The Child and Adolescent Learners and Learning Principles

Freud's Stages of Psychosexual Development

Freud is the most popular psychologist that studied the development of
personality, also probably the most controversial His theory of psychosexual
development includes five distinct stages.
According to Freud, a person goes through the sequence of these five stages
and along the way there needs to be met. Whether these needs are met or not,
determines whether the person will develop a healthy personality or not. The theory is
quite interesting for many because Freud identified specific erogenous zones for each
stage of development, These are specific "pleasure areas" that become focal points for
the particular stage. If needs are not met along the area, a fixation occurs, As an adult,
the person will now manifest behaviors related to this erogenous zone.
Oral Stage (birth to 18 months). The erogenous zone is the mouth. During the
oral stage, the child is focused on oral pleasures (sucking). Too much or too little
satisfaction can lead to an Oral Fixation or Oral Personality which is shown in an
increased focus on oral activities. This type of personality may be oral receptive that is,
have a stronger tendency to smoke, drink alcohol, overeat or oral aggressive, that is,
with a tendency to bite his or her nails or use curse words or even gossip. As a result,
these persons may become too dependent on others, easily fooled, and lack leadership
traits. On the other hand, they may also fight these tendencies and become pessimistic
and aggressive in relating with people.
Anal Stage (18 months to 3 years). The child's focus of is the anus. The child
finds satisfaction pleasure in this stage in eliminating and retaining feces. Through
society's expectations, particularly the parents, the child needs to work on toilet training.
Let us remember that between one year and a half to three years the child's favorite
word might be "No!". Therefore a struggle might exist in the toilet training process when
the child retains feces when asked to eliminate, or may choose to defecate when asked
to hold feces for some reason. In terms of personality, fixation during this stage can
result in being anal retentive, an obsession with cleanliness. perfection, and control; or
anal expulsive where the person may become messy and disorganized.
Phallic Stage (ages 3 to 6). The pleasure or erogenous is the genitals. During
the preschool age, children become interested in what makes boys and girls different:
Preschoolers will sometimes be seen fondling their genitals. Freud's studies led him to
believe that during this stage boys develop unconscious sexual desire for their mother.
Boys then see their father as a rival for her mother's affection. Boys may fear that their
father will punish them for these feelings, thus, the castration anxiety. These feelings
comprise bat Freud called Oedipus Complex. In Greek Mythology, Oedipus
unintentionally killed his father and married his mother Jocasta.
 Psychoanalysts also believed that girls may also have a similar experience,
developing unconscious sexual attraction towards their father. This is what is referred to
as the Electra Complex.
According to Freud, out of fear of castration and due to the strong competition of
their father, boys eventually decide to identify with them rather than fight them. By
identifying with their father, the boys develop masculine characteristics and identify
themselves males and repress their sexual feelings toward their mother. A fixation at
this stage could result in sexual deviancies (both overindulging and avoidance) and
weak or confused sexual identity according to psychoanalysts.
Latency Stage (age 6 to puberty). It's during this stage that sexual urges remain
repressed. The children's focus is the acquisition of physical and academic skills. Boys
usually relate more with boys and girls with girls during this stage.
Genital Stage (puberty onwards). The fifth stage of psychosexual development
begins at the start of puberty when sexual urges are once again awakened. In the
earlier stages, adolescents focus their sexual urges towards the opposite sex peers,
with the pleasure centered on the genitals.

Freud's Personality Components

Freud described the personality structures as having three Components, the id,
the ego and the superego. For each, person, the first to emerge is the id, followed by
the ego, and last, to develop is the superego. While reading about the three
components, use the graphic Organizer below to put your notes and questions about
them.
The id. Freud says that, a child is born with the id. The id plays a vital role in
one's personality because as a baby, i works so that the baby's essential needs are
met. The id operates on the pleasure principle. It focuses on immediate gratification or
satisfaction of its needs. So whatever feels good now is what it will pursue with no
consideration for the reality, logicality or practicality of the situation. For example, a
baby is hungry. It's id wants food or milk... so the baby will cry. When the child needs to
be changed the id cries. When the child is uncomfortable, in pain, too hot, too cold, or
just wants attention, the id speaks up until his or her needs are met.
Nothing else matters to the id except the satisfaction of its own needs. It is not
oriented towards considering reality nor the needs of others. Just see how babies cry
any time of day and night! Absolutely no regard of whether mommy is tired or daddy is
sleeping. When the id wants something, it wants it now and it wants it fast!
The ego. As the baby turns into a toddler and then into a preschooler, he/she
relates more with the environment, the ego slowly begins to emerge. The ego operates
using the reality principle. It is aware that others also have needs to be met. It is
practical because it knows that being impulsive or selfish can result to negative.
consequences later, so it reasons and considers the best response to situations. As
such, it is the deciding agent of the personality. Although it functions. to help the id meet
its needs, it always takes into account the reality of the situation.
The superego. Near the end of the preschool years, or the end f the phallic
stage, the superego develops, The superego embodies a person's moral aspect. This
develops from what the parents, teachers and other persons who exert influence impart
to be good or moral. The superego is likened to conscience because it exerts influence
on what one considers right and wrong.

The Three Components and Personality Adjustment

Freud said that a well-adjusted person is one who has strong ego. who can help
satisfy the needs of the id without going against the superego while maintaining the
person's sense of what is logical, practical and real. Of course, it is not easy for the ego
to do all that and strike a balance. If the id exerts too much power over the ego, the
person becomes too impulsive and pleasure-seeking behavior takes over one's life. On
the opposite direction, one may find the superego so strong that the ego is
overpowered. The person becomes so harsh and judgmental to himself and others'
actions. The person's best effort to be good may still fall short of the superego's
expectations.
The ability of a learner to be well-adjusted is largely influenced by how the
learner was brought up. His experiences about how his parents met his needs, the
extent to which he was allowed to do the things he wanted to do, and also how he was
taught about right and wrong, all figures to the type of personality and consequent
adjustment that a person will make. Freud believed that the personality of an individual
is formed early during the childhood years.

Topographical Model
The Unconscious. Freud said that most what we go through in our lives,
emotions, beliefs, feelings, and impulses deep within are not available to us at a
conscious level. He believed that most of what influence us is our unconscious. The
Oedipus and Electra Complex mentioned earlier were both buried down into the
unconscious, out of Our awareness due to the extreme anxiety they caused. While
these Complexes are in our unconscious, they still influence our thinking, feeling and
doing in perhaps dramatic ways.
The Conscious. Freud also said that all that we are aware of is Stored in our
conscious mind. Our conscious mind only comprises a Very small part of who we are so
that, in our everyday life, we are Only aware of a very small part of what makes up our
personality; most of what we are is hidden and out of reach.
The Subconscious. The last part is the preconscious or subconscious. This is
the part of us that we can reach if prompted, but is not in our active conscious. It’s right
below the surface, but still "hidden" somewhat unless we search for it. Information such
as our telephone number, some childhood memories, or the name of your best
childhood friend is stored in the preconscious.
Because the unconscious is so huge, and because we are only aware of the very
small conscious at any given time, Freud used the analogy of the iceberg to illustrate it.
A big part of the iceberg is hidden beneath the water's surface.
The water, may represent all that we are not aware of, have not experienced,
and that has not been made part of our personalities, referred to as the nonconscious.

As you continue to read this Module, you will get to know more about the
different levels of moral reasoning espoused by Kohlberg.

ABSTRACTION/GENERALIZATION
Lawrence Kohlberg built on Piaget's work, and set the groundwork for the
present debate within psychology on moral development. Like Piaget, he believed that
children form ways of thinking through their experiences which include understandings
of moral concepts such as justice, rights, equality and human welfare. Kohlberg
followed the development of moral judgment and extended the ages covered by Piaget,
and found out that the process of attaining moral maturity took longer and occurred
slower than Piaget had thought.
If Piaget designed specific tasks (Piagetian tasks) to learn about the cognitive
development of children, Kohlberg utilized moral dilemmas (Kohlberg dilemmas). The
case you read in the Activity part of this module was written for this module but was
based on how Kohlberg wrote his dilemmas. Like Piaget, he presented these dilemmas
to the individuals in his research and asked for their responses. He did not aim to judge
whether the responses were right or wrong. He was interested in analyzing the moral
reasoning behind the responses.
From his research, Kohlberg identified six stages of moral reasoning grouped
into three major levels. Each level represents a significant change in the social-moral
reasoning or perspective of the person.
 Kohlberg's Theory of Moral Development
According to Kohlberg, moral development occurs in six stages.
Level
Preconventional Level
Moral reasoning is based on the
consequence/ e/result of the act,
not on the whether the act itself
is good or bad.
Conventional
Moral reasoning is based on the
conventions or "norms" of
society. This may include
approval of others, law and
order.
Post-conventional
Moral reasoning is based on
enduring or consistent principles.
It is not just recognizing the law,
but the principles behind the law.
Stage Description
1 Punishment/Obedience
One is motivated by fear of
punishment. He will act in order to
avoid punishment.
Mutual Benefit. One is motivated
to act by the benefit that one may
2 obtain later. You scratch my back,
I'll scratch yours.
Social Approval. One is motivated
by what others expect in behavior
good boy, good girl. The person
3 acts because he/she values how he
she will appear to others. He/she
gives importance on what people
will think or say.
Law and Order. One is motivated
to act in order to uphold law and
4 order. The person will follow the law
because it is the law.
Social Contract. Laws that are
wrong can be changed. One will act
5 based on social justice and the
common good.
Universal Principles. This is
associated with the development of
one's conscience. Having a
6 set of standards that drives one to
possess moral responsibility to
make societal changes regardless
of consequences to oneself.
Examples of persons
are Mother Teresa, Martin
Luther King, Jr.
ABSTRACTION
Bronfenbrenner's model also known as. the Bioecological Systems theory
presents child development within the context of lationship systems that comprise the
child's environment. It describes ltipart layers of environment that has an effect on the
development of the child. Each layer is further made up of different structures. The term
"bioecological" points out that a child's own biological make-up impacts as a key factor
in one's development.
Through the child's growing and developing body and the interplay between his
immediate family/community environment, and the societal landscape fuels and steers
his development. Changes or conflict in any one layer will ripple throughout other layers.
To study a child's development then, we must look not only at the child and her
immediate environment, but also at the interaction of the larger environment as well.

Bronfenbrenner's Bioecological Model: Structure of Environment

The microsystem. The microsystem is the layer nearest the child. It comprises
structures which the child directly interacts with. It includes structures such as one's
family, school and neighborhood. As such, the microsystem covers the most basic
relationships and interactions that a child has in his/her immediate environment. Does
the child have strong and nurturing relationships with the parents and family? Are
his/her needs met? In this layer, relationship effects happen in two directions - both
away from the child and toward the child. This means that the child is affected by people
with whom he interacts, and in turn these people are also affected by the child. For
example, a mother's deep affection for her child moves her to answer to the baby's
needs and keep the baby safe. In turn the baby's smiles and coos bring the mother
feelings of warmth and an affirmation that indeed she is a good mother. The child is
affected by the behavior and beliefs of the parents, however, the child also affects the
behavior and beliefs of the parents. Bronfenbrenner calls these bi-directional
influences, and he shows how they occur among all levels of environment. This is quite
similar to what Erikson termed as “mutuality" in his psychosocial theory.
Bronfenbrenner's theory looks into the interaction of Structures within a layer and
interactions of structures between layers. At the microsystem level, the child is most
affected by these bi-directional influences. However, interactions at outer layers still
influence the structures of the miscrosystem.
The mesosystem. This layer serves as the connection between the structures of
the child's microsystem. For example, the mesosystem will include the link or interaction
between the parents and teachers, or the parent and health services or the community
and the church.
The exosystem. This layer refers to the bigger social system in which the child
does not function directly. This includes the city government, the workplace. and the
mass media, The structures in this layer may influence the child's development by
somehow affecting Some structure in the child's microsystem. This includes the
circumstances of the parents' work like the location, schedules We see a change in the
children's routine when for example the mother works in a call center. That was seen in
that burger chain commercial where the mom and the children meet up at the fastfood
for breakfast just before the children go to school and the mom going home from work in
a call center. The child may not interact directly with what is in the exosystem, but he is
likely feel the positive or negative impact this system creates as it interacts with the
child's own system.
The macrosystem. This layer is found in the outermost part in the child's
environment. The macrosystem includes the cultural values, customs, and laws. The
belief system contained in one's macrosystem permeates all the interactions in the other
layers and reaches the individual. For example, in western countries like the US, most
of the young people are expected to be more independent by the time they end their
teen-age years, while in Asian countries like ours, parents are expected to support or at
least want to support their children for a longer period of time. It is not uncommon to see
even married children still living with their parents. In China and also in other parts of
the world, sons are more valuable than daughters. This may pose challenges for girls as
they are growing up. Because of differences in beliefs and customs, children from
different parts of the world experience different child-rearing practices and therefore
differences in development as well.
The chronosystem. The chronosystem covers the element of time as it relates
to a child's environments. This involves "patterns of stability and change" in the child's
life. This involves whether the child's day is characterized by an orderly predictable
pattern, o whether the child is subjected to sudden changes in routine. We can also look
into the pace of the child's everyday life. Is it a hurried or relaxed pace? This System
can affect or influence the child externally, like the timing of other siblings coming or the
timing of parental separation or even death. Effect can also be internal, like in the bodily
changes that occur within the developing child, like the timing of menstrual onset for
girls. As children get older, they may react differently to environmental changes. The
children may have also acquired the ability to cope and decide to what extent they will
allow changes around them to affect them.
No longer Nature vs. Nurture, but Nurturing Nature!
The long debate may be coming to an end. For decades, if not for centuries,
there was a long drawn debate on which had more impact on child development, nature
or nurture. Another way of putting it is, it heredity or environment that influences child
development more. More and more research now point out that both a child's biology
and his environment playa role in the child's growth and development. Development
theories now stress on the role played by each and the extent to which they interact in
ongoing development. (See Module 3).
The ecological systems theory focuses on the quality and context of the child's
environment. Bronfenbrenner pointed out that as a child develops, the interplay within
the layers of environment systems becomes more complex. This dynamic interaction of
the systems happens meantime, while the child's physical and cognitive structures also
grow and mature. This bioecological theory helps us determine how the different
circumstances, conditions and relationships in the world affect the child as he, or she
goes through the more or less predictable sequence of natural growth and
development.

The Role of Schools and Teachers

Bronfenbrenner co-founded Head Start, the publicly-funded early
childhood program in the US. He concluded that "the instability and
unpredictability of family life is the most destructive force to a child's
development.". Researches tell us that absence or lack of children's constant
mutual interaction with important adults has negative effects on their
development. According to the bioecological theory, "if the relationships in the
immediate microsystem break down, the child will not have the tools to explore
other parts of his environment. Children looking for the affirmations that should
be present in the child/parent (or child/other important adult) relationship look for
attention in inappropriate places. These deficiencies show themselves especially
in adolescence as anti-social behavior, lack of self-discipline, and inability to
provide self-direction."
Bronfenbrenner's theory reminds the school and the teacher of their very
important role. If there is a lack of support, cars and affection from the home, if
there is a serious breakdown ot the basic relationships in a child's life, what can
the school, the teachers in particular do? This theory helps teachers look into
every child's environmental systems in order to understand more about the
characteristics and needs of each child, each learner. The schools and the
teachers can contribute stability and long-term relationships, but only to support
and not replace the relationships in the home. Bronfenbrenner believes that, "the
primary relationship needs to be with someone who can provide a sense of
caring that is meant to last a lifetime. This relationship must be fostered by a
person or people within the immediate sphere of the child's influence."
Schools and teachers' crucial role is not to replace the lack in the home if
such exists, but to work so that the school becomes an environment that
welcomes and nurtures families. Bronfenbrenner also stressed that society
 should value work done on behalf of children at all levels, and consequently
value parents, teachers, extended family, mentors, work supervisors, legislators.

APPLICATION
Looking at your answers in the ACTIVITY phase of this Module, describe how
these people or circumstances have influenced your attitudes, behavior and habits.