Continuum Mechanics Lecture CM4

Continuum Mechanics
Lecture CM4
Matrices, Vectors and Tensors

APPM3017 — Continuum Mechanics 2
1 Equations of Lines and Planes
1.1 Lines
• Consider a line l in three-dimensional space and let v be a non-zero vector that defines the direction in which we move
along the line l from a point P on l to another point Q on l.
• If u and x are the position vectors of the points P and Q with respect to the origin O of a coordinate system, then it
is clear from the sketch given below that x − u is a scalar multiple of v; that is,
x − u = αv. (1)
l P P
v x−u
Q u Q
x
O O
• From equation (1) we have that

x = u + αv. (2)
• Consequently, given the position vector u of a point on a line l and the direction v of the line, then by assigning any
real number to the scalar α, equation (2) will determine the position vector x of a point on the line l.
• Thus, the vector equation (2) is the equation of the line l.
1.2 Planes
• If we now suppose that the points P and Q are located in a plane in space, then x − u will be a vector in the plane.
• Consequently, if n is a vector that is perpendicular to every vector in the plane, then we must have that
n · (x − u) = 0. (3)
• Substituting for the components of the vectors in equation (3) we have that
n1 (x1 − u1 ) + n2 (x2 − u2 ) + n3 (x3 − u3 ) = 0. (4)

• Thus, given the position vector u of a point in a plane and a vector n that is perpendicular to the plane, then the
coordinates of the position vector x of any other point in the plane must satisfy the equation (4).
• Thus, the scalar equation (4) is the equation of the plane.
P x−u
Q
u
x
O
• Example 1.
◦ Consider a plane in space that contains the points P (1, 3, 2), Q(3, −1, 6) and R(5, 2, 0).
◦ Let
a = (3, −1, 6) − (1, 3, 2) = (2, −4, 4)
be the position vector of the point Q with respect to the point P , and let
b = (5, 2, 0) − (1, 3, 2) = (4, −1, −2)
be the position vector of the point R with respect to the point P .
◦ Since the vectors a and b both lie in the plane their cross product is perpendicular to the plane.
• Example 1 (continued).
◦ Thus, given the position vector u = (1, 3, 2) of the point P in the plane and the vector that is perpendicular to
the plane, namely,
e1 e2 e3
n=a×b= 2 −4 4 = (12, 20, 14) ,
4 −1 −2
it follows from equation (4) that the equation of the plane is
12 (x1 − 1) + 20 (x2 − 3) + 14 (x3 − 2) = 0.

2 Scalar and Vector Fields
• The set of all ordered triples of real numbers (x1 , x2 , x3 ) is denoted R3 .
• Let the subset U of R3 represent a finite region of space.
2.1 Scalar Fields
• A scalar field assigns to every point of U a scalar φ(x1 , x2 , x3 ).
2.2 Vector Fields
• A vector field assigns to every point of U a vector
ψ(x1 , x2 , x3 ) = ψ1 (x1 , x2 , x3 ) e 1 + ψ2 (x1 , x2 , x3 ) e 2 + ψ3 (x1 , x2 , x3 ) e 3
= ψi (x1 , x2 , x3 ) e i .
3 Differentiation of Scalar and Vector Fields
• It is customary in continuum mechanics to use the subscript comma to denote partial differentiation with respect to
the coordinate variable.
• For example, we write
◦ φ,i for ∂φ/∂xi ,
◦ ψi,j for ∂ψi /∂xj ,
◦ ψi,jk for ∂ 2 ψi /∂xj ∂xk , etc.
• A useful identity results from the derivative ∂xi /∂xj , namely,
∂xi
= δij .
∂xj
3.1 Gradient
• The gradient of a scalar field, denoted grad φ, is defined as

∂φ ∂φ ∂φ ∂φ
grad φ = ∇ φ = e1 + e2 + e3 = e = φ,i e i . (5)
∂x1 ∂x2 ∂x3 ∂xi i
3.2 Divergence
• The divergence of a vector field, denoted div ψ, is defined as

∂ψ1 ∂ψ2 ∂ψ3
div ψ = ∇ · ψ = + + = ψi,i . (6)
∂x1 ∂x2 ∂x3
3.3 Curl
• The curl of a vector field, denoted curl ψ, is defined as
e1 e2 e3
curl ψ = ∇ × ψ = ∂/∂x1 ∂/∂x2 ∂/∂x3 = εijk e i ψk,j (7)
ψ1 ψ2 ψ3
where it is understood that the determinant expansion is to be along the first row.
• Example 1.
1
◦ Given φ(x, y, z) = x1 x2 x3 .
2
◦ Calculate grad φ.
∂φ ∂φ ∂φ
grad φ = e + e + e
∂x1 1 ∂x2 2 ∂x3 3
1 1 1
= x2 x3 e 1 + x1 x3 e 2 + x1 x2 e 3
2 2 2
= ∇φ (x1 , x2 , x3 )
• Example 2.
◦ Given ψ(x, y, z) = x1 x2 e 1 + x1 x2 x3 e 2 + x23 e 3 .
◦ Calculate div ψ.
∂ψ1 ∂ψ2 ∂ψ3
div ψ = + +
∂x1 ∂x2 ∂x3
= x2 + x1 x3 + 2x3
= ∇ · ψ (x1 , x2 , x3 )
◦ Given ψ(x, y, z) = x1 x2 e 1 + x1 x2 x3 e 2 + x23 e 3 .
◦ Calculate curl ψ.
e1 e2 e3
curl ψ = ∂/∂x1 ∂/∂x2 ∂/∂x3
ψ1 ψ2 ψ3

∂ψ3 ∂ψ2 ∂ψ1 ∂ψ3 ∂ψ2 ∂ψ1
= − e1 + − e2 + − e3
∂x2 ∂x3 ∂x3 ∂x1 ∂x1 ∂x3
= −x1 x2 e 1 + (x2 x3 − x1 ) e 3
= ∇ × ψ (x1 , x2 , x3 )
• The various properties and identities associated the gradient, divergence and curl can be proved using index notation.
• Example 3.

• Use index notation to show that div curl ψ = 0.
◦ By the definition (7) of the curl we have that,
curl ψ = εijk e i ψk,j ,
from which it follows that the ith component of curl ψ is

curl ψ i
= εijk ψk,j . (8)
◦ Substituting the ith component of curl ψ given by equation (8) into the definition (6) of the divergence we have
that

div curl ψ = curl ψ i,i = (εijk ψk,j ),i .
◦ The elements of the permutation symbol are constants so their derivatives will be zero. Therefore, by the product
rule of differentiation,

div curl ψ = εijk ψk,ji . (9)
◦ Consider now the right-hand side of equation (9) only and interchange the dummy indices i and j so that
εijk ψk,ji = εjik ψk,ij . (10)
◦ Swop the indices i and j in the permutation symbol on the right-hand side of equation (10) so that the indices
in the permutation symbol occur in the same order on both sides of the equation. However, only swopping two
indices will cause the sign of the permutation symbol to change so that
εijk ψk,ji = −εijk ψk,ij . (11)
◦ Because the order of differentiation is irrelevant for most of the commonly occurring functions, we can swop the
indices in the last term of (11) without affecting the value of the expression; thus,
εijk ψk,ji = −εijk ψk,ji ,
from which is follows that εijk ψk,ji = 0.
◦ Thus,

div curl ψ = εijk ψk,ji = 0.
• Exercise 1.
◦ If φ and λ are scalar fields, then use index notation to prove the following identities.
(i) div (∇φ × ∇λ) = 0
(ii) curl ∇φ = 0
• Exercise 2.
◦ If φ is a scalar field and ψ, µ are vector fields, then use index notation to prove the following identities.

(i) div ψ + µ = div ψ + div µ

(ii) curl ψ + µ = curl ψ + curl µ

(iii) div φ ψ = φ div ψ + (∇φ) · ψ

(iv) curl φ ψ = φ curl ψ + (∇φ) × ψ

(v) div ψ × µ = µ · curl ψ − ψ · curl µ

(vi) curl ψ × µ = ψ div µ − µ div ψ + µ · ∇ ψ − ψ · ∇ µ
3.4 Taylor Series
• Consider a function in three variables f (x1 , x2 , x3 ) that is defined in a region U of R3 and suppose that all the values
of f and its derivatives are known at a point P in U .
• Consider now some other point Q in U .
• If u and v are the position vectors of the points P and Q and the direction along the line from P to Q is given by the
vector v − u, then by the equation of the line (2) we have that
x = u + α (v − u) . (12)
• With the aid of the equation of line (12) the function in three variables f (x1 , x2 , x3 ) is reduced to a function of one
variable F (α); that is,
f (x1 , x2 , x3 ) = f [u1 + α (v1 − u1 ) , u2 + α (v2 − u2 ) , u3 + α (v3 − u3 )]

(13)
= F (α)
• Note that for α = 0 equation (12) gives x = u and for α = 1 equation (12) gives x = v.
• By Taylor’s formula for a function of one variable, the expansion of the function F (α) about α = 0 to first-order is
F (α) ≈ F (0) + αF ′ (0) (14)
where 0 ≤ α ≤ 1.
• Using the chain rule to evaluate the coefficients F ′ (0) in the expansion (14) we have that
∂f dx1 ∂f dx2 ∂f dx3
F ′ (0) = + +
∂x1 dα ∂x2 dα ∂x3 dα
= (v1 − u1 ) f,1 (u1 , u2 , u3 ) + (v2 − u2 ) f,2 (u1 , u2 , u3 ) + (v3 − u3 ) f,3 (u1 , u2 , u3 ) .
• Thus, by equation (14) we have that
f (x1 , x2 , x3 ) ≈ f (u1 , u2 , u2 ) + α (v1 − u1 ) f,1 (u1 , u2 , u3 ) + α (v2 − u2 ) f,2 (u1 , u2 , u3 ) + α (v3 − u3 ) f,3 (u1 , u2 , u3 )
= f (u1 , u2 , u2 ) + (x1 − u1 ) f,1 (u1 , u2 , u3 ) + (x2 − u2 ) f,2 (u1 , u2 , u3 ) + (x3 − u3 ) f,3 (u1 , u2 , u3 )
which is Taylor’s formula for the expansion to first-order of the function f (x1 , x2 , x3 ).
• Taylor’s formula can be expressed in vector notation as follows,
f (x) ≈ f (u) + (x − u) · ∇ f (u) . (15)

4 Integration of Scalar and Vector Fields
• In continuum mechanics we make frequent use of the divergence theorem.
• This theorem states that the volume integral of div ψ over a region of space U in R3 is equal to the surface integral of
the normal component of ψ over the closed surface S that bounds U ; that is,
ZZZ ZZ

div ψ dV = ψ · n dA
U S
where
◦ dV is a volume element in U ,
◦ dA is a surface element on S,
◦ n is the unit outward normal to S.

4.1 Parametric Surfaces
• If a surface S is represented by the parametric equations,
x1 = x1 (u, v) , x2 = x2 (u, v) , x3 = x3 (u, v) ,
then
dA = kT u × T v kdu dv
where
∂x1 ∂x2 ∂x3

Tu = e1 + e2 + e ,
∂u ∂u ∂u 3
∂x1 ∂x2 ∂x3
Tv = e1 + e2 + e ,
∂v ∂v ∂v 3
are the vectors that are tangent to the lines along the surface S as illustrated in the sketch given on the next page.
x3
Tv Lines with u kept constant.
Tu
x2
Lines with v kept constant.
x1
4.2 Parametric Volumes
• If a volume U is represented by the parametric equations,
x1 = x1 (u, v, w) , x2 = x2 (u, v, w) , x3 = x3 (u, v, w) ,
then
dV = |T u · (T v × T w )| du dv dw
where
∂x1 ∂x2 ∂x3

Tu = e1 + e2 + e ,
∂u ∂u ∂u 3
∂x1 ∂x2 ∂x3
Tv = e1 + e2 + e ,
∂v ∂v ∂v 3
∂x1 ∂x2 ∂x3
Tw = e1 + e2 + e ,
∂w ∂w ∂w 3
are the vectors that are tangent to the lines within the volume U as illustrated in the sketch given on the next page.
x3
Tw
Lines with u, v kept constant.
Tv
Tu Lines with u, w kept constant.
x2
Lines with v, w kept constant.
x1
• Example 4.
◦ Given the vector field,

ψ(x1 , x2 , x3 ) = x1 x2 e 1 + x2 x3 e 2 + x1 x3 e 3 .
◦ Verify the divergence theorem given that U is a cube that is bounded by the planes
x1 = 0, x2 = 0, x3 = 0,
x1 = 1, x2 = 1, x3 = 1,
as indicated in the sketch given below.
x3
0 1 x2
1
x1
◦ Calculate the divergence of the vector field.
div ψ = ψ1,1 + ψ2,2 + ψ3,3

= x2 + x3 + x1
◦ Thus, we are required to calculate the following volume integral,

ZZZ ZZZ
div ψ dV = (x1 + x2 + x3 ) dV.
U U
◦ The volume U can be parametrised by means of the equations,
x1 = u, 0 ≤ u ≤ 1,
x2 = v, 0 ≤ v ≤ 1,
x3 = w, 0 ≤ w ≤ 1.
◦ The tangent vectors along each parametric curve are

∂x1 ∂x2 ∂x3
Tu = e + e + e = e 1,
∂u 1 ∂u 2 ∂u 3
∂x1 ∂x2 ∂x3
Tv = e + e + e = e 2,
∂v 1 ∂v 2 ∂v 3
∂x1 ∂x2 ∂x3
Tw = e + e + e = e 3.
∂w 1 ∂w 2 ∂w 3
◦ It can be shown that |T u · (T v × T w )| = 1.
◦ Express the volume integral in terms of the parametric variables.

ZZZ ZZZ Z w=1 Z v=1 Z u=1
div ψ dV = (x1 + x2 + x3 ) dV = (u + v + w) du dv dw
U U w=0 v=0 u=0
◦ Integrate with respect to u keeping v and w fixed.

Z w=1 Z v=1 Z u=1 Z w=1 Z v=1 u=1
1 2
(u + v + w) du dv dw = u + uv + uw dv dw
w=0 v=0 u=0 w=0 v=0 2 u=0
Z w=1 Z v=1
1
= + v + w dv dw
w=0 v=0 2
◦ Integrate with respect to v keeping w constant.
Z w=1 Z v=1 Z w=1 v=1 Z w=1
1 1 1 2
+ v + w dv dw = v + v + vw dw = (1 + w) dw
w=0 v=0 2 w=0 2 2 v=0 w=0
◦ Integrate with respect to w. w=1

w=1
1 3
Z
(1 + w) dw = w + w2 =
w=0 2 w=0 2
◦ Thus,
3
ZZZ
div ψ dV = .
U 2
◦ The surface of the cube is made up of the six sides of the cube so that
ZZ ZZ ZZ ZZ

ψ · n dA = ψ · n dA + ψ · n dA + ψ · n dA
S S1 S2 S3
ZZ ZZ ZZ

+ ψ · n dA + ψ · n dA + ψ · n dA.
S4 S5 S6
◦ Consider the surface S1 as indicated on the sketch given below.

x3
0 1 x2
1
x1
◦ The surface S1 can be parametrised by means of the equations,
x1 = 1,
x2 = u, 0 ≤ u ≤ 1,
x3 = v, 0 ≤ v ≤ 1.

∂x1 ∂x2 ∂x3
Tu = e + e + e = e 2,
∂u 1 ∂u 2 ∂u 3
∂x1 ∂x2 ∂x3
Tv = e + e + e = e 3.
∂v 1 ∂v 2 ∂v 3
◦ It can then be shown that kT u × T v k = 1.
◦ The unit vector that points outward from the surface S1 is n = (1, 0, 0).
◦ Thus,
ZZ ZZ

ψ · n dA = x1 x2 dA.
S1 S1
◦ Express the surface integral in terms of the parametric equations.

ZZ Z v=1 Z u=1
x1 x2 dA = u du dv
S1 v=0 u=0
◦ Integrate with respect to u keeping v constant.

Z v=1 Z u=1 v=1 u=1 v=1
1 2 1
Z Z
u du dv = u dv = dv
v=0 u=0 v=0 2 u=0 v=0 2
◦ Integrate with respect to v. v=1
v=1
1 1 1
Z
dv = v =
v=0 2 2 v=0 2
◦ Thus,
1
ZZ

ψ · n dA = .
S1 2

x3
0 1 x2
1
x1
x1 = u, 0 ≤ u ≤ 1,
x2 = 1,
x3 = v, 0 ≤ v ≤ 1.

∂x1 ∂x2 ∂x3
Tu = e + e + e = e 1,
∂u 1 ∂u 2 ∂u 3
∂x1 ∂x2 ∂x3
Tv = e + e + e = e 3.
∂v 1 ∂v 2 ∂v 3
◦ Thus,
ZZ ZZ

S2 S2

ZZ Z v=1 Z u=1
x2 x3 dA = v du dv
S2 v=0 u=0

Z v=1 Z u=1 Z v=1 u=1 Z v=1
v du dv = uv dv = v dv
v=0 u=0 v=0 u=0 v=0

v=1
1 1
Z
v dv = v 2 =
v=0 2 v=0 2
◦ Thus,
1
ZZ

ψ · n dA = .
S2 2

x3
0 1 x2
1
x1
x1 = u, 0 ≤ u ≤ 1,
x2 = v, 0 ≤ v ≤ 1,
x3 = 1.

∂x1 ∂x2 ∂x3
Tu = e + e + e = e 1,
∂u 1 ∂u 2 ∂u 3
∂x1 ∂x2 ∂x3
Tv = e + e + e = e 2.
∂v 1 ∂v 2 ∂v 3
◦ Thus,
ZZ ZZ

S3 S3

ZZ Z v=1 Z u=1
x1 x3 dA = u du dv
S3 v=0 u=0

Z v=1 Z u=1 v=1 u=1 v=1
1 2 1
Z Z
u du dv = u dv = dv
v=0 u=0 v=0 2 u=0 v=0 2
v=1
1 1 1
Z
dv = v =
v=0 2 2 v=0 2
◦ Thus,
1
ZZ

ψ · n dA = .
S3 2

x3
0 1 x2
1
x1
x1 = u, 0 ≤ u ≤ 1,
x2 = v, 0 ≤ v ≤ 1,
x3 = 0.

∂x1 ∂x2 ∂x3
Tu = e + e + e = e 1,
∂u 1 ∂u 2 ∂u 3
∂x1 ∂x2 ∂x3
Tv = e + e + e = e 2.
∂v 1 ∂v 2 ∂v 3
◦ The unit vector that points outward from the surface S4 is n = (0, 0, −1).
◦ Thus,
ZZ ZZ

ψ · n dA = (−x1 x3 ) dA.
S4 S4

ZZ Z v=1 Z u=1
(−x1 x3 ) dA. = 0 du dv
S4 v=0 u=0
◦ Thus,
ZZ

ψ · n dA = 0.
S4

x3
0 1 x2
1
x1
x1 = 0,
x2 = u, 0 ≤ u ≤ 1,
x3 = v, 0 ≤ v ≤ 1,

∂x1 ∂x2 ∂x3
Tu = e + e + e = e 2,
∂u 1 ∂u 2 ∂u 3
∂x1 ∂x2 ∂x3
Tv = e + e + e = e 3.
∂v 1 ∂v 2 ∂v 3
◦ The unit vector that points outward from the surface S5 is n = (−1, 0, 0).
◦ Thus,
ZZ ZZ

ψ · n dA = (−x1 x2 ) dA.
S5 S5

ZZ Z v=1 Z u=1
(−x1 x2 ) dA. = 0 du dv
S5 v=0 u=0
◦ Thus,
ZZ

ψ · n dA = 0.
S5

x3
0 1 x2
1
x1
x1 = u, 0 ≤ u ≤ 1,
x2 = 0,
x3 = v, 0 ≤ v ≤ 1,

∂x1 ∂x2 ∂x3
Tu = e + e + e = e 1,
∂u 1 ∂u 2 ∂u 3
∂x1 ∂x2 ∂x3
Tv = e + e + e = e 3.
∂v 1 ∂v 2 ∂v 3
◦ The unit vector that points outward from the surface S6 is n = (0, −1, 0).
◦ Thus,
ZZ ZZ

ψ · n dA = (−x2 x3 ) dA.
S6 S6

ZZ Z v=1 Z u=1
(−x2 x3 ) dA. = 0 du dv
S6 v=0 u=0
◦ Thus,
ZZ

ψ · n dA = 0.
S6
◦ Since
ZZ ZZ ZZ ZZ

ψ · n dA = ψ · n dA + ψ · n dA + ψ · n dA
S S1 S2 S3
ZZ ZZ ZZ

+ ψ · n dA + ψ · n dA + ψ · n dA
S4 S5 S6
1 1 1
= + + +0+0+0
2 2 2
3
=
Z2 Z Z
= div ψ dV,
U
the divergence theorem is verified.

Continuum Mechanics Lecture CM4

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Continuum Mechanics

Matrices, Vectors and Tensors

1 Equations of Lines and Planes

• From equation (1) we have that

• Thus, the vector equation (2) is the equation of the line l.

n1 (x1 − u1 ) + n2 (x2 − u2 ) + n3 (x3 − u3 ) = 0. (4)

• Thus, the scalar equation (4) is the equation of the plane.

b = (5, 2, 0) − (1, 3, 2) = (4, −1, −2)

be the position vector of the point R with respect to the point P .

12 (x1 − 1) + 20 (x2 − 3) + 14 (x3 − 2) = 0.

2 Scalar and Vector Fields

• The set of all ordered triples of real numbers (x1 , x2 , x3 ) is denoted R3 .

• Let the subset U of R3 represent a finite region of space.

2.1 Scalar Fields

• A scalar field assigns to every point of U a scalar φ(x1 , x2 , x3 ).

2.2 Vector Fields

• A vector field assigns to every point of U a vector

ψ(x1 , x2 , x3 ) = ψ1 (x1 , x2 , x3 ) e 1 + ψ2 (x1 , x2 , x3 ) e 2 + ψ3 (x1 , x2 , x3 ) e 3

3 Differentiation of Scalar and Vector Fields

• For example, we write

◦ φ,i for ∂φ/∂xi ,

◦ ψi,j for ∂ψi /∂xj ,

◦ ψi,jk for ∂ 2 ψi /∂xj ∂xk , etc.

• A useful identity results from the derivative ∂xi /∂xj , namely,

• The gradient of a scalar field, denoted grad φ, is defined as

• The divergence of a vector field, denoted div ψ, is defined as

• The curl of a vector field, denoted curl ψ, is defined as

◦ Given ψ(x, y, z) = x1 x2 e 1 + x1 x2 x3 e 2 + x23 e 3 .

◦ Given ψ(x, y, z) = x1 x2 e 1 + x1 x2 x3 e 2 + x23 e 3 .

◦ By the definition (7) of the curl we have that,

curl ψ = εijk e i ψk,j ,

from which it follows that the ith component of curl ψ is

εijk ψk,ji = εjik ψk,ij . (10)

εijk ψk,ji = −εijk ψk,ij . (11)

εijk ψk,ji = −εijk ψk,ji ,

from which is follows that εijk ψk,ji = 0.

(i) div (∇φ × ∇λ) = 0

3.4 Taylor Series

• Consider now some other point Q in U .

f (x1 , x2 , x3 ) = f [u1 + α (v1 − u1 ) , u2 + α (v2 − u2 ) , u3 + α (v3 − u3 )]

F (α) ≈ F (0) + αF ′ (0) (14)

• Thus, by equation (14) we have that

• Taylor’s formula can be expressed in vector notation as follows,

f (x) ≈ f (u) + (x − u) · ∇ f (u) . (15)

4 Integration of Scalar and Vector Fields

• In continuum mechanics we make frequent use of the divergence theorem.

◦ n is the unit outward normal to S.

4.1 Parametric Surfaces

• If a surface S is represented by the parametric equations,

x1 = x1 (u, v) , x2 = x2 (u, v) , x3 = x3 (u, v) ,

∂x1 ∂x2 ∂x3

Tv Lines with u kept constant.

4.2 Parametric Volumes

• If a volume U is represented by the parametric equations,

x1 = x1 (u, v, w) , x2 = x2 (u, v, w) , x3 = x3 (u, v, w) ,

∂x1 ∂x2 ∂x3

◦ Given the vector field,

◦ Calculate the divergence of the vector field.

div ψ = ψ1,1 + ψ2,2 + ψ3,3

◦ Thus, we are required to calculate the following volume integral,

◦ The volume U can be parametrised by means of the equations,

◦ The tangent vectors along each parametric curve are

◦ Integrate with respect to w. w=1

◦ Integrate with respect to v. v=1