.
• Sub Chord :-
• The chord shorter
than normal
(Shorter than
20m) is called
Sub chord.

• Versed sine :-
• The distance
between mid
point of long
chord (D) and the
apex point C is
called versed
sine.
• Right hand curve
:-
• If the curve deflect
to the right of the
direction of the
progress of survey,
it is called right
hand curve.

• Left hand curve :-

• If the curve deflect
to the left of the
direction of the
progress of survey,
it is called left hand
curve.
 Designation of Curve
• The sharpness of Curve is designated by two ways :-
1) By radius (R)
2) By degree of curvature (D)

1) By radius (R) :-
• In this method the curve is known by the length of its
radius (R).
• Ex :-
• 200m curve means the curve having radius 200m.
• 6 chain curve means the curve having radius 6 chain.
2) By Degree of Curvature :-
• In this method curve is designated by degree.
• The degree of curvature can be divided into two
ways.

1. Chord definition :-
• The angle subtended at the centre of curve by a chord
of 20m is called degree of curvature.
• Ex :- If the angle subtended at the centre of the curve
by a chord of 20m is 50 the curve is called 50 degree
curve.
2. Arc definition :-
• The angle subtended at the centre of the curve
by an arc of 20m length is called degree of
curve.
• Used in America, Canada, India.
Relation Between Radius and Degree of
Curve

By Chord Definition

By Arc Definition
 By Chord Definition
• The angle subtended at
the centre of curve by
a chord of 20m is
called degree of curve.

• R = Radius of curve
• D = Degree of Curve
• PQ = 20 m = Length of
Chord
By Arc Definition
Elements of Simple Circular
Curve
Length of Curve (l)
Tangent Length (T)
Length of Chord (L)

O
External Distance (E)

O
Mid Ordinate (M)
Setting Out of Simple Circular
Curve
Normal Chord and Sub Chord :-
 On the alignment of the curve, at a certain distance interval
pegs are driven into the ground.
 The distance between the two pegs is normally kept equal
to 20 m.
 The distance is known as peg interval.
 If the peg are driven at 20m interval, the peg station are
called main peg stations.
 The chord joining the tangent point T1 and the first main
peg station is called first sub chord.
 All the chord joining adjacent peg station are called full
chord or normal chord.
 The length of normal chord is generally taken equal to
20m.
 The chord joining last main peg station and the tangent
point T2 is called last sub chord.
Method of setting out of Simple
circular curve

Angular
Method

Linear method
 Linear Method
• Only chain or tap are required.
• Angle measurement instrument are not used.
• Method are used where high degree of
accuracy is not required.
• Method is used where curve is very short.
 Linear methods are

i. By offset or ordinate from the long chord.

ii. By offsets from the tangents
1. By offset or ordinate from the long
chord.
• R = Radius of curve
• Oo = Mid-Ordinate
• Ox = Ordinate at distance x from the mid
point of the chord.
• T1 and T2 = Tangent Points
• L = Length of Long chord
 2. By offsets from the tangents

• The offset from the tangent point can be

divided in to two types :-
1) Radial offset
2) Perpendicular offset
1. Radial offset
2. Perpendicular offset
 Angular method
• Theodolite are used.
• Some time chain and tape is also used.
• This method is used when the length of the curve
is very large.
• More accurate method.
• There are two method. They are
1) Rankine method of tangential angles.
2) Two theodolite method.
 1. Rankine method of tangential
angles
• Also called one theodolite method.
• Most frequently used.
• Useful for setting out of work like railway,
Highway, express way with more accuracy.
 2. Two theodolite method
• Two theodolite is used.
• In this method chain or
tape is not required.
• VT1A = Δ1 = Deflection
angle for A.
• But AT2T 1 is the angle
subtended by long chord
T1A in the opposite
segment.
• AT2T 1 = VT1A = Δ1
• Similarly
• T1T 2B = VT1B = Δ2
 Procedure :-
• Set up the
theodolite at T1 and
T2 point.
• Clamp both the
plate transit zero
degree.
• With zero reading,
direct the line of
sight of the transit
at T1 towards V.
• Similarly direct the
line of sight of the
other transit at T2
toward T1.
• Vernier A of the
both the theodolite
will shows the
zero reading.
• Transit the deflection
angle for the first
point A equal to Δ1.
• Second theodolite
set the same angle
and turn the
telescope to A at
angle Δ1.
• We get point A.
• Repeat the same
procedure and get
number of the
point.
 CHAPTER – 4
Vertical Curve

Subject:Surveying III Department of Civil Engineering Lecture by: Suraj Rayamajhi

 Vertical Curve
• Vertical curve is provided when there is sudden
change in gradient of highway or a railway.
• Vertical curve are provided when highway or railway
are at hilly or valley area.
• Gradient is expressed in the form of the percentage.
• EX : +2% means rise by 2m in every 100m.
• Rising gradient is taken as +ve
• Falling gradient taken as -ve
Rate of Change of Gradient
 Advantage of Vertical curve
• Change in gradient is gradually.
• Improve the appearance of the road.
• Road and railway journey become
comfortable.
 Types of Vertical Curve
• There are main two type of the vertical curve.
Summit Curve
(Convex curve)

Valley curve
(Concave Curve)
 Summit Curve (Convex
curve)
• Summit curve is provide in following situation :-
 An upgrade (+g1) followed by down grade (-g2)
 An upgrade (+g1) followed by another upgrade (+g2). g1>g2
 An downgrade (-g1) followed by another down grade (-g2).
g2>g1
 A plane surface followed by down grade (-g1).
 Valley Curve (Concave curve)
• Valley curve is provide in following situation :-
 A Down grade (-g1) followed by up grade (+g2)
 A Down grade (-g1) followed by another down grade (-g2).
g1>g2
 An up grade (+g1) followed by another up grade (+g2).
g2>g1
 A plane surface followed by up grade (+g1).
Length of Vertical Curve
 CHAPTER – 5
Transition Curve

Subject:Surveying III Department of Civil Engineering Lecture by: Suraj Rayamajhi

 Transition Curve
• The Transition Curve is a Horizontal Curve
of Varying Radius which we can use to
connect Straight line to Circular curve
• The radius of curve is varying from infinite
to certain fix value
• Generally, we provide transition curve at
both ends of the circular curve
• Sometimes we also provide it at the end of
compound curve.
Requirement of the transition curve
• It should be tangential to the straight line.
• It should meet the circular curve tangentially.
• Its curve should be zero at the origin of the straight
curve.
• Its curvature at the junction with the circular curve
should be same as that of the circular curve.
• Full super elevation is attained at the junction with
circular curve.
 Purpose of providing transition
curve
• Increase the curvature gradually.
• Provide medium for super elevation.
• Provide extra widening on the circular curve
gradually.
 Advantages
• Reduce the discomfort.
• Reduce the chances of overturning of the
vehicles.
• Allows higher speed at curve.
• Wear on running gears is reduce.
 Super Elevation or Cant
• Super elevation is defined as the rising of the
outer edge of a road respect to its inner edge.
 Length of Transition Curve
• Length of the transition curve introduce
between straight and circular curve is
calculated following consideration.
1) By rate of super elevation
2) By time rate
3) By rate of change of radial acceleration.
1) By rate of super elevation
2) By time rate
3) By the rate of change of radial
acceleration
 Type of Transition curve
• There are mainly three type of the transition curve.
Type of
transition Cubic spiral
curve

Cubic parabola

The Lemniscate curve

1) Cubic Spiral
2) Cubic Parabola
3) The Lemniscate curve