a) What is the key characteristic of motion in two dimensions?

The key characteristic of motion in two dimensions is that an object is moving in both the
horizontal (x) and vertical (y) directions simultaneously.

Figure:

b) In projectile motion, what is the shape of the trajectory followed by the object?
The trajectory of a projectile is a parabola. Projectile motion is a form of motion where an object
moves in a bilaterally symmetrical, parabolic path. The path that the object follows is called its
trajectory.

c) According to Newton’s first law of motion, what happens to an object when no

net external force acts on it?
Newton's First Law of Motion states that a body at rest will remain at rest unless an outside force
acts on it, and a body in motion at a constant velocity will remain in motion in a straight line unless
acted upon by an outside force.
If no net force acts on an object it remains at rest, if initially at rest, or it maintains its velocity if
initially in motion.

d) Define central forces and provide an example of a central force in nature.

Central force is the force that is radially pointing, and the magnitude is dependent on the distance
from the source. Examples of central forces are gravitational force, electrostatic forces, and spring
force.

e) How does the gravitational force between two objects change as their separation
distance doubles?

f) Which of Kepler’s laws states that the orbit of a planet is an ellipse with the Sun
at one of the two foci?
Kepler's First Law: each planet's orbit about the Sun is an ellipse. The Sun's center is always located
at one focus of the orbital ellipse. The Sun is at one focus. The planet follows the ellipse in its orbit,
meaning that the planet to Sun distance is constantly changing as the planet goes around its orbit.
Figure:

g) According to Kepler’s third law, what is the relationship between a planet’s

orbital period and the semimajor axis of its orbit?
Kepler's third law states that the square of the period is proportional to the cube of the semi-major
axis of the orbit. Figure:

h) What are the components of velocity, and how do they relate to motion in
two dimensions?
velocity is a vector quantity, it has two components to it. The magnitude, which is the
speed, and the direction in which the motion is happening.

i) What is the key factor that influences the range of a projectile?

The most important factors affecting projectile motion are: The angle of the launch: The angle at
which the object is thrown determines how high (vertically) or how far (horizontally) the object will
reach. Initial speed: Greater the initial speed of launch, the higher and farther will the object reach.
Figure:

j) What is the defining characteristic of simple harmonic motion (SHM), and how
does it differ from other types of oscillatory motion?
The following are some of the characteristics of SHM:

Amplitude: The amplitude is the maximum displacement of the particle from the
equilibrium position.

Frequency: The frequency is the number of oscillations that the particle completes in one
second.

Period: The period is the time it takes for the particle to complete one oscillation.

Energy: The particle has a constant total energy throughout its motion. This energy is
divided between kinetic energy and potential energy

k) Explain the concept of damping in harmonic motion.

Simple Harmonic Motion or SHM is defined as a motion in which the restoring force is
directly proportional to the displacement of the body from its mean position. When the
oscillator's energy is reduced as a result of an external force, the oscillator is said to be damped. In a
damped simple harmonic motion, the oscillator's energy gradually decreases. A simple pendulum
is an example of a damped simple harmonic motion.

l) How does damping affect the amplitude and frequency of oscillation?

Damping decreases the natural frequency from its ideal value and there will be a decrease in the
amplitude of the wave. The highest natural frequency is always decreased by damping, but the
lower natural frequencies may either increase or decrease, depending on the form of the damping
matrix.

m) Define forced harmonic vibrations. How does an external force influence the
motion of a system undergoing forced harmonic vibrations?
Forced harmonic vibrations refer to the oscillatory motion of a system under the influence
of an external force.

An external force influences the motion of a system undergoing forced harmonic

vibrations by introducing a driving force that continuously acts on the system.

Here's how the external force influences the motion: Frequency Matching, Amplitude
Adjustment, Phase Angle Impact.

n) Describe the propagation of waves in elastic media.

An elastic wave generally travels through a material or fluid, or on its surface, without causing
any permanent structural or physical changes. Waves that propagate through water, sound
moving through the air, as well as energy moving through solid materials such as the Earth
are often described as elastic waves.

o) How do the properties of the medium affect the characteristics of the waves?
The properties of the medium through which a wave travels significantly influence the
characteristics of the waves. Changes in the medium's properties can alter the wavelength and
frequency of a wave. The denser and stiffer the medium, the faster the wave will travel through it.
p) What are the fundamental principles behind thermometry.
Thermometry is the measurement of temperature. the fundamental principles behind thermometry
are

Thermal Equilibrium: When two bodies are in thermal equilibrium, they are at the same
temperature, and there is no net flow of heat between them. This principle is fundamental to the
concept of temperature measurement.

Zeroth Law of Thermodynamics: The Zeroth Law states that if two systems are each in thermal
equilibrium with a third system, then they are in thermal equilibrium with each other. This law
establishes the concept of temperature and allows the definition of a temperature scale.

q) How is temperature measured using different temperature scales?

Ans:

r) Explain the concept of the Zeroth Law of Thermodynamics.

Zeroth Law of Thermodynamics: The Zeroth Law states that if two systems are each in thermal
equilibrium with a third system, then they are in thermal equilibrium with each other. This law
establishes the concept of temperature and allows the definition of a temperature scale.

Figure:

s) How does the Zeroth Law of Thermodynamics establish the basis for
temperature and thermal equilibrium?
The Zeroth Law states that if two systems are each in thermal equilibrium with a third system, then
they are in thermal equilibrium with each other . When a thermometer is placed in thermal contact
with a system and reaches thermal equilibrium, it provides a numerical measure of the system's
temperature.

t) Summarize the main postulates of the kinetic theory of gases

The kinetic-molecular theory of gases can be stated as four postulates:

• A gas consists of molecules in constant random motion.

• Gas molecules influence each other only by collision; they exert no other forces
on each other.
• All collisions between gas molecules are perfectly elastic; all kinetic energy is
conserved.
u) How does this kinetic theory relate the macroscopic properties of gases to the
motion of their constituent particles?
The rapidly moving particles constantly collide with each other and with the walls of the container.
Kinetic theory explains macroscopic properties of gases, such as pressure, temperature,
viscosity, thermal conductivity, and volume, by considering their molecular composition and
motion.

v) State and explain the First Law of Thermodynamics.

The First Law of Thermodynamics states that the net heat energy supplied to the system is
equal to sum of change in internal energy of the system and work done by the system.
The mathematical representation of the first law of thermodynamics is:
dQ= dU + dW
figure:

w) How does the First Law of Thermodynamics express the conservation of

energy in thermodynamic processes?
The first law of thermodynamics is equivalent to the law of conservation of energy: energy cannot
be created or destroyed; the total amount of energy in the Universe is fixed.
"When heat flows to or from a system, the system gains or loses an amount of energy equal to
the amount of heat transferred."

x) Define the Second Law of Thermodynamics.

The second law of themodynamics states that the total entropy of an isolated system can never
decrease over time, and is constant if and only if all processes are reversible.

y) What is the significance of entropy in the context of the Second Law of

Thermodynamics?
The second law of thermodynamics states that the total entropy of a system either increases or
remains constant in any spontaneous process; it never decreases.

z) What is blackbody radiation, and how does it differ from the radiation emitted
by real objects?
Blackbody radiation, refers to the behavior of a system that absorbs all radiation that is incident upon it
and then re-radiates energy.
blackbody radiation distribution in each direction is uniform, completely obeying Lambert's
law. The surface radiation spectrum energy of a real body is less than that of a blackbody at the
same temperature, thus its monochromatic emissivity is less than 1.
Figure;

Z1) What are the key characteristics of blackbody radiation?

A black body is an idealized object that absorbs all electromagnetic radiation it comes in contact
with. It then emits the absorbed radiation as thermal radiation in a continuous spectrum according
to its temperature. It follows certain laws when it emits thermal radiation.

Z2) State Wein’s Law and describe its significance in understanding the
temperature dependence of blackbody radiation.
Wien's displacement law states that the black-body radiation curve for different temperatures will
peak at different wavelengths that are inversely proportional to the temperature.

Lamda(peak) = b/T

where T is the absolute temperature and b is a constant of proportionality called Wien's displacement
constant, equal to b ≈ 2898 μm⋅K..

figure: