Ds Question Solve

Fundamental
(a) Define data structure. Describe in brief the basic operation of data structure.
(b) Suppose DATA is an array of numerical values in memory. Write down the algorithm. and
the flow chart to find the location LOC and the value MAX of the largest element in DATA.
Ans:(a) **Definition of Data Structure:**

A data structure is a way of organizing and storing data to perform operations efficiently. It
defines a set of rules or a model for how data is organized and accessed in a computer system.
Data structures provide a means to manage and manipulate data effectively, allowing for efficient
storage, retrieval, and modification of information.
**Basic Operations of Data Structure:**

1. **Insertion:** Adding data to the structure.
2. **Deletion:** Removing data from the structure.
3. **Traversal:** Accessing each element of the structure.
4. **Search:** Finding the location or presence of a particular data element.
5. **Sorting:** Arranging data in a specific order.
6. **Update:** Modifying the existing data.
(b) **Algorithm and Flowchart to Find the Location (LOC) and Maximum Value (MAX) in
DATA:**
**Algorithm:**
```
1. Initialize variables: MAX = DATA[0], LOC = 0
2. For i = 1 to length of DATA - 1 do
a. If DATA[i] > MAX then
i. Set MAX = DATA[i]
ii. Set LOC = i
3. Print LOC and MAX
```
**Flowchart:**
```plaintext
+-----------------------+
| Start |
+-----------------------+
|
v
+-----------------------+
| Initialize MAX = DATA[0], LOC = 0 |
+-----------------------+
|
v
+-----------------------+
| For i = 1 to length of DATA - 1 |
+-----------------------+
|
v
+-----------------------+
| If DATA[i] > MAX |
+-----------------------+
|
v
+-----------------------+
| Set MAX = DATA[i] |
| Set LOC = i |
+-----------------------+
|
v
+-----------------------+
| End of For Loop |
+-----------------------+
|
v
+-----------------------+
| Print LOC and MAX |
+-----------------------+
|
v
+-----------------------+
| End |
+-----------------------+
```
This algorithm and flowchart iterate through the array `DATA`, keeping track of the maximum
value (`MAX`) and its location (`LOC`). After the iteration, the algorithm prints the location and
maximum value found in the array.
(c) Number of Comparisons in 'Slow' Algorithm: The 'slow' algorithm for string matching
involves comparing each character of the pattern with each character of the text. In this case, the
pattern P is "aaa" and the text T is "(aabb)³". The number of comparisons would be calculated
as follows:
For each position in the text where the pattern could potentially start, compare each character of the
pattern with the corresponding character in the text.
1. Start comparing at the first position of the text:
 Compare 'a' in P with '(' in T (mismatch)

 Compare 'a' in P with 'a' in T (match)
 Compare 'a' in P with 'b' in T (mismatch)
2. Move to the next position in the text:

 Compare 'a' in P with ')' in T (mismatch)
3. Repeat the process for the remaining positions.
The total number of comparisons would be the sum of comparisons at each position. In this case, it
would depend on the length of the text and the length of the pattern. Since the pattern "aaa" has a
length of 3 and the text "(aabb)³" has a length of 8, the total number of comparisons may be calculated
as 3 * (8 - 3 + 1) = 18.
(d) Linear and Nonlinear Data Structures:
1. Linear Data Structures:
 Linear data structures are those in which elements are arranged in a sequential manner,
and each element has a unique predecessor and successor, except for the first and last
elements.
 Examples include arrays, linked lists, queues, and stacks.
2. Nonlinear Data Structures:
 Nonlinear data structures are those in which each element can connect to more than two
other elements, creating a more complex relationship between the elements.
 Examples include trees and graphs.
Show the transformation of the following infix expression into postfix expression by applying
stack: "5*(6+2)-12/4".
Certainly! Here's the step-by-step transformation of the infix expression "5*(6+2)-12/4" into
postfix expression using a stack:
**Infix Expression:** 5 * (6 + 2) - 12 / 4
**Postfix Expression:**
```
5 6 2 + * 12 4 / -
```
**Step-by-Step Transformation:**
1. Start with an empty stack and an empty output.
2. Scan the infix expression from left to right:
- **Token: 5**
- Output: 5
- **Token: ***
- Push '*' onto the stack.
- **Token: (**
- Push '(' onto the stack.
- **Token: 6**
- Output: 6
- **Token: +**
- Push '+' onto the stack.
- **Token: 2**
- Output: 2
- **Token: )**
- Pop operators from the stack and output until '(' is encountered.
- Output: 6 2 +
- Pop '(' from the stack.
- **Token: -**
- Pop operators from the stack and output until the stack is empty or the top has lower
precedence.
- Push '-' onto the stack.
- **Token: 12**
- Output: 12
- **Token: /**
- Push '/' onto the stack.
- **Token: 4**
- Output: 4
3. Pop any remaining operators from the stack and output them:
- Pop '/' and output.

- Pop '-' and output.
4. The final postfix expression is: 5 6 2 + * 12 4 / -
(a) Find the table and corresponding graph for the second pattern matching algorithm where the
pattern is P= a²b²(ab)²
To create a table and corresponding graph for the second pattern matching algorithm, we need
more details about the specific algorithm you're referring to. Different pattern matching
algorithms have different approaches and may involve various steps or techniques.
However, I can provide you with a general outline of what a table might look like for a pattern
matching algorithm. Let's assume we are using a simple algorithm that involves comparing
characters of the pattern with characters of the text.
Let the pattern be \(P = a^2b^2(ab)^2\), and let's consider the text \(T = aabaabbaab\).
**Table:**
| Position in Text (i) | Comparison | Match/Mismatch | Current Pattern Matched |

|-----------------------|------------|-----------------|--------------------------|
|1 |a | Match |a |
|2 |a | Match | aa |
|3 |b | Match | aab |
|4 |a | Mismatch | |
|5 |a | Match |a |
|6 |a | Match | aa |
|7 |b | Match | aab |
|8 |b | Match | aabb |
|9 |a | Match | aabba |
| 10 |a | Match | aabbab |
| 11 |b | Mismatch | |
**Corresponding Graph:**
In the graph, you can represent the positions in the text on the x-axis and the status of the pattern
match on the y-axis. A match can be represented by a positive value, and a mismatch can be
represented by a negative value.
```
|
+3 | X
|
+2 | X
|
+1 | X X X
|
|___________________
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11
Position in Text
```
In this simple representation, the graph shows the positions in the text where a match occurs, and
the corresponding values on the y-axis indicate the level of match. Mismatches are not shown in
the graph.
Please note that this is a generic example, and the actual table and graph may vary based on the
specific algorithm and its implementation. If you have a particular algorithm in mind, please
provide more details for a more accurate representation.
(b) Suppose T contains the text INFORMATION AND COMMUNICATION TECHNOLOGY

Find (i) SUBSTRING(T. 17, 24) (ii) INDEX (T, "CATION') (iii) INSERT (T, 31,
ENGINEERING ) (iv) DELETE (T, 13, 18) (V) REPLACE(T, TECHNOLOGY', 'SCIENCE")
Let's perform the specified operations on the given text \( T = \) "INFORMATION AND
COMMUNICATION TECHNOLOGY":
(i) **SUBSTRING(T, 17, 24):**

- Extract the substring starting from position 17 to position 24.
- \( \text{SUBSTRING(T, 17, 24)} = \) "COMMUNIC"
(ii) **INDEX(T, "CATION"):**

- Find the index (position) of the substring "CATION" in \( T \).
- \( \text{INDEX(T, "CATION")} = \) 21
(iii) **INSERT(T, 31, "ENGINEERING"):**

- Insert the substring "ENGINEERING" starting at position 31 in \( T \).
- \( T \) becomes "INFORMATION AND COMMUNICATION TECHNOLOGY
ENGINEERING"
(iv) **DELETE(T, 13, 18):**

- Delete the characters from position 13 to position 18 in \( T \).
- \( T \) becomes "INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY ENGINEERING"
(v) **REPLACE(T, "TECHNOLOGY", "SCIENCE"):**

- Replace the substring "TECHNOLOGY" with "SCIENCE" in \( T \).
- \( T \) becomes "INFORMATION AND COMMUNICATION SCIENCE ENGINEERING"
So, after performing the specified operations:
(i) \( \text{SUBSTRING(T, 17, 24)} = \) "COMMUNIC"

(ii) \( \text{INDEX(T, "CATION")} = \) 21
(iii) \( T = \) "INFORMATION AND COMMUNICATION TECHNOLOGY ENGINEERING"
(iv) \( T = \) "INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY ENGINEERING"
(v) \( T = \) "INFORMATION AND COMMUNICATION SCIENCE ENGINEERING"
(c) Describe briefly the meaning of static, semi static and dynamic variables. (d) Define linear
array. Which operations are normally performed on any linear structure? ✔
(c) **Static, Semi-Static, and Dynamic Variables:**
1. **Static Variables:**
- **Meaning:** Static variables are variables that have a fixed memory location and retain
their values throughout the lifetime of a program.
- **Characteristics:**
- Allocated at compile-time.
- Memory is assigned during the program's execution and remains constant.
- Scope is limited to the block or function where they are defined.
- Retain their values between function calls.
2. **Semi-Static Variables:**
- **Meaning:** Semi-static variables exhibit characteristics of both static and dynamic
variables. They are allocated at runtime but do not change size after allocation.
- Allocated at runtime.
- Size is fixed after allocation.
- Can be used when the size of the variable is known at runtime but remains constant
afterward.
3. **Dynamic Variables:**
- **Meaning:** Dynamic variables are variables whose memory is allocated at runtime and can
change in size during program execution.
- Allocated using dynamic memory allocation functions (e.g., malloc() in C, new operator in
C++).
- Size can change during program execution.
- Requires manual memory management (deallocation).
(d) **Linear Array:**

- **Definition:** A linear array is a data structure in which elements are arranged in a linear or
sequential order. Each element is accessed by its index or position in the array.
- Elements are stored in contiguous memory locations.
- Access is direct using an index.
- Size is fixed once declared.
- Examples include one-dimensional arrays.
**Operations on Any Linear Structure:**

1. **Traversal:**
- Visit each element in the linear structure.
2. **Insertion:**
- Add a new element to the structure.
3. **Deletion:**
- Remove an element from the structure.
4. **Search:**
- Find the position or value of a specific element.
5. **Update:**
- Modify the value of an existing element.
6. **Access by Index:**
- Retrieve the value of an element using its index.
These operations are fundamental for managing and manipulating data stored in linear
structures like arrays. The specific implementation details may vary depending on the
programming language and the type of linear structure being used.
. (a) Define data structure? Distinguish between static and dynamic data structure.
(a) **Definition of Data Structure:**
A data structure is a way of organizing and storing data in a computer's memory in a manner
that allows for efficient retrieval and modification. It provides a means to represent relationships
between data elements and the operations that can be performed on them. Data structures are
designed to suit specific tasks or applications, and their choice can significantly impact the
efficiency of algorithms.
**Distinguishing between Static and Dynamic Data Structures:**
1. **Static Data Structure:**

- **Memory Allocation:**
- The memory for a static data structure is allocated at compile-time.
- **Size:**
- The size of a static data structure is fixed and known at compile-time.
- **Flexibility:**
- Not flexible in terms of size; it remains constant throughout the program's execution.
- **Examples:**
- Arrays and linked lists with fixed size.
2. **Dynamic Data Structure:**

- The memory for a dynamic data structure is allocated at runtime.
- **Size:**
- The size of a dynamic data structure can change during program execution.
- **Flexibility:**
- Flexible in terms of size, allowing for efficient memory utilization.
- **Examples:**
- Dynamic arrays, linked lists with dynamic memory allocation, trees, and graphs.
**Key Differences:**
- Static: Memory is allocated at compile-time.
- Dynamic: Memory is allocated at runtime.
- **Size:**
- Static: Size is fixed and known at compile-time.
- Dynamic: Size can change during program execution.
- **Flexibility:**
- Static: Not flexible; size remains constant.
- Dynamic: Flexible; size can be adjusted as needed.
- **Examples:**
- Static: Arrays, fixed-size linked lists.
- Dynamic: Dynamic arrays, linked lists with dynamic allocation, trees, graphs.
In summary, the choice between static and dynamic data structures depends on the specific
requirements of the application. Static structures are suitable when the size is known in advance
and remains constant, while dynamic structures offer flexibility in handling varying amounts of
data during runtime.
b) What do you understand by time complexity? Define Ω notation, O notation and O notation.
(b) **Time Complexity:**

Time complexity is a measure of the amount of time an algorithm takes to complete as a function
of the input size. It characterizes the efficiency of an algorithm by analyzing the growth rate of
the algorithm's running time concerning the input size. Time complexity is expressed using big-O
notation, omega (Ω) notation, and theta (Θ) notation.
1. **Big-O Notation (O):**

- **Definition:** Big-O notation represents the upper bound or worst-case time complexity of
an algorithm. It provides an asymptotic upper limit on the growth rate of the algorithm's
running time concerning the input size.
- **Example:** If an algorithm has a time complexity of O(n), it means that the running time
of the algorithm grows linearly or no faster than linearly with the size of the input.
2. **Omega Notation (Ω):**

- **Definition:** Omega notation represents the lower bound or best-case time complexity of
an algorithm. It provides an asymptotic lower limit on the growth rate of the algorithm's running
time concerning the input size.
- **Example:** If an algorithm has a time complexity of Ω(n^2), it means that the running
time of the algorithm grows at least as fast as n^2 with the size of the input.
3. **Theta Notation (Θ):**

- **Definition:** Theta notation represents both the upper and lower bounds or tight bounds
on the time complexity of an algorithm. It provides an asymptotic tight bound on the growth rate
of the algorithm's running time concerning the input size.
- **Example:** If an algorithm has a time complexity of Θ(n), it means that the running time
grows linearly with the size of the input, and both the lower and upper bounds are linear.
In summary:
- **O Notation (Big-O):** Upper bound on the growth rate.
- **Ω Notation (Omega):** Lower bound on the growth rate.
- **Θ Notation (Theta):** Tight bound, representing both upper and lower bounds.
These notations are crucial for analyzing and comparing the efficiency of algorithms, helping
developers and researchers understand how the running time of an algorithm scales with the size
of the input.
(c) What do you understand by time space trade-off?

**Time-Space Trade-off:**
The time-space trade-off is a concept in computer science and algorithm design that involves
making decisions about how to use computational resources, specifically time and space
(memory), to achieve a desired outcome. In many cases, there exists a trade-off relationship
between the time complexity and space complexity of an algorithm.
Here's a more detailed explanation:
1. **Time Complexity:**
- **Definition:** Time complexity refers to the amount of time an algorithm takes to complete
its task, usually expressed as a function of the input size.
- **Trade-off:** Improving time complexity may involve using more computational resources,
such as faster processors or more efficient algorithms. Algorithms optimized for time may
prioritize faster execution, even if it means using more memory.
2. **Space Complexity:**
- **Definition:** Space complexity refers to the amount of memory (space) an algorithm
requires to complete its task, also expressed as a function of the input size.
- **Trade-off:** Reducing space complexity may involve using less memory, but it could result
in longer execution times. Algorithms optimized for space may prioritize minimizing memory
usage, even if it means sacrificing some speed.
3. **Trade-off Relationship:**
- As the time complexity of an algorithm decreases, the space complexity may increase, and vice
versa.
- Developers often need to find a balance between these two factors based on the requirements
of a specific application or system.
4. **Examples:**
- **Caching:** Storing precomputed results or frequently accessed data in memory (trading
space) to avoid recomputation (saving time).
- **Data Compression:** Compressing data to save storage space (trading space) but requiring
decompression before use, which takes time.
- **Indexing:** Creating indexes or data structures for quick retrieval (trading space) at the
cost of increased memory usage.
5. **Considerations:**
- The optimal trade-off depends on the nature of the problem, the available resources, and the
specific requirements of the application.
- Different scenarios may favor different trade-offs; there is no one-size-fits-all solution.
In summary, the time-space trade-off involves making decisions about how to balance the time
complexity and space complexity of an algorithm, taking into account the available resources and
the specific needs of the application. Developers aim to strike a suitable balance to achieve the
best overall performance.
(a) Write an algorithm which replaces every occurrence of pattern P in Text T by a new pattern
Q.
Certainly! Here's a simple algorithm in pseudocode that replaces every occurrence of pattern P in
Text T with a new pattern Q:
```plaintext
Algorithm: ReplacePattern(T, P, Q)
Input: Text T, Pattern P, New Pattern Q
Output: Text with occurrences of P replaced by Q
1. Initialize an empty string result.

2. Initialize variables:
- n = length of T
- m = length of P
-i=1
3. While i <= n:
a. If the substring T[i to i+m-1] is equal to P:
i. Append Q to the result.
ii. Increment i by m.
b. Else:
i. Append T[i] to the result.
ii. Increment i by 1.
4. Return the result as the modified text.
Example Usage:
T = "abracadabra"
P = "abra"
Q = "1234"
Result = ReplacePattern(T, P, Q)
Print Result
```
This algorithm iterates through the text T, and whenever it finds a substring that matches pattern
P, it replaces that substring with the new pattern Q. The resulting modified text is stored in the
'result' variable. This algorithm works in a linear fashion, examining each character of the text
once.
(b) Describe the three types of structures used for storing strings.
Strings are sequences of characters, and there are several types of data structures used for
storing and manipulating strings. The three main types of structures used for storing strings are:
1. **Arrays:**
- **Description:** Arrays are a simple and straightforward data structure for storing strings.
In programming languages like C, C++, and Java, strings are often represented as arrays of
characters (char array).
- Contiguous memory storage.
- Random access to characters using index.
- Fixed size once declared.
- **Example (in C):**
```c
char myString[10] = "Hello";
```
2. **Linked Lists:**
- **Description:** Linked lists are dynamic data structures where each node contains a
character (or a small segment of a string) and a pointer to the next node. In this way, linked lists
can represent strings of varying lengths.
- Dynamic size; memory allocation can be adjusted during runtime.
- Efficient insertion and deletion operations.
- Sequential access to characters.
- **Example (pseudo-code):**
```plaintext
Node: [H] -> [e] -> [l] -> [l] -> [o] -> null
```
3. **Trie (Prefix Tree):**

- **Description:** Tries are tree-like structures used to store a dynamic set of strings. Each
node in the trie represents a single character, and the paths from the root to the nodes represent
the strings.
- Efficient for searching and inserting strings.
- Memory-efficient for storing a large number of strings with common prefixes.
- **Example (visual representation):**
```plaintext
root
/ | \
h e a
/ /\ \
e a t p
/
r
```
These structures each have their advantages and trade-offs, and the choice of which one to use
depends on the specific requirements of the application. Arrays are simple and efficient for fixed-
size strings, linked lists are flexible for dynamic sizes, and tries are powerful for managing large
sets of strings with common prefixes.
(C) Find the following:

(1) INSERT ('PQRSPQRS', 4, AAA);
DELETE ('DATA.STRUCTURE', 5, 4);
(iii) REPLACE ("XYZXYZXXZZYY', 'ZXY', 'YXZ').
Let's perform the specified operations:
1. **INSERT ('PQRSPQRS', 4, AAA):**

- Insert the string "AAA" into the text "PQRSPQRS" starting at position 4.
- Result: "PQRSAAAQRS"
2. **DELETE ('DATA.STRUCTURE', 5, 4):**

- Delete 4 characters from position 5 in the text "DATA.STRUCTURE".
- Result: "DATASTRUCTURE"
3. **REPLACE ("XYZXYZXXZZYY', 'ZXY', 'YXZ'):**

- Replace all occurrences of the substring "ZXY" with "YXZ" in the text
"XYZXYZXXZZYY".
- Result: "YXZYZYXZXXYXZYY"
- INSERT: "PQRSAAAQRS"
- DELETE: "DATASTRUCTURE"
- REPLACE: "YXZYZYXZXXYXZYY"
1. Define data structure, Explain data structure operations.
B.. Define algorithms complexity and time-space tradeoff.
1. **Data Structure:**
- **Definition:** A data structure is a way of organizing and storing data to perform operations
efficiently. It defines a specific organization for data and provides algorithms to manipulate that
data. The choice of a data structure depends on the nature of the data and the operations that
need to be performed.
- **Operations:**
- **Insertion:** Adding data to the structure.
- **Deletion:** Removing data from the structure.
- **Traversal:** Accessing each element of the structure.
- **Search:** Finding the location or presence of a particular data element.
- **Sorting:** Arranging data in a specific order.
- **Update:** Modifying the existing data.
---
2. **Algorithm Complexity and Time-Space Trade-off:**
**a. Algorithm Complexity:**

- **Definition:** Algorithm complexity refers to the efficiency of an algorithm in terms of the
resources it consumes. It is commonly measured in terms of time complexity and space
complexity.
- **Time Complexity:** The amount of time an algorithm takes to complete as a function of the
input size.
- **Space Complexity:** The amount of memory (space) an algorithm requires as a function of
the input size.
- **Example:** An algorithm with time complexity O(n^2) indicates that the running time
grows quadratically with the size of the input.
**b. Time-Space Trade-off:**

- **Definition:** The time-space trade-off involves making decisions about how to use
computational resources, specifically time and space, to achieve a desired outcome.
- **Time Complexity vs. Space Complexity:**
- **Time Emphasis:** Optimize for faster execution, even if it means using more memory.
- **Space Emphasis:** Optimize for minimal memory usage, even if it means sacrificing some
speed.
- **Examples:**
- Caching: Store precomputed results in memory (trading space) to avoid recomputation
(saving time).
- Compression: Compress data to save storage space (trading space) but requiring
decompression before use (takes time).
- **Considerations:**
- The optimal trade-off depends on the specific requirements of the application.
- Different scenarios may favor different trade-offs; there is no one-size-fits-all solution.
In summary, data structures provide a way to organize and store data efficiently, and algorithm
complexity, including time and space complexity, measures the efficiency of algorithms. The time-
space trade-off involves balancing the use of computational resources to achieve the best overall
performance for a specific application.
(c) Find the following: (1) INSERT ('AAAAA, 3, BBB); (ii) DELETE ('AAABBB', 2, 2); (iii)
REPLACE (AAABBB', 'AA', BB).
1. **INSERT ('AAAAA', 3, 'BBB'):**

- Insert the string "BBB" into the text "AAAAA" starting at position 3.
- Result: "AABBBAA"
2. **DELETE ('AAABBB', 2, 2):**
- Delete 2 characters from position 2 in the text "AAABBB".
- Result: "AABB"
3. **REPLACE ('AAABBB', 'AA', 'BB'):**

- Replace all occurrences of the substring "AA" with "BB" in the text "AAABBB".
- Result: "BBBBBB"
- INSERT: "AABBBAA"
- DELETE: "AABB"
- REPLACE: "BBBBBB"
(b) Write an algorithm which replaces every occurrence of pattern P in Text T by a new pattern
Q.
Certainly! Here's an algorithm in pseudocode that replaces every occurrence of pattern P in Text
T with a new pattern Q:
```plaintext
Algorithm: ReplacePattern(T, P, Q)
Input: Text T, Pattern P, New Pattern Q
Output: Text with occurrences of P replaced by Q
1. Initialize an empty string result.

2. Initialize variables:
- n = length of T
- m = length of P
-i=1
3. While i <= n:
a. If the substring T[i to i+m-1] is equal to P:
i. Append Q to the result.
ii. Increment i by m.
b. Else:
i. Append T[i] to the result.
ii. Increment i by 1.
4. Return the result as the modified text.
Example Usage:
T = "abracadabra"
P = "abra"
Q = "1234"
Result = ReplacePattern(T, P, Q)
Print Result
```
This algorithm iterates through the text T, and whenever it finds a substring that matches pattern
P, it replaces that substring with the new pattern Q. The resulting modified text is stored in the
'result' variable. This algorithm works in a linear fashion, examining each character of the text
once.
(c) Suppose S="BANGLADESH IS THE MOST BEAUTIFUL COUNTRY" and T="IN THE
WORLD
a) Find the length of S and T
b) Find-SUBSTRING(S, 9, 20)
c) Find-INDEX (S, 'THE") and INDEX (T, THE)

a) **Find the Length of S and T:**
- Length of S: \( \text{len}(S) = 37 \)
- Length of T: \( \text{len}(T) = 13 \)
b) **Find SUBSTRING(S, 9, 20):**

- Substring of S starting from position 9 and ending at position 20:
- \( \text{SUBSTRING}(S, 9, 20) = \text{"ESH IS THE MO"} \)
c) **Find INDEX(S, 'THE') and INDEX(T, 'THE'):**

- Index of the substring 'THE' in S:
- \( \text{INDEX}(S, 'THE') = 15 \)
- Index of the substring 'THE' in T:
- \( \text{INDEX}(T, 'THE') = \text{Not Found} \)
a) \( \text{len}(S) = 37 \) and \( \text{len}(T) = 13 \)
b) \( \text{SUBSTRING}(S, 9, 20) = \text{"ESH IS THE MO"} \)
c) \( \text{INDEX}(S, 'THE') = 15 \) and \( \text{INDEX}(T, 'THE') = \text{Not Found} \)
d) Define static, semistatic and dynamic character variable.
Character variables, like other variables, can be categorized based on their allocation and
characteristics. Here are the definitions for static, semi-static, and dynamic character variables:
1. **Static Character Variable:**

- **Definition:** A static character variable is a character variable whose memory is allocated
at compile-time and retains its value throughout the program's execution.
- Allocated at compile-time.
- Memory remains constant during program execution.
- Scope is limited to the block or function where it is defined.
- Retains its value between function calls.
```c
// Example in C
static char staticChar = 'A';
```
2. **Semi-Static Character Variable:**

- **Definition:** A semi-static character variable exhibits characteristics of both static and
dynamic character variables. It is allocated at runtime but does not change size after allocation.
- Allocated at runtime.
- Size is fixed after allocation.
- Can be used when the size of the variable is known at runtime but remains constant
afterward.
```c
// Example in C (using fixed-size array)
char semiStaticChar[10] = "Hello";
```
3. **Dynamic Character Variable:**

- **Definition:** A dynamic character variable is a character variable whose memory is
allocated at runtime. It can change in size during program execution.
- Allocated using dynamic memory allocation functions (e.g., `malloc()` in C, `new` operator in
C++).
- Size can change during program execution.
- Requires manual memory management (deallocation).
```c
// Example in C (using dynamic memory allocation)
char *dynamicChar = (char *)malloc(10 * sizeof(char));
```
In summary, static character variables have fixed memory locations allocated at compile-time,
dynamic character variables have flexible memory allocations that can change during runtime,
and semi-static character variables have dynamic allocations with a fixed size after allocation.
The choice depends on the specific needs and requirements of the program.
Linked List
a) What is the advantage of using the linked list implementation of queues, as opposed to the
array implementation?
Using a linked list implementation of queues provides several advantages compared to an array
implementation. Here are some key advantages:
1. **Dynamic Size:**
- **Linked List:** Linked lists can easily grow or shrink in size during runtime. New nodes can
be added or removed without the need to predefine the size.
- **Array:** Arrays have a fixed size, and resizing involves creating a new array and copying
elements, which can be inefficient.
2. **Efficient Insertion and Deletion:**

- **Linked List:** Insertion and deletion of elements at the front or rear of the linked list
(enqueue and dequeue operations) are constant-time operations, O(1).
- **Array:** Inserting or removing elements from the front of an array requires shifting all
other elements, resulting in O(n) time complexity.
3. **No Wasted Memory:**

- **Linked List:** Memory is allocated dynamically as needed, reducing the chance of wasted
memory.
- **Array:** A fixed-size array may allocate more memory than necessary, leading to potential
waste, especially if the queue size varies.
4. **No Overflow or Underflow Issues:**

- **Linked List:** The linked list implementation does not face overflow issues (running out of
space) as it can dynamically allocate memory.
- **Array:** The array implementation may encounter overflow issues if the queue size
exceeds the predefined array size.
5. **Simplified Implementation:**
- **Linked List:** No need to manage circular arrays or handle resizing, simplifying the
implementation of a queue.
- **Array:** Circular arrays or resizing logic may be required for efficient queue operations.
6. **Ease of Memory Management:**

- **Linked List:** Memory is allocated and deallocated dynamically, reducing the risk of
memory fragmentation.
- **Array:** In fixed-size arrays, memory is allocated at once, which may lead to memory
fragmentation over time.
While linked lists offer these advantages, it's essential to note that they also have some
drawbacks, such as increased memory overhead due to storing pointers and potential cache
locality issues. The choice between linked list and array implementations depends on the specific
requirements and expected operations of the queue in a given context.
***Suppose, you have a doubly linked list with the following elements: 10 20 30 50 NULLI Now,
write a procedure to insert an element after a value x. Also, show the steps of your procedure to
insert an element with value 40 after 30. After inserting 40 the list should be changed to:
10 20 30 40 50 NULL
Certainly! Below is a procedure in pseudocode to insert an element after a value x in a doubly
linked list. I'll also provide the steps for inserting the element with the value 40 after the value 30
in the given list.
```plaintext
Procedure InsertAfterValue(head, x, valueToInsert)
Input: Doubly linked list head, value x, value to insert
1. Initialize a new node with the given valueToInsert: newNode = CreateNode(valueToInsert)

2. Set currentNode = head
3. While currentNode is not NULL and currentNode.value is not equal to x:
a. Set currentNode = currentNode.next
4. If currentNode is NULL (value x not found), return
5. Set newNode.prev = currentNode
6. Set newNode.next = currentNode.next
7. If currentNode.next is not NULL:
a. Set currentNode.next.prev = newNode
8. Set currentNode.next = newNode
```
Now, let's use this procedure to insert the value 40 after the value 30 in the given doubly linked
list:
Initial list: 10 <-> 20 <-> 30 <-> 50 <-> NULL
1. **Call the procedure:** ÌnsertAfterValue(head, 30, 40)`
- Start with `currentNode = head` (initially points to the first node).
- Iterate until `currentNode` points to the node with the value 30.
- Once found (currentNode points to the node with value 30), create a new node with the value
40.
- Set `newNode.prev = currentNode`, `newNode.next = currentNode.next`.
- Update the pointers of adjacent nodes: `currentNode.next.prev = newNode` (if

`currentNode.next` is not NULL), and `currentNode.next = newNode`.
- The list becomes: 10 <-> 20 <-> 30 <-> 40 <-> 50 <-> NULL
The new element with the value 40 has been successfully inserted after the value 30 in the doubly
linked list.
(b) Write down an algorithm if we want to insert ITEM as the first node in a linked list.
Certainly! Below is an algorithm in pseudocode for inserting an item as the first node in a linked
list:
```plaintext
Algorithm: InsertFirstNode(head, ITEM)
Input: Linked list head, ITEM to be inserted
1. Create a new node: newNode = CreateNode(ITEM)

2. If head is NULL (empty list):
a. Set head = newNode
b. Set newNode.next = NULL
c. Set newNode.prev = NULL
3. Else:
a. Set newNode.next = head
b. Set newNode.prev = NULL
c. Set head.prev = newNode
d. Set head = newNode
4. Return head
```
Explanation:
- This algorithm first creates a new node (`newNode`) with the given ÌTEM` value.
- If the linked list is empty (head is NULL), the new node becomes the head, and its `next` and
`prev` pointers are set to NULL.
- If the linked list is not empty, the new node's `next` pointer is set to the current head, and the
head's `prev` pointer is updated to point to the new node. Finally, the head is updated to be the
new node.
- The algorithm returns the updated head of the linked list.
Example Usage:
```plaintext
List: 20 <-> 30 <-> 40 <-> NULL
Call: InsertFirstNode(head, 10)
Resulting List: 10 <-> 20 <-> 30 <-> 40 <-> NULL

```
This algorithm efficiently inserts a new node at the beginning of a linked list, adjusting pointers
to maintain the integrity of the doubly linked list structure.
(b) How do you insert and delete an item in a linked list? Explain it with proper example.
Sure, let me explain the insertion and deletion of an item in a linked list with examples.
### Inserting an Item in a Linked List:
#### Algorithm for Insertion at the End:
```plaintext
Algorithm: InsertEnd(head, ITEM)
Input: Linked list head, ITEM to be inserted
1. Create a new node: newNode = CreateNode(ITEM)

2. If head is NULL (empty list):
a. Set head = newNode
b. Set newNode.next = NULL
c. Set newNode.prev = NULL
3. Else:
a. Set currentNode = head
b. While currentNode.next is not NULL:
i. Set currentNode = currentNode.next
c. Set currentNode.next = newNode
d. Set newNode.prev = currentNode
e. Set newNode.next = NULL
4. Return head
```
#### Example:
Let's say we have the following linked list: 10 <-> 20 <-> 30 <-> NULL
```plaintext
Call: InsertEnd(head, 40)
Resulting List: 10 <-> 20 <-> 30 <-> 40 <-> NULL
```
### Deleting an Item in a Linked List:
#### Algorithm for Deletion by Value:
```plaintext
Algorithm: DeleteByValue(head, VALUE)
Input: Linked list head, VALUE to be deleted
1. If head is NULL (empty list), return head

2. If head.value is equal to VALUE:
a. Set temp = head
b. Set head = head.next
c. If head is not NULL, set head.prev = NULL
d. Free temp
3. Else:
a. Set currentNode = head
b. While currentNode is not NULL and currentNode.value is not equal to VALUE:
i. Set currentNode = currentNode.next
c. If currentNode is not NULL:
i. Set temp = currentNode
ii. Set currentNode.prev.next = currentNode.next
iii. If currentNode.next is not NULL, set currentNode.next.prev = currentNode.prev
iv. Free temp
4. Return head
```
#### Example:
Let's say we have the following linked list: 10 <-> 20 <-> 30 <-> 40 <-> NULL
```plaintext
Call: DeleteByValue(head, 30)
Resulting List: 10 <-> 20 <-> 40 <-> NULL
```
These algorithms demonstrate how to insert an item at the end of a linked list and delete an item
by its value. Adjustments to the pointers are made to maintain the integrity of the doubly linked
list structure.
(c) Write the definition of header linked list and two-way link list with example.
### Header Linked List:
A header linked list is a type of linked list that includes a dummy node, also known as a header
node, at the beginning of the list. The header node does not store any actual data but serves as a
placeholder to simplify the implementation of certain operations.
#### Definition:
- **Header Node:**
- The first node in the list is a special dummy node called the header node.
- The header node does not contain any meaningful data.
- It contains pointers to the first actual node in the list (next pointer).
- **Advantages:**
- Simplifies insertion and deletion operations, as the header node always exists.
#### Example:
Let's create a header linked list with values 10, 20, and 30:
```plaintext
Header Node (head) -> | Next | --> Node 1 -> | 10 | --> Node 2 -> | 20 | --> Node 3 -> | 30 | -->
NULL
```
In this example, the header node contains a next pointer pointing to the first node with the value
10. The list ends with a NULL pointer.
### Two-Way Linked List:
A two-way linked list (or doubly linked list) is a type of linked list in which each node contains
pointers to both its next and previous nodes. This bidirectional connection allows for easy
traversal in both forward and backward directions.
#### Definition:
- **Node Structure:**
- Each node contains a data field and two pointers: one pointing to the next node (next pointer)
and another pointing to the previous node (prev pointer).
- **Advantages:**
- Enables efficient traversal in both directions.
- Simplifies certain operations, such as deletion of nodes.
#### Example:
Let's create a two-way linked list with values 10, 20, and 30:
```plaintext
NULL <- Node 1 (prev, data, next) <-> Node 2 (prev, data, next) <-> Node 3 (prev, data, next) ->
NULL
```
In this example, each node has a prev pointer pointing to the previous node and a next pointer
pointing to the next node. The list starts with a NULL prev pointer and ends with a NULL next
pointer.
(d) Define Garbage Collection.

**Garbage Collection:**
Garbage collection is a process in computer science and programming languages where the
system automatically identifies and reclaims memory occupied by objects that are no longer in
use or reachable by the program. The primary goal of garbage collection is to manage memory
automatically, preventing memory leaks and reducing the burden on programmers to explicitly
deallocate memory.
Here are key concepts related to garbage collection:
1. **Automatic Memory Management:**

- Garbage collection automates the process of memory management by identifying and
reclaiming memory that is no longer needed or referenced by the program.
2. **Memory Leak Prevention:**

- One of the primary benefits of garbage collection is the prevention of memory leaks. Memory
leaks occur when a program allocates memory for objects but fails to release or deallocate that
memory when it is no longer needed. Garbage collection helps in identifying and reclaiming such
unreferenced memory.
3. **Reachability Analysis:**
- Garbage collectors use reachability analysis to determine which objects in the memory are
accessible and can be reached from the root of the application. Objects that cannot be reached
are considered garbage.
4. **Mark-and-Sweep Algorithm:**
- The mark-and-sweep algorithm is a common technique used in garbage collection. It involves
two main phases: marking and sweeping. During the marking phase, the collector marks all
reachable objects. In the sweeping phase, it reclaims memory from unmarked (garbage) objects.
5. **Generational Garbage Collection:**

- Many garbage collectors use generational collection strategies. Objects are divided into
different generations based on their age. Young objects are collected more frequently, while older
objects are collected less often. This strategy takes advantage of the observation that many
objects become garbage shortly after they are created.
6. **Reference Counting:**
- Reference counting is another approach to garbage collection, where each object keeps track
of the number of references pointing to it. When the reference count drops to zero, the object is
considered garbage. However, reference counting has limitations and may not handle circular
references well.
7. **Automatic Heap Management:**

- Garbage collection is typically associated with automatic heap management, where memory
for objects is allocated on the heap, and the garbage collector is responsible for reclaiming
unused memory.
Garbage collection simplifies memory management for developers, reduces the risk of memory-
related bugs, and improves the overall reliability and efficiency of programs. Different
programming languages and runtime environments implement garbage collection mechanisms
tailored to their specific requirements and constraints.
2. Define linear linked list. Write down the steps of inserting an element into a linked list with
example.
**Linear Linked List:**
A linear linked list is a data structure where elements, known as nodes, are connected in a linear
sequence. Each node in the list contains data and a reference (or link) to the next node in the
sequence. The last node typically points to a null reference, indicating the end of the list.
**Steps of Inserting an Element into a Linear Linked List:**
Inserting an element into a linear linked list involves creating a new node with the desired data
and updating the links to incorporate the new node into the list. Below are the steps:
1. **Create a New Node:**

- Create a new node with the data to be inserted.
2. **Set the Data of the New Node:**

- Set the data field of the new node with the value to be inserted.
3. **Update the Pointers:**

- Adjust the pointers of the existing nodes to include the new node.
- Set the new node's next pointer to point to the node that the previous node was pointing to.
4. **Update the Previous Node's Next Pointer:**

- Set the next pointer of the previous node to point to the new node.
**Example:**
Let's say we have a linear linked list: 10 -> 20 -> 30 -> NULL, and we want to insert the value 25
between nodes 20 and 30.
1. **Initial List:**
```plaintext
10 -> 20 -> 30 -> NULL
```
2. **Create a New Node with Data 25:**
```plaintext
newNode (25, NULL)
```
3. **Update Pointers:**
```plaintext
10 -> 20 -> 30 -> NULL
^
|
newNode
```
4. **Update Previous Node's Next Pointer:**

```plaintext
10 -> 20 -> 25 -> 30 -> NULL
```
Now, the value 25 has been successfully inserted between nodes 20 and 30 in the linear linked list.
In summary, inserting an element into a linear linked list involves creating a new node, updating
pointers to include the new node, and adjusting the links of the previous node and the new node.
(b) Define doubly linked list. Write down the steps of deleting an element from a linear linked list
with example.
**Doubly Linked List:**
A doubly linked list is a data structure in which elements, known as nodes, are connected in a
linear sequence, and each node contains data and references (or links) to both the next and
previous nodes in the sequence. This bidirectional connection allows for easy traversal in both
forward and backward directions.
**Steps of Deleting an Element from a Doubly Linked List:**
Deleting an element from a doubly linked list involves updating the pointers of the surrounding
nodes to exclude the node to be deleted. Below are the steps:
1. **Identify the Node to Be Deleted:**

- Traverse the list to find the node containing the data to be deleted.
2. **Update the Previous Node's Next Pointer:**

- Set the next pointer of the previous node to skip the node to be deleted.
3. **Update the Next Node's Previous Pointer:**

- Set the previous pointer of the next node to skip the node to be deleted.
4. **Free the Memory of the Deleted Node:**

- Release the memory allocated for the node to be deleted.
**Example:**
Let's say we have a doubly linked list: NULL <- 10 <-> 20 <-> 30 <-> NULL, and we want to
delete the node containing the value 20.
```plaintext
NULL <- 10 <-> 20 <-> 30 <-> NULL
```
2. **Identify the Node to Be Deleted:**

- Traverse the list to find the node containing the value 20.
3. **Update Pointers:**
- Set the next pointer of the previous node (containing 10) to skip the node containing 20.
- Set the previous pointer of the next node (containing 30) to skip the node containing 20.
```plaintext
NULL <- 10 <----> 30 <-> NULL
```
4. **Free the Memory of the Deleted Node:**

- Release the memory allocated for the node containing 20.
Now, the node containing the value 20 has been successfully deleted from the doubly linked list.
The list is now: NULL <- 10 <-> 30 <-> NULL.
In summary, deleting an element from a doubly linked list involves updating the pointers of the
surrounding nodes to exclude the node to be deleted and releasing the memory of the deleted
node. The bidirectional links in a doubly linked list facilitate this process.
(c) Write the definition of header linked list with example.
**Header Linked List:**
A header linked list is a type of linked list that includes a special node called the header node at
the beginning of the list. The header node does not contain actual data; instead, it serves as a
placeholder or a sentinel for the list. The first actual node in the list follows the header node.
**Characteristics of Header Linked List:**

- The header node simplifies the implementation of certain operations.
- The header node does not store meaningful data; its primary purpose is to streamline the code.
**Example:**
Let's create a header linked list with values 10, 20, and 30:
```plaintext
Header Node (head) -> | Next | --> Node 1 -> | 10 | --> Node 2 -> | 20 | --> Node 3 -> | 30 | -->
NULL
```
In this example:
- The header node (head) does not store any actual data.
- The header node contains a next pointer pointing to the first actual node in the list (Node 1).
- Node 1 contains the value 10 and a next pointer pointing to Node 2.
- Node 2 contains the value 20 and a next pointer pointing to Node 3.
- Node 3 contains the value 30, and its next pointer is NULL, indicating the end of the list.
The header linked list simplifies operations like insertion and deletion because the header node
always exists, making the code more uniform and avoiding special cases for an empty list.
(d) What are garbage collection, overflow and underflow?

**Garbage Collection:**
- **Definition:** Garbage collection is a process in computer science and programming
languages where the system automatically identifies and reclaims memory occupied by objects
that are no longer in use or reachable by the program.
- **Purpose:** The primary goal is to manage memory automatically, preventing memory leaks
and reducing the burden on programmers to explicitly deallocate memory.
- **Example:** In a garbage-collected environment, when an object is no longer referenced by
the program, the garbage collector identifies it as garbage and frees up the associated memory.
**Overflow:**
- **Definition:** Overflow occurs when a calculation produces a result that exceeds the capacity
or range of the storage location where it is stored.
- **Causes:** Typically occurs in fixed-size data types (e.g., integers) when the result of an
operation cannot fit within the allocated storage.
- **Example:** In a 8-bit signed integer, trying to represent a value greater than 127 (maximum
value) or less than -128 (minimum value) would result in overflow.
**Underflow:**
- **Definition:** Underflow occurs when a calculation produces a result that is smaller (in
magnitude) than the smallest representable value for the data type.
- **Causes:** Similar to overflow, underflow often occurs in fixed-size data types when the result
cannot be represented within the allocated storage.
- **Example:** In a 8-bit signed integer, trying to represent a value smaller than -128 (minimum
value) would result in underflow.
In summary:
- **Garbage collection** is related to memory management and involves reclaiming memory that
is no longer needed.
- **Overflow** occurs when a calculation produces a result too large to be represented within the
allocated storage.
- **Underflow** occurs when a calculation produces a result smaller than the smallest
representable value for the data type.
3. (a) Define linear list. Explain the process of inserting an element in a linear linked list.
**Linear List:**
A linear list, also known as a sequence or a one-dimensional array, is a data structure that stores
elements in a linear order, meaning that elements are arranged sequentially. Each element in a
linear list has a unique position or index. Linear lists are fundamental data structures and can be
implemented using arrays or linked lists.
**Process of Inserting an Element in a Linear Linked List:**
Inserting an element in a linear linked list involves adding a new node with the desired data at a
specified position in the list. Here are the steps for inserting an element in a linear linked list:
1. **Create a New Node:**

- Create a new node that will store the data of the element to be inserted.
2. **Set the Data of the New Node:**

- Assign the desired data value to the data field of the new node.
3. **Adjust Pointers to Include the New Node:**

- Identify the position in the linked list where the new node should be inserted. This may
involve traversing the list until the desired position is reached.
- Update the next pointer of the node before the insertion point to point to the new node.
- Update the next pointer of the new node to point to the node that originally followed the
insertion point.
4. **Special Cases:**
- If inserting at the beginning of the list, update the head (or start) pointer to point to the new
node.
- If inserting at the end of the list, ensure that the next pointer of the last node points to the new
node, and set the next pointer of the new node to NULL.
**Example:**
Let's consider a linear linked list: \( \text{10} \rightarrow \text{20} \rightarrow \text{30} \
rightarrow \text{40} \rightarrow \text{NULL} \). Now, we want to insert the value \( \text{25} \)
after the node with the value \( \text{20} \).
```plaintext
10 -> 20 -> 30 -> 40 -> NULL
```
2. **Create a New Node with Data 25:**

```plaintext
newNode (25, NULL)
```
3. **Adjust Pointers:**
```plaintext
10 -> 20 -> 25 -> 30 -> 40 -> NULL
```
Now, the value 25 has been successfully inserted after the node with the value 20 in the linear
linked list.
(b) Define doubly linked list. Mention the application of linked list.
**Doubly Linked List:**
A doubly linked list is a type of linked list in which each node contains data and two pointers: one
pointing to the next node in the sequence (next pointer) and another pointing to the previous
node in the sequence (prev pointer). This bidirectional connection allows for easy traversal in
both forward and backward directions.
**Characteristics of Doubly Linked List:**

- Each node contains data, a next pointer, and a prev pointer.
- The first node's prev pointer is typically NULL, indicating the start of the list.
- The last node's next pointer is typically NULL, indicating the end of the list.
- Enables efficient traversal in both forward and backward directions.
**Applications of Linked Lists:**
1. **Dynamic Memory Allocation:**

- Linked lists are suitable for dynamic memory allocation where the size of the data structure
can change during program execution.
2. **Implementing Stacks and Queues:**

- Linked lists can be used to implement stack and queue data structures, where elements are
added or removed from one end.
3. **Undo Functionality in Applications:**

- Linked lists can be used to implement undo functionality in applications, where each state
change is stored in a node.
4. **Symbol Table Implementation:**

- In compilers, linked lists can be used to implement symbol tables, where identifiers and their
attributes are stored.
5. **File Systems:**
- Doubly linked lists are often used to implement file systems, where each node represents a file
or a directory, and the prev and next pointers facilitate navigation.
6. **Navigation Systems:**
- In navigation systems, linked lists can be used to represent roads, with nodes representing
intersections and pointers indicating connectivity.
7. **Dynamic Graphs:**
- Linked lists are used to represent dynamic graphs, where nodes represent vertices and edges
are represented by pointers.
8. **Task Scheduling:**
- Linked lists can be used to manage task scheduling in operating systems, where each node
represents a task and pointers represent the order of execution.
9. **Polynomial Representation:**
- Linked lists can be used to represent polynomials in algebraic expressions, where each node
represents a term.
Linked lists are versatile data structures that find applications in various domains due to their
dynamic nature and ease of manipulation. The choice between singly and doubly linked lists
depends on specific requirements and the type of operations needed in a particular application.
Stack Queue ,Recursion
(c) Suppose STACK is allocated N=6 memory cells and initially STACK is empty, or, in other
words TOP=0. Find the output of the following module.
1. Set AAA: 2 and BBB: 5
2. call PUSH (STACK, AAA) PUSH (STACK, 4) call call PUSH (STACK, BBB+2) * 12 4 3. 6 call
PUSH (STACK, 9) call PUSH (STACK, AAA+BBB) Repeat while TOP 10 call POP (STACK,
ITEM) write: ITEM [End of loop] 4. Return.
Let's go through the given module step by step:
1. **Set AAA: 2 and BBB: 5**
This step initializes two variables AAA and BBB.
- AAA = 2
- BBB = 5
2. **PUSH Operations:**
- `PUSH(STACK, AAA)` pushes the value of AAA (2) onto the stack.
- `PUSH(STACK, 4)` pushes the value 4 onto the stack.
- `PUSH(STACK, BBB+2)` pushes the value of BBB+2 (5+2 = 7) onto the stack.
- `PUSH(STACK, AAA+BBB)` pushes the value of AAA+BBB (2+5 = 7) onto the stack.
At this point, the stack looks like: [2, 4, 7, 12, 4, 3, 6, 9, 7]
3. **POP Operations in a Loop:**
The loop continues until TOP is less than 10 (initially, TOP=0).
- First iteration:
- `POP(STACK, ITEM)` removes the top element (9) from the stack. The stack becomes: [2, 4,
7, 12, 4, 3, 6, 7]
- Output: ITEM (9)
- Second iteration:
- `POP(STACK, ITEM)` removes the top element (6) from the stack. The stack becomes: [2, 4,
7, 12, 4, 3, 7]
- Output: ITEM (6)
- Subsequent iterations:
- Continue popping elements until TOP is less than 10.
4. **Return:**
The module returns.
**Final Output:**
```
ITEM: 9
ITEM: 6
[End of loop]
```
The output consists of the items popped from the stack during the loop, which are 9 and 6. The
loop stops when the condition (TOP < 10) is no longer satisfied.
(d) Let a and b denote positive integers. Suppose Q is defined recursively as follows: Q(a,b)={(a-
bb)+1 Find the value of (i) Q (2, 3) ifa<b if ba (ii) Q (14,3)
.(a) What do you mean by stack and queue? Write down an algorithm which pushes an item on
to a stack
**Stack:**
A stack is a data structure that follows the Last In, First Out (LIFO) principle. In a stack,
elements are added and removed from the same end, known as the top. The operations on a stack
are:
- **Push:** Adds an element to the top of the stack.

- **Pop:** Removes the element from the top of the stack.
- **Peek or Top:** Returns the element at the top without removing it.
- **isEmpty:** Checks if the stack is empty.
**Queue:**
A queue is a data structure that follows the First In, First Out (FIFO) principle. In a queue,
elements are added at the rear (enqueue) and removed from the front (dequeue). The operations
on a queue are:
- **Enqueue:** Adds an element to the rear of the queue.

- **Dequeue:** Removes the element from the front of the queue.
- **Front:** Returns the element at the front without removing it.
- **isEmpty:** Checks if the queue is empty.
**Algorithm to Push an Item onto a Stack:**
```plaintext
Algorithm: PUSH(stack, item)
Input: Stack (array-based or linked list-based), item to be pushed
1. If the stack is full (for an array-based implementation), return an error.

2. Increment the top pointer (index) to point to the next available position.
3. Set stack[top] = item.
4. Return success.
```
**Explanation:**
- In a stack, the `PUSH` algorithm adds an item to the top of the stack.
- It first checks if the stack is full (for an array-based implementation).
- If the stack is not full, it increments the top pointer to point to the next available position.
- The item is then placed at the updated top position in the stack.
This algorithm assumes that you have a basic understanding of stack implementation, either
using an array or a linked list. The stack must have a maximum size (for array-based
implementation) to check for overflow.
4. (a) Define Stack and Queue. What is the main difference between them?
**Stack:**
A stack is a linear data structure that follows the Last In, First Out (LIFO) principle. In a stack,
are:

**Queue:**
A queue is a linear data structure that follows the First In, First Out (FIFO) principle. In a
queue, elements are added at the rear (enqueue) and removed from the front (dequeue). The
operations on a queue are:

**Main Difference:**
The main difference between a stack and a queue lies in the order in which elements are added
and removed:
- **Stack (LIFO):**
- Elements are added and removed from the same end (top).
- The last element added is the first one to be removed.
- **Queue (FIFO):**
- Elements are added at one end (rear) and removed from the other end (front).
- The first element added is the first one to be removed.
In summary, a stack follows the Last In, First Out (LIFO) principle, while a queue follows the
First In, First Out (FIFO) principle. The choice between using a stack or a queue depends on the
specific requirements of the application or problem being solved.
(c) Write the Quick Sort algorithm.
Sure, here is a simple implementation of the Quick Sort algorithm in Python:
```python
def quick_sort(arr):
if len(arr) <= 1:
return arr
else:
pivot = arr[0]
less = [x for x in arr[1:] if x <= pivot]
greater = [x for x in arr[1:] if x > pivot]
return quick_sort(less) + [pivot] + quick_sort(greater)
# Example usage:
my_array = [3, 1, 4, 1, 5, 9, 2, 6, 5, 3, 5]
sorted_array = quick_sort(my_array)
print("Original array:", my_array)
print("Sorted array:", sorted_array)
```
This implementation defines a function `quick_sort` that takes an array as input and recursively
applies the Quick Sort algorithm. The pivot element is chosen as the first element of the array,
and elements are partitioned into two sub-arrays: one with elements less than or equal to the
pivot and the other with elements greater than the pivot. The process is repeated on the sub-
arrays until the base case of an empty or single-element array is reached. The sorted sub-arrays
are then concatenated to produce the final sorted array.
Please note that this is a basic implementation for educational purposes. In practice,
optimizations and additional considerations (e.g., choosing a better pivot strategy) may be
applied for improved performance.
Another: QuickSort is a popular sorting algorithm that follows the divide-and-conquer

paradigm. The basic idea is to partition the array into two sub-arrays, sort each sub-array
recursively, and then combine them to produce a sorted array. Here's a simple implementation of
the QuickSort algorithm in Python:
```python
def quicksort(arr):
if len(arr) <= 1:
return arr
pivot = arr[len(arr) // 2]
left = [x for x in arr if x < pivot]
middle = [x for x in arr if x == pivot]
right = [x for x in arr if x > pivot]
return quicksort(left) + middle + quicksort(right)
# Example usage:
my_array = [3, 6, 8, 10, 1, 2, 1]
sorted_array = quicksort(my_array)
print(sorted_array)
```
This implementation uses list comprehensions to create three sub-arrays: `left`, `middle`, and
`right`. The `left` array contains elements smaller than the pivot, the `middle` array contains
elements equal to the pivot, and the `right` array contains elements greater than the pivot. The
`quicksort` function is then called recursively on the `left` and `right` sub-arrays. Finally, the
sorted sub-arrays are concatenated to produce the sorted array.
It's important to note that QuickSort has an average time complexity of O(n log n), making it
efficient for large datasets. However, in the worst case (unlucky choice of pivot), it can degrade to
O(n^2). Various optimizations can be applied to improve its performance and handle edge cases.
d) Write a recursive algorithm for the Tower of Hanoi problem.
Certainly! Here's a recursive algorithm for the Tower of Hanoi problem:
```python
def tower_of_hanoi(n, source_rod, target_rod, auxiliary_rod):
if n == 1:
print(f"Move disk 1 from {source_rod} to {target_rod}")
return
tower_of_hanoi(n - 1, source_rod, auxiliary_rod, target_rod)
print(f"Move disk {n} from {source_rod} to {target_rod}")
tower_of_hanoi(n - 1, auxiliary_rod, target_rod, source_rod)
# Example usage:
number_of_disks = 3
tower_of_hanoi(number_of_disks, 'A', 'C', 'B')
```
In this Python implementation:

- `n` is the number of disks.
- `source_rod` is the rod from which the disks need to be moved.
- `target_rod` is the rod to which the disks need to be moved.
- àuxiliary_rod` is the rod used as an auxiliary for moving the disks.
The function `tower_of_hanoi` recursively solves the Tower of Hanoi problem by moving `n`
disks from the `source_rod` to the `target_rod` using the àuxiliary_rod` as an intermediate rod.
It prints the sequence of moves required to solve the problem.
You can adjust the `number_of_disks` variable to specify the number of disks in the Tower of
Hanoi problem. When you run the program, it will print the sequence of moves needed to solve
the problem.
4. (a) Define stack. Write down the algorithm for PLUSH and POP operation.
**Stack:**
include:

**Algorithm for PUSH Operation:**

```plaintext
Algorithm: PUSH(stack, item)
Input: Stack (array-based or linked list-based), item to be pushed
1. If the stack is full (for an array-based implementation), return an error.

2. Increment the top pointer (index) to point to the next available position.
3. Set stack[top] = item.
4. Return success.
```
**Algorithm for POP Operation:**
```plaintext
Algorithm: POP(stack, item)
Input: Stack (array-based or linked list-based)
1. If the stack is empty, return an error.

2. Set item = stack[top].
3. Decrement the top pointer (index) to the previous position.
4. Return item.
```
These algorithms assume the existence of a stack implemented either using an array or a linked
list. The PUSH operation adds an item to the top of the stack, while the POP operation removes
the top item from the stack and returns it. The implementations may need to handle cases such as
stack overflow (for array-based implementations) and stack underflow (for both array-based and
linked list-based implementations).
(d) Show the tree diagram of recursive solution to Tower of Hanoi problem for n=3.
Certainly! The Tower of Hanoi problem with \(n = 3\) can be illustrated using a binary tree
structure, where each node represents a move in the sequence of steps. Here's a simplified tree
diagram for the recursive solution to the Tower of Hanoi problem with \(n = 3\):
```
|1|
/|\
/ | \
/ | \
/ | \
/ | \
/ | \
|2| |3| |4|
/|\ /\ /|\
||| ||| ||||
```
In this diagram:
- Each number represents a move in the sequence.
- The numbers on the left side represent the steps involving the source rod.
- The numbers in the middle represent the steps involving the auxiliary rod.
- The numbers on the right side represent the steps involving the target rod.
For \(n = 3\), the Tower of Hanoi problem requires a total of 7 moves. Each level in the tree
corresponds to a recursive call, and the nodes within each level represent individual moves.
Here's the breakdown of the moves:

1. Move disk 1 from source to target
2. Move disk 2 from source to auxiliary
3. Move disk 1 from target to auxiliary
5. Move disk 1 from auxiliary to source
6. Move disk 2 from auxiliary to target
This tree structure demonstrates the recursive nature of the Tower of Hanoi solution for \(n = 3\).
4. (a) Define stack. Mention the basic operation in stack with example.
**Stack:**
include:

**Basic Operations in Stack:**
1. **Push Operation:**
- Adds an element to the top of the stack.
- The new element becomes the top of the stack.
- Example:
```python
stack = []
stack.append(10) # Push 10 to the stack
stack.append(20) # Push 20 to the stack
```
- After the push operations, the stack becomes `[10, 20]`, where 20 is at the top.
2. **Pop Operation:**
- Removes the element from the top of the stack.
- The element removed is the one most recently added.
- Example:
```python
stack = [10, 20]
item = stack.pop() # Pop the top element
```
- After the pop operation, the stack becomes `[10]`, and ìtem` is assigned the value `20`.
3. **Peek or Top Operation:**

- Returns the element at the top of the stack without removing it.
- Example:
```python
stack = [10, 20]
top_element = stack[-1] # Peek the top element
```
- After the peek operation, the stack remains `[10, 20]`, and `top_element` is assigned the value
`20`.
4. **isEmpty Operation:**
- Checks if the stack is empty.
- Example:
```python
stack = []
is_empty = len(stack) == 0 # Check if the stack is empty
```
- After the check, ìs_empty` is `True` since the stack is empty.
These basic operations make stacks useful for various applications, including managing function
calls in recursion, parsing expressions, and undo mechanisms in software applications.
(c) What are the basic distinction between stack and queue?
**Stack and Queue: Basic Distinctions:**
1. **Order of Elements:**
- **Stack (LIFO):** Last In, First Out. The last element added is the first one to be removed.
- **Queue (FIFO):** First In, First Out. The first element added is the first one to be removed.
2. **Access Points:**
- **Stack:**
- Elements are added and removed from the same end, known as the top.
- Access is only allowed at the top.
- **Queue:**
- Elements are added at one end (rear) and removed from the other end (front).
- Access is allowed at both the front and rear.
3. **Operations:**
- **Stack:**
- **Push:** Adds an element to the top.
- **Pop:** Removes the element from the top.
- **Peek:** Returns the element at the top without removing it.
- **Queue:**
- **Enqueue:** Adds an element to the rear.
- **Dequeue:** Removes the element from the front.
4. **Real-world Analogy:**
- **Stack:**
- Analogous to a stack of plates. You add a plate to the top and remove from the top.
- **Queue:**
- Analogous to a queue of people waiting in line. The first person in line is served first.
5. **Applications:**
- **Stack:**
- Used in function calls and recursion.
- Undo mechanisms in software.
- Expression evaluation.
- **Queue:**
- Task scheduling.
- Print job queues.
- Breadth-first search algorithms.
6. **Data Movement:**
- **Stack:**
- Data moves in and out from one end (top).
- **Queue:**
- Data enters from one end (rear) and exits from the other end (front).
7. **Implementation:**
- **Stack:**
- Can be implemented using arrays or linked lists.
- **Queue:**
- Can be implemented using arrays or linked lists.
Understanding these distinctions helps in choosing the appropriate data structure based on the
requirements of a particular algorithm or application. Both stacks and queues have their unique
use cases and are fundamental in computer science.
5. (a) Define Queue. Explain Enqueue operation with example.
**Queue:**
A queue is a linear data structure that follows the First In, First Out (FIFO) principle. In a
queue, elements are added at one end (rear) and removed from the other end (front). The
operations on a queue include:

**Enqueue Operation:**
The Enqueue operation involves adding an element to the rear of the queue. It is used to insert
new elements into the queue.
**Algorithm for Enqueue:**
```plaintext
Algorithm: ENQUEUE(queue, item)
Input: Queue (array-based or linked list-based), item to be enqueued
1. If the queue is full (for an array-based implementation), return an error.

2. Increment the rear pointer (index) to point to the next available position.
3. Set queue[rear] = item.
4. Return success.
```
**Example:**
Let's consider a simple example of enqueueing elements into a queue:
```python
queue = [] # An empty queue
item1 = 10
item2 = 20
# Enqueue operation
queue.append(item1) # Enqueue item1
queue.append(item2) # Enqueue item2
# After enqueue operations, the queue becomes [10, 20]

```
In this example:
- An empty queue is represented by the list `queue`.
- The àppend` method is used to enqueue items into the queue.
- After enqueue operations, the queue becomes `[10, 20]`, where 10 is at the front and 20 is at the
rear.
The enqueue operation adds elements to the rear of the queue, preserving the order in which they
were inserted.
(b) Define priority queue. Explain Dequeue operation with example.

**Priority Queue:**
A priority queue is an abstract data type that is similar to a regular queue or stack but with an
additional priority associated with each element. Elements with higher priority are served before
elements with lower priority, and elements with equal priority are served according to their order
of arrival. Priority queues are commonly used in scenarios where elements have different levels
of urgency or importance.
**Dequeue Operation in Priority Queue:**
The Dequeue operation in a priority queue involves removing the element with the highest
priority. Priority queues are designed to efficiently handle this operation by always serving the
element with the highest priority first.
**Algorithm for Dequeue:**
```plaintext
Algorithm: DEQUEUE(priority_queue)
Input: Priority queue (heap-based, array-based, or linked list-based)
1. If the priority queue is empty, return an error (underflow).

2. Extract the element with the highest priority from the priority queue.
3. Return the extracted element.
```
**Example:**
Let's consider a simple example of dequeueing elements from a priority queue:
```python
import heapq
priority_queue = [] # An empty priority queue
# Enqueue operation
heapq.heappush(priority_queue, (2, 'Task2')) # Priority 2
# Dequeue operation
highest_priority_task = heapq.heappop(priority_queue)
# After dequeue operation, highest_priority_task is (1, 'Task1')

```
In this example:
- A priority queue is represented using the list `priority_queue` with tuples where the first
element is the priority and the second element is the task.
- The `heappush` method is used to enqueue elements with priorities.
- The `heappop` method is used to dequeue the element with the highest priority.
- After the dequeue operation, `highest_priority_task` is `(1, 'Task1')`, which has the highest
priority in this case.
The dequeue operation efficiently retrieves the element with the highest priority, allowing
priority queues to be used in various applications such as task scheduling, Dijkstra's algorithm,
and Huffman coding.
Searching and Sorting

a) Write down binary search algorithm.
The binary search algorithm is an efficient algorithm for finding a target value within a sorted
array. It works by repeatedly dividing the search interval in half. Here's the binary search
algorithm in pseudocode:
```plaintext
Algorithm: BINARY_SEARCH(array, target)
Input: Sorted array, target value to search for
1. Set low to 0 and high to the length of the array minus 1.

2. While low is less than or equal to high:
a. Set mid to the floor of (low + high) / 2.
b. If array[mid] is equal to the target, return mid (target found).
c. If array[mid] is less than the target, set low to mid + 1.
d. If array[mid] is greater than the target, set high to mid - 1.
3. If the target is not found, return -1 (not present in the array).
```
**Example in Python:**
```python
def binary_search(array, target):
low, high = 0, len(array) - 1
while low <= high:

mid = (low + high) // 2
if array[mid] == target:
return mid # Target found
elif array[mid] < target:
low = mid + 1
else:
high = mid - 1
return -1 # Target not found
# Example usage:
sorted_array = [1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10]
target_value = 7
result = binary_search(sorted_array, target_value)
if result != -1:
print(f"Target {target_value} found at index {result}.")
else:
print(f"Target {target_value} not found in the array.")
```
This algorithm efficiently halves the search space in each iteration, making it a logarithmic time
complexity algorithm, O(log n), where n is the number of elements in the array. It is important to
note that the binary search algorithm assumes that the input array is sorted.
b) Using the bubble sort algorithm, find the number C of comparisons and the number D of
interchanges which alphabetize the n=6 letters in PEOPLE.
Bubble Sort is a simple sorting algorithm that repeatedly steps through the list, compares
adjacent elements, and swaps them if they are in the wrong order. The process is repeated until
the list is sorted. Let's apply the Bubble Sort algorithm to alphabetize the letters in the word
"PEOPLE" and count the number of comparisons (C) and interchanges (D).
**Word: PEOPLE**
1. Start with the initial word: PEPOLE
2. Pass 1:
- Compare P and E (no swap)
- Compare E and P (swap)
- Compare P and O (no swap)
- Compare O and P (swap)
- Compare P and L (swap)
- Compare L and E (swap)
After pass 1: EOPLPE
Number of comparisons (C1): 6

Number of interchanges (D1): 4
3. Pass 2:
- Compare E and O (no swap)
- Compare O and P (no swap)
- Compare P and L (swap)
- Compare L and P (swap)
- Compare P and E (swap)

4. Pass 3:
- Compare E and O (no swap)
- Compare O and P (no swap)
- Compare P and L (no swap)

The sorted word is "EOPLPE". The total number of comparisons (C) is C1 + C2 + C3 = 6 + 5 + 3

= 14, and the total number of interchanges (D) is D1 + D2 + D3 = 4 + 3 + 0 = 7.
Please note that Bubble Sort is not the most efficient sorting algorithm, especially for large
datasets, but it serves well for illustrating sorting concepts.
c) Why Quick sort is preferred over Merge sort for sorting arrays? Perform a partitioning of the
array [E, V, E, R, Y, E, Q, U, A, L, K, E, Y, S, T, O, P, S, I, TJ with standard quick sort
partitioning (taking the E at the left as the partitioning item and listen every swapping performed
in this partitioning).
Ans: QuickSort and MergeSort are both efficient sorting algorithms, each with its own strengths
and weaknesses. The choice between them depends on the specific requirements and
characteristics of the problem at hand.
**Advantages of QuickSort over MergeSort:**
1. **In-Place Sorting:**
- QuickSort is an in-place sorting algorithm, which means it doesn't require additional memory
for storing temporary arrays. This makes it more memory-efficient than MergeSort, which needs
additional space for merging.
2. **Cache Efficiency:**
- QuickSort exhibits better cache performance since it accesses contiguous memory locations.
This is advantageous in modern computer architectures where cache utilization is crucial for
performance.
3. **Average Case Time Complexity:**
- QuickSort has an average-case time complexity of O(n log n), which is often faster in practice
than MergeSort. The constant factors hidden in the big O notation are smaller for QuickSort.
4. **Random Pivot Selection:**

- QuickSort often uses a random pivot selection strategy, which helps avoid worst-case
scenarios and results in good average-case performance.
5. **Tail Recursion Elimination:**

- Some implementations of QuickSort (e.g., using the Hoare partition scheme) can eliminate tail
recursion, which may lead to better performance.
**QuickSort Partitioning Example:**
Let's perform the partitioning of the array [E, V, E, R, Y, E, Q, U, A, L, K, E, Y, S, T, O, P, S, I, T]

with the pivot element 'E' using the standard QuickSort partitioning:
Initial array: [E, V, E, R, Y, E, Q, U, A, L, K, E, Y, S, T, O, P, S, I, T]
1. **Pass 1:**
- Pivot: E
- Swapping: None (no element smaller than 'E' to its left)
Array after Pass 1: [E, V, E, R, Y, E, Q, U, A, L, K, E, Y, S, T, O, P, S, I, T]
The array is partitioned into elements less than or equal to 'E' on the left and elements greater
than 'E' on the right.
In each pass, the pivot is placed in its correct position, and elements smaller than the pivot are on
its left, while elements greater than the pivot are on its right.
QuickSort continues recursively on the left and right partitions until the entire array is sorted.
Note: QuickSort's efficiency can be influenced by the choice of pivot strategy, and various pivot
selection methods can be employed.
(b) What does it mean that a shorting algorithm is stable? "Radix sort can be slower and more
memory hungry than some other algorithms" - Do you agree or not justify your answer.
**Stability in Sorting Algorithms:**
A sorting algorithm is considered stable if it maintains the relative order of equal elements in the
sorted output as they were in the original input. In other words, if two elements have the same
key (value), and one appears before the other in the input, then their relative order should be
preserved in the sorted output.
For example, consider a list of students sorted first by their scores and then by their original
order. If the sorting algorithm is stable, students with the same score will still be ordered based
on their original positions in the list.
**Radix Sort and its Efficiency:**
Radix Sort is a non-comparative sorting algorithm that works by distributing elements into
buckets according to their individual digits or radix. It can be stable if the underlying bucket-
sorting algorithm used is stable.
**Efficiency of Radix Sort:**
The efficiency of Radix Sort depends on several factors, and it may not always be the most
efficient choice:
1. **Memory Usage:**
- Radix Sort can be memory-intensive, especially when dealing with large datasets or long keys.
The number of buckets required is proportional to the range of key values.
2. **Key Length:**
- The efficiency of Radix Sort is influenced by the length of the keys. Longer keys may require
more passes through the dataset, potentially affecting performance.
3. **Distribution of Key Values:**

- If the key values are uniformly distributed, Radix Sort can be more efficient. However, if there
are many duplicate or closely spaced key values, other algorithms might perform better.
4. **Comparison with Other Algorithms:**

- For smaller datasets or datasets with short keys, simpler algorithms like QuickSort or
MergeSort may outperform Radix Sort.
In summary, while Radix Sort has linear time complexity, its efficiency can be affected by factors
such as memory usage, key length, and the distribution of key values. It may not always be the
most practical choice, and the choice of a sorting algorithm depends on the specific
characteristics of the data being sorted.
(d) Write Linear Search algorithm and find out the complexity of it.
The Linear Search algorithm, also known as sequential search, is a simple searching algorithm
that iterates through each element in a list or array until it finds the target element or reaches the
end of the list. Here's the Linear Search algorithm:
```plaintext
Algorithm: LINEAR_SEARCH(array, target)
Input: Array or list to search, target value to find
1. For each element in the array:

a. If the current element is equal to the target, return the index.
2. If the target is not found in the array, return -1.
```
```python
def linear_search(arr, target):
for i in range(len(arr)):
if arr[i] == target:
return i # Target found at index i
# Example usage:
my_array = [4, 2, 8, 1, 7, 3, 5]
target_value = 7
result = linear_search(my_array, target_value)
if result != -1:
else:
```
**Complexity Analysis:**
The time complexity of Linear Search is O(n), where n is the number of elements in the array. In
the worst-case scenario, the algorithm may need to iterate through all elements in the array to
find the target element or determine its absence.
The best-case time complexity occurs when the target element is found in the first position,
resulting in O(1) time complexity. However, in terms of Big O notation, we typically express the
worst-case time complexity to provide an upper bound on the algorithm's performance.
Linear Search is simple and easy to understand, but it is not the most efficient algorithm for large
datasets. Other search algorithms, such as Binary Search for sorted arrays, offer better time
complexity for certain scenarios.
d) What are the correct intermediate steps of the following data set when it is being sorted with
the bubble sort? Data set-20,60,50,10,40,70,30
the list is sorted. Let's go through the intermediate steps of sorting the given dataset [20, 60, 50,
10, 40, 70, 30] using Bubble Sort:
**Initial State:** [20, 60, 50, 10, 40, 70, 30]
**Pass 1:**
1. Compare 20 and 60 (no swap)
2. Compare 60 and 50 (swap)
After Pass 1: [20, 50, 10, 40, 60, 30, 70]
**Pass 2:**
After Pass 2: [20, 10, 40, 50, 30, 60, 70]
**Pass 3:**
After Pass 3: [10, 20, 40, 30, 50, 60, 70]
**Pass 4:**
After Pass 4: [10, 20, 30, 40, 50, 60, 70]
**Pass 5:**
After Pass 5: [10, 20, 30, 40, 50, 60, 70]
Now, the dataset is sorted. The intermediate steps demonstrate how the algorithm compares and
swaps elements in each pass until the entire array is in ascending order.
3. (a) Write the Binary Search algorithm. What is the limitation of Binary Search algorithm?
**Binary Search Algorithm:**
Binary Search is an efficient searching algorithm that works on sorted arrays. It repeatedly
divides the search interval in half until the target element is found or the interval becomes empty.
Here's the Binary Search algorithm:
```plaintext
Algorithm: BINARY_SEARCH(array, target)
Input: Sorted array, target value to search for
1. Set low to 0 and high to the length of the array minus 1.

2. While low is less than or equal to high:
a. Set mid to the floor of (low + high) / 2.
b. If array[mid] is equal to the target, return mid (target found).
c. If array[mid] is less than the target, set low to mid + 1.
d. If array[mid] is greater than the target, set high to mid - 1.
3. If the target is not found, return -1 (not present in the array).
```
**Limitation of Binary Search:**
The primary limitation of Binary Search is that it requires the input array to be sorted. If the
array is not sorted, Binary Search cannot guarantee correct results. Additionally, there are some
specific limitations:
1. **Sorted Data Requirement:**

- Binary Search is designed to work on sorted arrays. If the array is unsorted, the algorithm
will not provide correct results.
2. **Additional Sorting Overhead:**

- If the input array is not sorted and needs to be sorted first, the overall time complexity can be
higher than other searching algorithms.
3. **Not Suitable for Linked Lists:**

- Binary Search is most efficient on arrays where random access is possible. For linked lists, the
lack of direct access to mid elements can make the algorithm less efficient.
4. **Limited to Static Data Structures:**

- Binary Search is more suitable for static data structures like arrays. In dynamic data
structures with frequent insertions and deletions, the overhead of maintaining sorted order can
be impractical.
5. **Not Always the Fastest:**

- While Binary Search has a time complexity of O(log n), it may not always be the fastest option
for small datasets or in scenarios where constant factors are significant.
Despite these limitations, Binary Search remains a powerful algorithm for searching in sorted
arrays and provides a logarithmic time complexity, making it efficient for large datasets.
7..(a) What is binary search tree? Draw a binary search tree for the following data: 5, 10, 20, 3,
2, 7, 11, 18, 17.
**Binary Search Tree (BST):**
A Binary Search Tree (BST) is a binary tree data structure where each node has at most two
children, referred to as the left child and the right child. The key property of a BST is that for
each node:
1. All nodes in its left subtree have values less than the node's value.
2. All nodes in its right subtree have values greater than the node's value.
This ordering property ensures efficient searching, insertion, and deletion operations.
**Binary Search Tree for Data: 5, 10, 20, 3, 2, 7, 11, 18, 17:**
Let's construct a Binary Search Tree for the given data:
1. Insert 5 (root).
2. Insert 10 (right child of 5).
4. Insert 3 (left child of 5).
The resulting Binary Search Tree:
```
5
/\
3 10
/\ \
2 7 20
/
18
/
17
```
In this BST, each node satisfies the property that values in the left subtree are less than the node's
value, and values in the right subtree are greater than the node's value. The BST provides
efficient searching capabilities, where searching for a value involves navigating down the tree
based on the ordering property.
(b) Perform the Radix sort on the following array: [345 456 123 678 657 982 281 342 765 906]
**Radix Sort:**
Radix Sort is a non-comparative sorting algorithm that works by distributing elements into
buckets according to their individual digits or radix. It processes the digits of numbers from the
least significant to the most significant, creating a stable sort based on each digit.
**Radix Sort on the Array [345, 456, 123, 678, 657, 982, 281, 342, 765, 906]:**
1. **Step 1 (Sort by Least Significant Digit):**
- **Pass 1: Sort by Ones Place**

- Bucket 0: 670 (none)
- Bucket 1: 281, 123
- Bucket 2: 342
- Bucket 3: 345
- Bucket 4: 456
- Bucket 5: 657
- Bucket 6: 765
- Bucket 7: (none)
- Bucket 8: 678, 982
- Bucket 9: 906
- Array after Pass 1: [670, 281, 123, 342, 345, 456, 657, 765, 678, 982, 906]
2. **Step 2 (Sort by Tens Place):**

- **Pass 2: Sort by Tens Place**
- Bucket 0: (none)
- Bucket 1: 123, 906
- Bucket 2: 281, 342
- Bucket 3: 345
- Bucket 4: 456
- Bucket 5: 657
- Bucket 6: 670
- Bucket 7: 765
- Bucket 8: 678
- Bucket 9: 982
- Array after Pass 2: [123, 906, 281, 342, 345, 456, 657, 670, 765, 678, 982]
3. **Step 3 (Sort by Hundreds Place):**
- **Pass 3: Sort by Hundreds Place**

- Bucket 0: 123
- Bucket 1: (none)
- Bucket 2: 281
- Bucket 3: 342, 345
- Bucket 4: 456
- Bucket 5: 657
- Bucket 6: 670
- Bucket 7: 765
- Bucket 8: 678
- Bucket 9: 906, 982
- Array after Pass 3: [123, 281, 342, 345, 456, 657, 670, 765, 678, 906, 982]
Now, the array is sorted using Radix Sort. The time complexity of Radix Sort is O(k * n), where n
is the number of elements and k is the maximum number of digits in the input numbers.
(c) Draw the sorting procedure of the following data for the insertion sort: 4, 3, 2, 10, 12, 1, 5, 6.
**Insertion Sort:**
Insertion Sort is a simple sorting algorithm that builds the final sorted array one item at a time.
It is much less efficient on large lists than more advanced algorithms such as quicksort, heapsort,
or merge sort. However, insertion sort provides several advantages, including its simplicity and
ease of implementation.
**Insertion Sort Procedure for Data: 4, 3, 2, 10, 12, 1, 5, 6:**
Let's go through the step-by-step procedure for sorting the given data using Insertion Sort:
1. **Initial State:** [4, 3, 2, 10, 12, 1, 5, 6]
2. **Pass 1:**
- Select 3 (second element) and compare it with 4.
- Swap 3 and 4.
- Array: [3, 4, 2, 10, 12, 1, 5, 6]
3. **Pass 2:**
- Select 2 (third element) and compare it with 4 and 3.
- Swap 2 with 3 and then with 4.
- Array: [2, 3, 4, 10, 12, 1, 5, 6]
4. **Pass 3:**
- Select 10 (fourth element) and compare it with 4, 3, and 2.
- No swaps needed.
- Array: [2, 3, 4, 10, 12, 1, 5, 6]
5. **Pass 4:**
- Select 12 (fifth element) and compare it with 10.
- No swaps needed.
- Array: [2, 3, 4, 10, 12, 1, 5, 6]
6. **Pass 5:**
- Select 1 (sixth element) and compare it with 12, 10, 4, 3, and 2.
- Swap 1 with 2, 3, and 4.
- Array: [1, 2, 3, 4, 10, 12, 5, 6]
7. **Pass 6:**
- Select 5 (seventh element) and compare it with 12 and 10.
- Swap 5 with 10 and 12.
- Array: [1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 10, 12, 6]
8. **Pass 7:**
- Select 6 (eighth element) and compare it with 12 and 10.
- Swap 6 with 10 and 12.
- Array: [1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 10, 12]
Now, the array is sorted using the Insertion Sort algorithm. Each pass involves selecting an
unsorted element and placing it in its correct position within the sorted portion of the array.
(d) What is merge sort? Draw the diagram that shows the complete merge sort process for the
following: unsorted data: 38, 27, 43, 3, 9, 82, 10.
**Merge Sort:**
Merge Sort is a divide-and-conquer algorithm that works by dividing the unsorted list into n
sublists, each containing one element, and then repeatedly merging sublists to produce new
sorted sublists until there is only one sublist remaining. The time complexity of Merge Sort is O(n
log n), making it efficient for large datasets.
**Merge Sort Process for Data: 38, 27, 43, 3, 9, 82, 10:**
Let's go through the steps of the Merge Sort algorithm for the given unsorted data:
1. **Initial State:** [38, 27, 43, 3, 9, 82, 10]
2. **Step 1: Divide (Recursive):**

- Divide the array into individual elements.
```
[38], [27], [43], [3], [9], [82], [10]
```
3. **Step 2: Merge (Recursive):**

- Merge pairs of adjacent sublists while maintaining sorted order.
```
[27, 38], [3, 43], [9, 82], [10]
```

```
[3, 27, 38, 43], [9, 10, 82]
```

```
[3, 9, 10, 27, 38, 43, 82]
```
Now, the array is sorted using the Merge Sort algorithm. The diagram below shows the recursive
steps of dividing and merging the sublists until the entire array is sorted:
```
[38, 27, 43, 3, 9, 82, 10]
|
---------------------
| |
[38, 27, 43, 3] [9, 82, 10]
| |
---------------- ----------------
| | | |
[38, 27] [43, 3] [9, 82] [10]
| | |
------------ ------------ ------------
| | | | | |
[38] [27] [43] [3] [9] [82] [10]
| | |
----------- -----------
| |
[27, 38] [3, 43]
| |
-------------- --------------
| | | |
[3, 27, 38, 43] [9, 10, 82]
| |
------------------ -----------------
| | | |
[3, 9, 10, 27, 38, 43, 82] [9, 10, 27, 38, 43, 82]
| |
[3, 9, 10, 27, 38, 43, 82]
```
The final sorted array is `[3, 9, 10, 27, 38, 43, 82]`.
another: **Merge Sort:**
Merge Sort is a divide-and-conquer sorting algorithm that works by dividing the input array into
two halves, recursively sorting each half, and then merging the sorted halves to produce a fully
sorted array. The process continues until the base case is reached, typically when the array has
one or zero elements.
**Merge Sort Procedure for Data: 38, 27, 43, 3, 9, 82, 10:**
Let's go through the step-by-step process of sorting the given unsorted data using Merge Sort:
1. **Initial State:** [38, 27, 43, 3, 9, 82, 10]
2. **Step 1: Divide**
- Split the array into two halves: [38, 27, 43] and [3, 9, 82, 10]
3. **Step 2: Recursively Sort**

- Recursively apply Merge Sort to each half.
**For the left half [38, 27, 43]:**

- Split into [38] and [27, 43]
- Recursively sort [27, 43] into [27, 43]
- Merge [38] and [27, 43] into [27, 38, 43]
**For the right half [3, 9, 82, 10]:**

- Split into [3, 9] and [82, 10]
- Merge [3, 9] and [10, 82] into [3, 9, 10, 82]
4. **Step 3: Merge**
- Merge the sorted halves [27, 38, 43] and [3, 9, 10, 82] into a single sorted array.
**Merging Process:**
- Compare elements: [27, 38, 43] and [3, 9, 10, 82]
- Merge into [3, 9, 10, 27, 38, 43, 82]
**Final Sorted Array:** [3, 9, 10, 27, 38, 43, 82]
**Merge Sort Diagram:**
```
[38, 27, 43, 3, 9, 82, 10]
/\
[38, 27, 43] [3, 9, 82, 10]
/ \ / \
[38] [27, 43] [3, 9] [82, 10]
\ / \
[27, 38, 43] [3, 9, 10, 82]
\ /
[3, 9, 10, 27, 38, 43, 82]
```
The diagram illustrates the recursive division, sorting, and merging steps of the Merge Sort
algorithm until the final sorted array is obtained. Each level represents a recursive call, and the
merging process combines the sorted subarrays into larger sorted arrays.
(d) Write linear search algorithm.

The Linear Search algorithm, also known as sequential search, is a simple searching algorithm
that iterates through each element in a list or array until it finds the target element or reaches the
end of the list. Here's the Linear Search algorithm:
```plaintext
Algorithm: LINEAR_SEARCH(array, target)
Input: Array or list to search, target value to find
1. For each element in the array:

a. If the current element is equal to the target, return the index.
2. If the target is not found in the array, return -1.
```
```python
def linear_search(arr, target):
for i in range(len(arr)):
if arr[i] == target:
return i # Target found at index i
# Example usage:
my_array = [4, 2, 8, 1, 7, 3, 5]
target_value = 7
result = linear_search(my_array, target_value)
if result != -1:
else:
```
**Complexity Analysis:**
The time complexity of Linear Search is O(n), where n is the number of elements in the array. In
the worst-case scenario, the algorithm may need to iterate through all elements in the array to
find the target element or determine its absence.
The best-case time complexity occurs when the target element is found in the first position,
resulting in O(1) time complexity. However, in terms of Big O notation, we typically express the
worst-case time complexity to provide an upper bound on the algorithm's performance.
Linear Search is simple and easy to understand, but it is not the most efficient algorithm for large
datasets. Other search algorithms, such as Binary Search for sorted arrays, offer better time
complexity for certain scenarios.
What are the correct intermediate steps of the following data set when it is being sorted with the
bubble sort? Data set-15,55,35,05,45
**Bubble Sort Steps for Data Set [15, 55, 35, 05, 45]:**
the entire list is sorted.
**Initial State:** [15, 55, 35, 05, 45]
**Pass 1:**
1. Compare 15 and 55 (no swap).
2. Compare 55 and 35 (swap).
After Pass 1: [15, 35, 05, 45, 55]
**Pass 2:**
After Pass 2: [15, 05, 35, 45, 55]
**Pass 3:**
After Pass 3: [05, 15, 35, 45, 55]
**Pass 4:**
After Pass 4: [05, 15, 35, 45, 55]
No further passes are needed because the array is now sorted. The correct intermediate steps of
the data set being sorted with Bubble Sort are as follows:
1. [15, 55, 35, 05, 45]

2. [15, 35, 05, 45, 55]
3. [15, 05, 35, 45, 55]
4. [05, 15, 35, 45, 55]
c) Write the Quick Sort algorithm.
Quick Sort is a divide-and-conquer sorting algorithm that works by selecting a 'pivot' element
from the array and partitioning the other elements into two sub-arrays according to whether
they are less than or greater than the pivot. The sub-arrays are then sorted recursively. Here is
the Quick Sort algorithm:
```plaintext
Algorithm: QUICK_SORT(array, low, high)
Input: Array to be sorted, indices low and high
1. If low < high:

a. Set pivot_index to the result of PARTITION(array, low, high).
b. Recursively call QUICK_SORT(array, low, pivot_index - 1).
c. Recursively call QUICK_SORT(array, pivot_index + 1, high).
Algorithm: PARTITION(array, low, high)

Input: Array, indices low and high
1. Set pivot to array[high] (choose the last element as the pivot).

2. Set i to low - 1.
3. For j from low to high - 1:
a. If array[j] is less than or equal to pivot:
i. Increment i.
ii. Swap array[i] and array[j].
4. Swap array[i + 1] and array[high] (place the pivot in its correct position).
5. Return i + 1 as the pivot index.
```
```python
def quick_sort(arr, low, high):
if low < high:
pivot_index = partition(arr, low, high)
quick_sort(arr, low, pivot_index - 1)
quick_sort(arr, pivot_index + 1, high)
def partition(arr, low, high):

pivot = arr[high]
i = low - 1
for j in range(low, high):

if arr[j] <= pivot:
i += 1
arr[i], arr[j] = arr[j], arr[i]
arr[i + 1], arr[high] = arr[high], arr[i + 1]

return i + 1
# Example usage:
my_array = [38, 27, 43, 3, 9, 82, 10]
quick_sort(my_array, 0, len(my_array) - 1)
print("Sorted Array:", my_array)
```
Quick Sort is known for its efficiency and is widely used in practice. The average and best-case
time complexity is O(n log n), where n is the number of elements in the array. However, in the
worst case, Quick Sort can have a time complexity of O(n^2), although this is rare in practice.
5. (a) Perform the Radix sort on the following array: [1256 5897 4523 1536 3246 6742 5566).
**Radix Sort on the Array [1256, 5897, 4523, 1536, 3246, 6742, 5566]:**
Radix Sort is a non-comparative sorting algorithm that sorts numbers by processing individual
digits. It works by distributing elements into buckets according to their individual digits or radix,
and then repeatedly collecting and redistributing the elements based on the next significant digit
until the array is fully sorted.
Here are the steps for performing Radix Sort on the given array:
1. **Step 1: Sort by Least Significant Digit (LSD):**

- Consider the rightmost (least significant) digit.
- Distribute the numbers into 10 buckets based on this digit.
- Collect the numbers from the buckets in order.
- Update the array.
**After Step 1:**

```
[1256, 5566, 6772, 1536, 3246, 6742, 5897]
```
2. **Step 2: Sort by the Next Significant Digit:**

- Move to the next significant digit.
- Update the array.
**After Step 2:**

```
[1256, 1536, 3246, 5566, 5897, 6742, 6772]
```
3. **Step 3: Sort by the Next Significant Digit:**

- Move to the next significant digit.
- Update the array.
**After Step 3:**

```
[1256, 1536, 3246, 4523, 5566, 5897, 6742]
```
4. **Step 4: Sort by the Most Significant Digit (MSD):**

- Move to the leftmost (most significant) digit.
- Update the array.
**After Step 4:**

```
[1256, 1536, 3246, 4523, 5566, 5897, 6742]
```
The array is now fully sorted using Radix Sort. Each pass involves distributing the numbers into
buckets based on the current digit and then collecting them in order. The process is repeated for
each significant digit until the array is sorted.
b) Suppose an array is: [6 8 1 4 5 3 7 2] and your goal is to put it into ascending order using
Selection sort.
**Selection Sort on the Array [6, 8, 1, 4, 5, 3, 7, 2]:**
Selection Sort is a simple sorting algorithm that works by repeatedly finding the minimum
element from the unsorted part of the array and putting it at the beginning. Here are the steps
for performing Selection Sort on the given array:
1. **Pass 1:**
- Find the minimum element in the entire array and swap it with the first element.
- Array after Pass 1: `[1, 8, 6, 4, 5, 3, 7, 2]`
2. **Pass 2:**
- Find the minimum element in the unsorted part (from index 1 onwards) and swap it with the
second element.
- Array after Pass 2: `[1, 2, 6, 4, 5, 3, 7, 8]`
3. **Pass 3:**
third element.
- Array after Pass 3: `[1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8]`
4. **Pass 4:**
fourth element.
- Array after Pass 4: `[1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8]` (no change)
5. **Pass 5:**
fifth element.
6. **Pass 6:**
sixth element.
7. **Pass 7:**
seventh element.
The array is now fully sorted in ascending order using Selection Sort. The algorithm repeatedly
selects the minimum element and puts it in its correct position in the sorted part of the array.
(c) Let DATA be the following elements: DATA: 30, 33, 11, 22, 60, 55, 40, 44, 99, 88, 80, 77, 66
Apply the binary search algorithm to search DATA ITEM= 40 and ITEM =85.
Certainly! Binary search is an efficient algorithm for finding an item in a sorted list. However,
the provided data set is not sorted. Before applying binary search, let's sort the data.
Sorted DATA: `11, 22, 30, 33, 40, 44, 55, 60, 66, 77, 80, 88, 99`
Now, we can apply the binary search algorithm to search for items in the sorted list.
1. **Search for ITEM = 40:**

- Start with the entire sorted list: `[11, 22, 30, 33, 40, 44, 55, 60, 66, 77, 80, 88, 99]`
- The middle element is 55, which is greater than 40.
- Discard the right half of the list.
- New list: `[11, 22, 30, 33, 40, 44]`
- The middle element is 33, which is less than 40.
- Discard the left half of the remaining list.
- New list: `[40, 44]`
- The middle element is 44, which is equal to 40. Item found at index 4.
2. **Search for ITEM = 85:**

- Start with the entire sorted list: `[11, 22, 30, 33, 40, 44, 55, 60, 66, 77, 80, 88, 99]`
- Discard the left half of the list.
- New list: `[66, 77, 80, 88, 99]`
- New list: `[88, 99]`
- The middle element is 99, which is greater than 85.
- Discard the right half of the remaining list.
- New list: `[88]`
- New list: `[]`
- The list is now empty. Item not found.
Therefore, in the sorted data, ITEM = 40 is found at index 4, and ITEM = 85 is not found.
7. What is binary search tree? Construct a binary search tree by inserting the following sequence
of numbers
: 10, 12, 5, 4, 20, 8, 7, 15, 13.
A Binary Search Tree (BST) is a binary tree data structure in which each node has at most two
child nodes, referred to as the left child and the right child. The key (or value) of nodes in the left
subtree is less than the key of the node, and the key of nodes in the right subtree is greater than
the key of the node. This property ensures that a binary search tree allows for efficient search,
insertion, and deletion of elements.
Let's construct a binary search tree by inserting the following sequence of numbers: 10, 12, 5, 4,
20, 8, 7, 15, 13.
1. **Insert 10 (Root):**
```
10
```
2. **Insert 12 (Right Child of 10):**

```
10
\
12
```
3. **Insert 5 (Left Child of 10):**

```
10
/ \
5 12
```

```
10
/ \
5 12
/
4
```

```
10
/ \
5 12
/ \
4 20
```

```
10
/ \
5 12
/\ \
4 8 20
```

```
10
/ \
5 12
/\ \
4 8 20
\
7
```
```
10
/ \
5 12
/\ \
4 8 20
\ /
7 15
```

```
10
/ \
5 12
/\ \
4 8 20
\ /
7 15
/
13
```
This binary search tree now satisfies the binary search tree property, where the left subtree of a
node contains elements less than the node, and the right subtree contains elements greater than
the node.
a) Define data structure. Shortly explain data structure operations.
**Data Structure:**
A data structure is a way of organizing and storing data to perform operations efficiently. It
defines the relationship between the data and the operations that can be performed on the data.
Data structures are essential in computer science and programming for managing and
manipulating data effectively.
**Data Structure Operations:**
1. **Insertion:**
- Adding a new element to the data structure.
2. **Deletion:**
- Removing an element from the data structure.
3. **Traversal:**
- Visiting and processing all elements in a data structure in a specific order.
4. **Search:**
- Finding the location or presence of a particular element in the data structure.
5. **Update:**
- Modifying the value of an existing element in the data structure.
6. **Sorting:**
- Arranging the elements in a specific order (e.g., ascending or descending).
7. **Access:**
- Retrieving the value of an element in the data structure.
8. **Merging:**
- Combining two data structures into a single structure.
9. **Splitting:**
- Dividing a data structure into two or more separate structures.
10. **Initialization:**
- Setting up or creating an empty data structure.
11. **Size/Length:**
- Determining the number of elements in the data structure.
12. **Comparison:**
- Comparing two data structures or their elements.
13. **Copying:**
- Creating a duplicate or a copy of a data structure.
14. **Reversal:**
- Inverting the order of elements in a data structure.
15. **Selection:**
- Choosing a specific element from the data structure based on certain criteria.
These operations define the ways in which data can be manipulated and processed within a data
structure. The choice of a data structure and the efficiency of its operations depend on the
specific requirements and characteristics of the problem being solved.
(b) Define algorithms time-space tradeoff. Explain first pattern matching algorithm with
example.
**Time-Space Tradeoff:**
In computer science and algorithm design, the time-space tradeoff is a concept that refers to the
balance between the time complexity (execution time) and space complexity (memory usage) of
an algorithm. It involves making a decision to use more memory to achieve faster execution or
vice versa. In many cases, improving one aspect (time or space) may come at the expense of the
other.
For example, caching frequently used data can reduce the time complexity by avoiding repeated
computations, but it increases the space complexity due to the additional memory used for
caching.
**First Pattern Matching Algorithm: Brute Force**
The simplest and most straightforward pattern matching algorithm is the brute force or naive
algorithm. This algorithm compares each possible position in the text with the pattern until a
match is found or the end of the text is reached.
**Algorithm: Brute Force Pattern Matching**
1. Input: Text T, Pattern P.

2. Set N to the length of the text T.
3. Set M to the length of the pattern P.
4. Repeat for each position i from 0 to N - M:
a. Check if the substring of T starting at position i and of length M matches the pattern P.
b. If a match is found, return the position i.
5. If no match is found, return a special value (e.g., -1) to indicate that the pattern is not present
in the text.
**Example:**
Let's apply the brute force pattern matching algorithm to find the pattern "abc" in the text
"ababcababcabc".
1. Text: "ababcababcabc"
2. Pattern: "abc"
3. Length of Text (N): 12
4. Length of Pattern (M): 3
**Steps:**
- Check substring "aba" (position 0): No match.
- Check substring "bab" (position 1): No match.
- Check substring "abc" (position 2): Match found at position 2.
The algorithm returns the position 2, indicating that the pattern "abc" is found in the text
starting at position 2.
While the brute force algorithm is simple, its time complexity is O((N - M + 1) * M), making it
less efficient for large texts and patterns. Advanced algorithms like the Knuth-Morris-Pratt
algorithm and the Boyer-Moore algorithm provide more efficient solutions by exploiting patterns
in the data.
(c) Define floor and ceiling function with example.
**Floor Function:**
The floor function, denoted as ⌊x⌋, gives the largest integer that is less than or equal to x. In other
words, it rounds down a real number to the nearest integer.
Mathematically:
\[ \text{floor}(x) = \max \{ n \in \mathbb{Z} : n \leq x \} \]
**Example:**
\[ \text{floor}(5.7) = 5 \]
\[ \text{floor}(-3.2) = -4 \]
**Ceiling Function:**
The ceiling function, denoted as ⌈x⌉, gives the smallest integer that is greater than or equal to x.
In other words, it rounds up a real number to the nearest integer.
Mathematically:
\[ \text{ceiling}(x) = \min \{ n \in \mathbb{Z} : n \geq x \} \]
**Example:**
\[ \text{ceiling}(5.7) = 6 \]
\[ \text{ceiling}(-3.2) = -3 \]
**Explanation:**
- For the floor function, it's like finding the "floor" value of a decimal number, i.e., the value you
step down to.
- For the ceiling function, it's like finding the "ceiling" value of a decimal number, i.e., the value
you bump up to.
In summary, the floor function gives the largest integer less than or equal to a given number, and
the ceiling function gives the smallest integer greater than or equal to a given number.
2. (a) Find (i) DELETE ('AAABBB', 2, 2) and DELETE ("JOHN PAUL JONES, 6, 5)
(ii) REPLACE ('AAABBB', 'AA', 'BB') and REPLACE ('JOHN PAUI, JONES, PAUL, DAVID')
**(i) DELETE Operation:**
1. **DELETE('AAABBB', 2, 2):**
- Delete 2 characters starting from the 2nd position.
- Result: 'ABBB'
2. **DELETE("JOHN PAUL JONES", 6, 5):**
- Delete 5 characters starting from the 6th position.
- Result: 'JOHN JONES'
**(ii) REPLACE Operation:**
1. **REPLACE('AAABBB', 'AA', 'BB'):**

- Replace occurrences of 'AA' with 'BB'.
- Result: 'BBBBBB'
2. **REPLACE('JOHN PAUI, JONES, PAUL, DAVID'):**

- Replace 'PAUL' with 'DAVID'.
- Result: 'JOHN PAUI, JONES, DAVID, DAVID'
Please note that these operations modify the original strings according to the specified criteria.
(b) Consider the linear arrays X (-10:10),Y (1935:1985), Z(35) (i) Find the number of elements in each
array (ii) Suppose Base (Y)=400 and w=4 words per memory cell for Y. Find the address of Y[1942],
Y[1977] and Y[1988]
**(i) Number of Elements in Each Array:**
1. Array X: \((-10) - 10 + 1 = 21\) elements

2. Array Y: \(1985 - 1935 + 1 = 51\) elements
3. Array Z: \(35\) elements
**(ii) Address Calculation for Array Y:**
Given:
- Base(Y) = 400
- Word size (w) = 4 words per memory cell
1. **Address of Y[1942]:**
- \( \text{Address} = \text{Base}(Y) + (\text{Index} - \text{Lower Bound}) \times \text{Word
size} \)
- \( \text{Address} = 400 + (1942 - 1935) \times 4 = 400 + 7 \times 4 = 428 \)
2. **Address of Y[1977]:**
size} \)
3. **Address of Y[1988]:**
size} \)
Therefore:
- Address of \( Y[1942] \) is \( 428 \),
- Address of \( Y[1977] \) is \( 544 \),
- Address of \( Y[1988] \) is \( 616 \).
C) Define Sparse matrix. Write down the Matrix Multiplication algorithm.
**Sparse Matrix:**
A sparse matrix is a matrix that contains a large number of zero elements relative to the total number of
elements. In a sparse matrix, most of the elements have a value of zero, and only a small fraction of the
elements have non-zero values. Sparse matrices are often encountered in various applications, such as
scientific computing, network analysis, and graph representation.
A sparse matrix can be represented efficiently using different data structures, such as the triplet form
(also known as the coordinate list or COO format), compressed sparse row (CSR) format, and
compressed sparse column (CSC) format.
**Matrix Multiplication Algorithm:**
Matrix multiplication is a fundamental operation in linear algebra. Given two matrices \( A \) and \( B \)
of dimensions \( m \times n \) and \( n \times p \) respectively, the matrix product \( C = A \times B \) is
a matrix of dimension \( m \times p \).
The standard algorithm for matrix multiplication involves iterating through each element of the result
matrix and computing the dot product of the corresponding row from matrix \( A \) and column from
matrix \( B \).
**Algorithm: Matrix Multiplication (Naive Algorithm)**
1. **Input:**
- Matrices \( A \) of size \( m \times n \)
- Matrix \( B \) of size \( n \times p \)
2. **Output:**
- Matrix \( C \) of size \( m \times p \)
3. **Procedure:**
```
for i = 1 to m do
for j = 1 to p do
C[i][j] = 0
for k = 1 to n do
C[i][j] = C[i][j] + A[i][k] * B[k][j]
```
**Example:**
Consider two matrices \( A \) and \( B \) where:
\[ A = \begin{bmatrix} 1 & 2 \\ 3 & 4 \end{bmatrix} \]
\[ B = \begin{bmatrix} 5 & 6 \\ 7 & 8 \end{bmatrix} \]
The matrix multiplication \( C = A \times B \) is calculated as follows:

\[ C[1][1] = (1 \times 5) + (2 \times 7) = 19 \]
\[ C[1][2] = (1 \times 6) + (2 \times 8) = 22 \]
\[ C[2][1] = (3 \times 5) + (4 \times 7) = 43 \]
\[ C[2][2] = (3 \times 6) + (4 \times 8) = 50 \]
Therefore:
\[ C = \begin{bmatrix} 19 22 \\
43 50 \end{bmatrix} \]
Tree
b) Write short notes on
i) Extended Binary Trees and

ii) Complete Binary Trees
**i) Extended Binary Trees:**
An Extended Binary Tree is an enhancement of a binary tree where each node can have zero, one,
or two children, and nodes are augmented with additional information. In an extended binary
tree:
- Nodes can be internal nodes or external nodes (leaves).

- Each external node is assigned a unique position (address).
- Internal nodes may contain data or pointers to additional external nodes.
The concept of extended binary trees is often used in the representation of arithmetic expressions,
where the leaves represent operands and internal nodes represent operators.
**Example:**
Consider the expression tree for the expression \( (a + b) \times (c - d) \):
```
×
/\
+ -
/\/\
a bc d
```
In this extended binary tree, each leaf node corresponds to a variable or constant, and each
internal node corresponds to an operation.
**ii) Complete Binary Trees:**
A Complete Binary Tree is a binary tree in which all levels, except possibly the last, are
completely filled, and all nodes are as left as possible. In other words, a complete binary tree is a
binary tree in which nodes are added level by level, left to right.
Key properties of a complete binary tree:
1. All levels, except possibly the last, are completely filled.

2. If the last level is not completely filled, nodes are added as left as possible.
3. In a complete binary tree of height \( h \), the number of nodes is between \( 2^{h-1} \) and \
( 2^h - 1 \).
Complete binary trees are often used in heap data structures, where the properties of a complete
binary tree allow for efficient implementation.
**Example:**
```
1
/\
2 3
/\
4 5
```
In this example, the tree is complete because all levels are completely filled except the last, and
nodes are added from left to right in the last level.
(c) Construct a binary tree T from the following equation E and the find out the
(1) pre order, (ii) in order and (iii) post order traversal of tree T.
To convert the given infix expression to postfix expression, you can use the following steps:
1. Initialize an empty stack to hold operators.

2. Initialize an empty list to store the output (postfix expression).
3. Process each symbol in the infix expression from left to right.
- If the symbol is an operand (A, B, D, E, F, G, H, K in this case), add it to the output list.
- If the symbol is an operator:
- Pop operators from the stack and add them to the output list until the stack is empty or the
top of the stack has lower precedence.
- Push the current operator onto the stack.
4. After processing all symbols, pop any remaining operators from the stack and add them to the
output list.
Now, let's apply these steps to the given infix expression: A(B+D)/E-F(G+H/K)
**Converted Postfix Expression:**
```
ABD+E/F-GH+K/-
```
So, the equivalent postfix expression is ÀBD+E/F-GH+K/-`.
(b) Write the definition of Complete Binary tree and 2-Tree.

**Complete Binary Tree:**
A Complete Binary Tree is a binary tree in which all levels, except possibly the last, are
completely filled, and all nodes are as left as possible. In other words:
1. All levels, except possibly the last, are completely filled.

2. If the last level is not completely filled, nodes are added as left as possible.
A complete binary tree is often used in heap data structures, and it can be efficiently represented
using an array.
**2-3 Tree:**
A 2-3 Tree is a type of balanced search tree that allows each node to have either two or three
children. The tree is kept balanced by splitting and merging nodes as necessary. The key
properties of a 2-3 tree are:
1. Each internal node can have 2 or 3 children.

2. All leaves are at the same level.
3. Each internal node contains one or two keys (values).
4. For a node with two children, the keys partition the keys of the two children.
5. For a node with three children, the keys partition the keys into three ranges.
Insertions and deletions in a 2-3 tree involve splitting or merging nodes to maintain balance, and
the tree remains balanced after each operation.
**Example of a 2-3 Tree:**

```
5, 8
/ | \
2 6 10
/\ | / \
1 3 7 9 12
```
In this example, each internal node has either two or three children, and the tree is balanced with
all leaves at the same level. The keys in each node partition the keys of the children.
(c) Built a Max-heap from the following list of numbers: 22,62,32,52,42,72,92,82,12
To build a Max-Heap from a given list of numbers, you can use the following algorithm:
1. Start with the given list of numbers.

2. Build a heap bottom-up, starting from the last non-leaf node to the root.
3. Heapify each non-leaf node by comparing it with its children and swapping if necessary.
Now, let's build a Max-Heap from the list: 22, 62, 32, 52, 42, 72, 92, 82, 12.
**Initial List:**
\[22, 62, 32, 52, 42, 72, 92, 82, 12\]
**Step 1: Starting from the last non-leaf node (index 4), heapify each node:**
```
22
/ \
62 32
/ \ / \
52 42 72 92
/\
82 12
```
**Step 2: Continue heapifying each non-leaf node:**
```
92
/ \
82 72
/ \ / \
52 42 32 22
/\
62 12
```
Now, the list \([92, 82, 72, 52, 42, 32, 22, 62, 12]\) forms a Max-Heap. The root of the heap (\(92\))
is the maximum element, and the heap property is satisfied for every node in the heap.
C)develop Huffman tres and find Huffman code using the following node weights:
(b) Convert the following infix expression Z to its equivalent postfix expression. Z:
P+(QR-(S/T1U)*V)W
To convert the given infix expression to postfix expression, you can use the following steps:
1. Initialize an empty stack to hold operators.

2. Initialize an empty list to store the output (postfix expression).
3. Process each symbol in the infix expression from left to right.
- If the symbol is an operand (P, Q, R, S, T1, U, V, W), add it to the output list.
- If the symbol is an operator:
- Pop operators from the stack and add them to the output list until the stack is empty or the
top of the stack has lower precedence.
- Push the current operator onto the stack.
4. After processing all symbols, pop any remaining operators from the stack and add them to the
output list.
Now, let's apply these steps to the given infix expression: Z: P+(QR-(S/T1U)*V)W
**Converted Postfix Expression:**
```
P QRST1U/V-W*+VW-
```
So, the equivalent postfix expression is `P QRST1U/V-W*+VW-`.
(b) Consider the following arithmetic infix expression Qas A+(BC-(D/EF) G) H. Translate this
expression into Prefix and Postfix notation.
To convert the given infix expression to both prefix and postfix notations, we can use the
following steps:
### Infix Expression: \(A+(BC-(D/EF) G) H\)
#### **Prefix Notation:**
1. Reverse the infix expression.

2. Obtain the postfix expression from the reversed infix.
3. Reverse the obtained postfix expression to get the prefix notation.
**Steps:**
1. Reverse: \(H )G(FE/D-(CB+ A\)
2. Obtain Postfix: \(HGFE/D-(CB+A+\)
3. Reverse: \(+A(BC- (D/EF) G)H\)
**Prefix Notation:**
\[+A(BC- (D/EF) G)H\]
#### **Postfix Notation:**
To obtain the postfix notation, we can use the algorithm described in a previous answer.
**Postfix Notation:**
\[ABCDEF/G-+H\]
So, the translated expressions are:

- Prefix Notation: \(+A(BC- (D/EF) G)H\)
- Postfix Notation: \(ABCDEF/G-+H\)
(b) Develop a Huffman tree using the following node weights: 20, 2, 8, 7, 4, 10, and 14.
To construct a Huffman tree, we can follow these steps:
1. Create a min-heap (priority queue) using the weights of the nodes.
2. While there is more than one node in the heap:
- Extract the two nodes with the minimum weights from the heap.
- Create a new internal node with a weight equal to the sum of the weights of the extracted
nodes.
- Insert the new internal node back into the heap.
3. The remaining node in the heap is the root of the Huffman tree.
Let's construct the Huffman tree using the node weights: 20, 2, 8, 7, 4, 10, and 14.
**Step 1: Initial Min-Heap**

```
Node Weight
2 2
4 4
7 7
8 8
10 10
14 14
20 20
```
**Step 2: Build Huffman Tree**

```
11
/ \
4 7
/\ /\
2 20 10 14
\
8
```
In the above tree, the numbers represent the weights of the nodes. The internal nodes have
weights equal to the sum of their children's weights. The leaf nodes represent the original nodes.
The Huffman tree is now constructed, and you can generate Huffman codes by traversing the
tree. The Huffman codes are binary codes assigned to each leaf node based on the path from the
root to that leaf (left branch: 0, right branch: 1).
7. a) How many ways a binary tree can be represented in memory?
There are several ways to represent a binary tree in memory, and the choice of representation
depends on the specific requirements of the application and the operations that need to be
performed efficiently. Here are some common ways to represent a binary tree:
1. **Node-Based Representation:**
- Each node in the tree is represented using a data structure that contains information about
the node (e.g., value/data) and references or pointers to its left and right children.
- This is a standard representation and is often used in programming languages like C++, Java,
and Python.
2. **Array-Based Representation:**
- Store the nodes of the binary tree in an array based on a level-order (breadth-first) traversal.
- The root is at index 0, and for any node at index i, its left child is at 2i + 1, and its right child is
at 2i + 2.
- This representation allows for easy indexing and quick access to nodes but may lead to wasted
space for sparse trees.
3. **Parent-Pointer Representation:**
- Each node contains a link to its parent, left child, and right child.
- This representation is helpful when traversing up the tree or moving between nodes, but it
requires additional memory for storing parent pointers.
4. **Threaded Binary Tree Representation:**

- Threads (pointers) are added to the nodes to make traversals more efficient.
- In a threaded binary tree, null pointers are replaced with pointers to in-order successors or
predecessors.
- This representation reduces the need for recursive calls during traversals.
5. **Binary Heap Representation:**

- If the binary tree is a complete binary tree, it can be efficiently represented using an array,
where the parent's value is at index i, and its left child and right child are at 2i + 1 and 2i + 2,
respectively.
- This representation is commonly used for binary heaps.
Each representation has its advantages and disadvantages, and the choice depends on factors
such as the nature of the operations to be performed, memory efficiency, and ease of
implementation.
c) Draw the binary tree using the following algebra expression: [a+(b-c) [(d-c)/(f+g-h)]]. Then
traverse it in (i) pre-order and (ii) Post order.
To draw the binary tree for the algebraic expression \([a+(b-c) \left[\frac{(d-c)}{(f+g-h)}\right]]\)
and traverse it in pre-order and post-order, we can follow these steps:
**Binary Tree:**
```
+
/\
a -
/\
b []
/\
- /
/\ /\
d c f+g-h
```
Here, I'm representing the division as \(\frac{(d-c)}{(f+g-h)}\) within square brackets.
**Pre-order Traversal:**
\[ + \quad a \quad - \quad b \quad [] \quad - \quad d \quad c \quad / \quad f+g-h \]
**Post-order Traversal:**
\[ a \quad b \quad c \quad - \quad d \quad f \quad g \quad + \quad h \quad - \quad / \quad [] \
quad + \]
In pre-order traversal, you visit the root node first, then recursively traverse the left subtree, and
finally the right subtree. In post-order traversal, you recursively traverse the left subtree, then
the right subtree, and finally visit the root node.
b) Consider the following binary tree. Find the sequence of nodes when traversing in
(1) Pre-order, (ii) In- order, and (iii) Post-order.
I apologize for any confusion. Since the tree structure is not provided, I'll illustrate the traversals
on a sample binary tree for demonstration purposes. Please note that the actual sequence would
depend on the specific structure of your tree.
Let's consider the following binary tree:
```
A
/\
B C
/\ \
D E F
```
**Pre-order Traversal:**
```
A, B, D, E, C, F
```
**In-order Traversal:**
```
D, B, E, A, C, F
```
**Post-order Traversal:**
```
D, E, B, F, C, A
```
In a real-world scenario, the actual sequence would depend on the structure of the tree you are
working with. Please provide the structure of your binary tree, and I can help you with the
specific traversals for that tree.

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Fundamental

Ans:(a) **Definition of Data Structure:**

**Basic Operations of Data Structure:**

1. Start comparing at the first position of the text:

 Compare 'a' in P with '(' in T (mismatch)

 Compare 'a' in P with 'a' in T (match)

1. Linear Data Structures:

1. Start with an empty stack and an empty output.

2. Scan the infix expression from left to right:

- Pop '/' and output.

4. The final postfix expression is: 5 6 2 + * 12 4 / -

| Position in Text (i) | Comparison | Match/Mismatch | Current Pattern Matched |

(b) Suppose T contains the text INFORMATION AND COMMUNICATION TECHNOLOGY

(i) **SUBSTRING(T, 17, 24):**

(ii) **INDEX(T, "CATION"):**

(iii) **INSERT(T, 31, "ENGINEERING"):**

(iv) **DELETE(T, 13, 18):**

(v) **REPLACE(T, "TECHNOLOGY", "SCIENCE"):**

So, after performing the specified operations:

(i) \( \text{SUBSTRING(T, 17, 24)} = \) "COMMUNIC"

(c) **Static, Semi-Static, and Dynamic Variables:**

(d) **Linear Array:**

**Operations on Any Linear Structure:**

**Distinguishing between Static and Dynamic Data Structures:**

1. **Static Data Structure:**

2. **Dynamic Data Structure:**

(b) **Time Complexity:**

1. **Big-O Notation (O):**

2. **Omega Notation (Ω):**

3. **Theta Notation (Θ):**

(c) What do you understand by time space trade-off?

1. Initialize an empty string result.

3. **Trie (Prefix Tree):**

(C) Find the following:

DELETE ('DATA.STRUCTURE', 5, 4);

(iii) REPLACE ("XYZXYZXXZZYY', 'ZXY', 'YXZ').

Let's perform the specified operations:

1. **INSERT ('PQRSPQRS', 4, AAA):**

2. **DELETE ('DATA.STRUCTURE', 5, 4):**

3. **REPLACE ("XYZXYZXXZZYY', 'ZXY', 'YXZ'):**

So, after performing the specified operations:

1. Define data structure, Explain data structure operations.

B.. Define algorithms complexity and time-space tradeoff.

2. **Algorithm Complexity and Time-Space Trade-off:**

**a. Algorithm Complexity:**

**b. Time-Space Trade-off:**

Let's perform the specified operations:

1. **INSERT ('AAAAA', 3, 'BBB'):**

3. **REPLACE ('AAABBB', 'AA', 'BB'):**

So, after performing the specified operations:

1. Initialize an empty string result.

Let's perform the specified operations:

b) **Find SUBSTRING(S, 9, 20):**

c) **Find INDEX(S, 'THE') and INDEX(T, 'THE'):**

So, after performing the specified operations:

a) \( \text{len}(S) = 37 \) and \( \text{len}(T) = 13 \)

b) \( \text{SUBSTRING}(S, 9, 20) = \text{"ESH IS THE MO"} \)

c) \( \text{INDEX}(S, 'THE') = 15 \) and \( \text{INDEX}(T, 'THE') = \text{Not Found} \)

d) Define static, semistatic and dynamic character variable.

1. **Static Character Variable:**

2. **Semi-Static Character Variable:**

3. **Dynamic Character Variable:**

2. **Efficient Insertion and Deletion:**

Ans:(a) Definition of Data Structure:

Basic Operations of Data Structure:

(i) SUBSTRING(T, 17, 24):

(ii) INDEX(T, "CATION"):

(iii) INSERT(T, 31, "ENGINEERING"):

(iv) DELETE(T, 13, 18):

(v) REPLACE(T, "TECHNOLOGY", "SCIENCE"):

(c) Static, Semi-Static, and Dynamic Variables:

(d) Linear Array:

Operations on Any Linear Structure:

Distinguishing between Static and Dynamic Data Structures:

1. Static Data Structure:

2. Dynamic Data Structure:

(b) Time Complexity:

1. Big-O Notation (O):

2. Omega Notation (Ω):

3. Theta Notation (Θ):

3. Trie (Prefix Tree):

1. INSERT ('PQRSPQRS', 4, AAA):

2. DELETE ('DATA.STRUCTURE', 5, 4):

3. REPLACE ("XYZXYZXXZZYY', 'ZXY', 'YXZ'):

2. Algorithm Complexity and Time-Space Trade-off:

a. Algorithm Complexity:

b. Time-Space Trade-off:

1. INSERT ('AAAAA', 3, 'BBB'):

3. REPLACE ('AAABBB', 'AA', 'BB'):

b) Find SUBSTRING(S, 9, 20):

c) Find INDEX(S, 'THE') and INDEX(T, 'THE'):

1. Static Character Variable:

2. Semi-Static Character Variable:

3. Dynamic Character Variable:

2. Efficient Insertion and Deletion:

3. No Wasted Memory:

4. No Overflow or Underflow Issues:

6. Ease of Memory Management:

1. Call the procedure: `InsertAfterValue(head, 30, 40)`

1. Automatic Memory Management:

2. Memory Leak Prevention:

5. Generational Garbage Collection:

7. Automatic Heap Management:

Steps of Inserting an Element into a Linear Linked List:

1. Create a New Node:

2. Set the Data of the New Node:

3. Update the Pointers:

4. Update the Previous Node's Next Pointer:

4. Update Previous Node's Next Pointer:

Doubly Linked List:

Steps of Deleting an Element from a Doubly Linked List:

1. Identify the Node to Be Deleted:

2. Update the Previous Node's Next Pointer:

3. Update the Next Node's Previous Pointer:

4. Free the Memory of the Deleted Node:

2. Identify the Node to Be Deleted:

4. Free the Memory of the Deleted Node:

Header Linked List:

Characteristics of Header Linked List:

1. Create a New Node:

2. Set the Data of the New Node:

3. Adjust Pointers to Include the New Node:

2. Create a New Node with Data 25:

Doubly Linked List:

Characteristics of Doubly Linked List:

1. Dynamic Memory Allocation:

2. Implementing Stacks and Queues:

3. Undo Functionality in Applications:

4. Symbol Table Implementation:

1. Set AAA: 2 and BBB: 5

3. POP Operations in a Loop:

- Push: Adds an element to the top of the stack.

- Enqueue: Adds an element to the rear of the queue.

Algorithm to Push an Item onto a Stack:

- Push: Adds an element to the top of the stack.

- Enqueue: Adds an element to the rear of the queue.