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LESSON OUTCOME

At the end of this topic student should:

•Be able to apply basic knowledge of various fluid
properties.(CO1-PO1)
•Be able to acquire various fluid properties in
identifying and solving problems related to fluid
engineering problem.(CO1-PO1)
•Be able to formulate the relationship between
shear stress and velocity gradient from the
Newton’s law of viscosity. (CO1-PO1)

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Regardless of form (solid, liquid, gas) we can

define how much mass is squeezed into a
particular space
Density of a material is defined by the
amount of matter per unit volume.
In fluid mechanics, a density of a material
may be referred to in many ways.

ECW 211-SEMESTER JANUARY- APRIL 2010- 3

KAMSIAH A.W

Definition
Density of a fluid, , is defined as
the mass per unit volume

• It is denoted by the Greek symbol, .

mass
density 
volume
Units: kg/m3 m
=
 Slightly affected by changes in temperature and pressure
If the density varies significantly (eg some gas flows), the V
flow is compressible.
If the density is constant (most liquids), the flow is
incompressible.  water= 1000 kgm-3
Although gases are easy to compress, the flow may be
treated as incompressible if there are no large pressure air =1.23 kgm-3
fluctuations.
For a gas, density depends on temperature and pressure.

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• defined as the weight of the fluid per unit volume.

• Force exerted by gravity, g, upon unit volume of
substance
• The relationship  and g can be found using the
following:

Units: N/m3
w
= = g
V  = the density of the material (kgm-3)
g = acceleration due to gravity (ms-2)

 Water = 9.81 X 103 N/m3

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The specific gravity (or relative density) can be defined in two ways:
Definition 1: A ratio of the density of a substance to the density
of water at standard temperature (4C) under
atmospheric pressure, or
Definition 2: A ratio of the specific weight of a substance to the
specific weight of water at standard temperature
(4C) and atmospheric pressure.

 
SG  s  s
  Unit: dimensionless.
w @ 4C w @ 4C

For solid & liquid this standard mass density is the maximum mass
density for water (which occurs at 4oC) at atmospheric pressure.
SG is a dimensionless quantity.
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Definition
oThe reciprocal of the mass density i.e. the
volume per unit mass or the inverse of
density

v = 1/ = Volume/mass
Units: m3 / kg

Example 1
A substance (liquid) has a mass of 480kg and a volume of 0.298m3. Determine the following
properties:
i) The weight of liquid
ii) The density of the liquid
iii) The specific weight of liquid
iv) The specific gravity of liquid

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• Viscosity is a property that represents the internal

resistance of a fluid to motion.
• Viscosity, , is the property of a fluid, due to
cohesion and interaction between molecules,
which offers resistance to shear deformation.
• The force a flowing fluid exerts on a body in the flow
direction is called the drag force, and the magnitude of
this force depends, in part, on viscosity.

Different fluids deform at different rates under the same shear

stress. The ease with which a fluid pours is an indication of its
viscosity. Fluid with a high viscosity such as syrup deforms
more slowly than fluid with a low viscosity such as water. The
viscosity is also known as dynamic viscosity. 11

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SHEAR STRESS OF FLUID

Fluid Flow Shear stress – Yes
Fluid Rest Shear stress – No

Moving plate Shear force

Fluid particles New particle position

Fixed surface
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Newton’s law of viscosity

Newton's law of viscosity
defines the relationship
between shear stress
and shear rate (velocity
gradient) of a fluid
subjected to a
mechanical stress. The
ratio of shear stress to
shear rate is a constant,
• Dynamic viscosity, µ = shear stress/shear rate for a given temperature
τ = Shear Stress and pressure and is
 defined as viscosity.

du / dy
velocity gradient

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Stress and Strain

Shear stress, τ = F/A

D/t
du
θ   = velocity gradient/Shear rate
(D/H)/t = strain rate dy H
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• To obtain a relation for viscosity,

consider a fluid layer between two
very large parallel plates
separated by a distance ℓ.
• Definition of shear stress is
 = F/A.
• Under the no-slip condition, fluid
velocity, u(0) = 0 and u(ℓ) = V
where V-velocity of moving plate

• The velocity profile/gradient are

u(y)= V x (y/ℓ) and du/dy=V/ℓ
• Shear stress for Newtonian fluid:
Viscosity  =  du/dy
 is the dynamic viscosity and has
Units: N.s/m2 or kg/m/s
units of kg/m·s, Pa·s, Ns/m2 or
Typical values:
poise.
Water = 1.14x10-3 kg/m/s;
Air = 1.78x10-5 kg/m/s 15

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Newtonian Fluids a linear relationship between shear stress and the

velocity gradient (rate of shear), the viscosity is
constant (the slope is constant).

obey refer
Fluid Newton’s law Newtonian fluids
of viscosity

Newton’s’ law of viscosity is given by;

Example:
du Air,Water,Oil
• The viscosity  is a function only   Gasoline,Alcohol
of the condition of the fluid, dy Kerosene,Benzene
Glycerine
particularly its temperature.
• The magnitude of the velocity
gradient (du/dy) has no effect  = shear stress
on the magnitude of .  = viscosity of fluid
du/dy = shear rate, rate of strain or velocity gradient
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Modified slides from Ms Kamsiah

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• Non-Newtonian Fluid
Newton’s law of viscosity does not predict the
shear stress in all fluids. Only fluids where the
relationship between the shear stress and the rate
of shearing strain are linear

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Non-Newtonian Fluid  slope of the curves for non-

Newtonian fluids varies
Do not obey

Fluid Newton’s law Non- Newtonian

of viscosity fluids

• The viscosity of the

non-Newtonian fluid
is dependent on the
velocity gradient as
well as the condition
of the fluid.

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Definition: is the ratio of the viscosity to the density;

 • The measure of a fluid’s inherent resistance to flow

v when no external force, except gravity is acting on it.

 Typical values:
Water = 1.14x10-6 m2/s;
Air = 1.46x10-5 m2/s;
μ = viscosity
ρ= density

Units:
m2/s

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EXAMPLE 2
1. The lower plate as shown below is fixed while the upper one is
free to move under the action of a mass of 50g. Castor oil with
absolute viscosity 650 x 10-3 Ns/m2 occupies the space
between these two plates. The area of contact of the upper
plate with the oil is 0.7m2, find the velocity of the upper plate
when the distance separating the plates is 0.5cm.
Single contact layer pulley

y =
Hint:
 = 650 x 10-3 Ns/m2
0.5cm du F
  
m=50g
dy A
Stationary
Answer: du = 5.4 mm/s

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Solution:
• Dynamics viscosity,  = 650 x 10-3 Ns/m2
• dy = 0.5 cm =0.005 m
• F = mg = 0.05 x9.84 = 0.491 N
• Area, A = 0.7m2
• du ? 𝑑𝑢 𝐹
𝜏=𝜇 =
𝑑𝑦 𝐴
× . × .
du= = = 0.0054 𝑚/𝑠 = 5.4 𝑚𝑚/𝑠
× × × .

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EXAMPLE 3
2. A vertical gap 25mm wide of infinite extent contains oil of
relative density 0.95 and viscosity 2.4Pa.s. A metal plate 1.5m
x 1.5m x 1.6mm, weighing 55N is to be lifted through the gap
at a constant speed of 0.06 m/s. Determine the force
required.
Double contact layers
F

Hint:
0.06m/s

dy dy

du F
W   
dy A
25 mm

Answer: F = 110.4 N

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Solution:
• Dynamics viscosity,  = 2.4 Ns/m2
• dy = (25 – 1.6)/2 =11.7 mm =0.0117 m
• du = 0.06 m/s
• Area, A = (1.5 x 1.5) x 2 = 4.5m2 (2 contacted faces)
• F=?N
𝑑𝑢 𝐹
𝜏=𝜇 =
𝑑𝑦 𝐴

𝑑𝑢 0.06
𝐹=𝜇 × 𝐴 = 2.4 × × 4.5 = 55.38𝑁
𝑑𝑦 0.0117

• Total F = 55.38 + 55 = 110.4 N (to include selfweight)

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Rotational Viscometer

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Rotational Viscometer

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• ROTATIONAL VISCOMETER

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du
F  A  A
dy
• How does a rotational viscometer
work?
– Two concentric cylinders with a fluid
in the small gap ℓ (dy).
– Inner cylinder is rotating, outer one is
fixed.

• Use definition of shear force:

– If ℓ/R << 1, then cylinders can be modeled
as flat plates.
– Torque T = FR, and tangential velocity
V=wR
– Wetted surface area A=2pRL. (rotating
surface)
– Measure T and w (rotational speed) to
compute 
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Example 4 (Viscometer)
𝑆𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛:
A cylinder with 125 mm diameter, rotates towards an 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 = 𝜋𝑑ℎ = 𝜋 × 0.125 × 0.35 = 0.137𝑚
outer cylinder of 128 mm diameter. The height of the both
cylinders are 350 mm long. Determine the dynamic
viscosity of the liquid inserted between both spaces of 0.128 − 0.125
𝑑𝑦 = = 0.0015𝑚
the cylinder if torque 0.818 Nm is required to maintain an 2
angular velocity of 60 revolutions per minute.
𝜋𝑑𝑁 𝜋 × 0.125 × 60 𝑚
𝒎 𝑑𝑢 = = = 0.393
𝑪𝒐𝒏𝒗𝒆𝒓𝒕 𝒇𝒓𝒐𝒎 𝒓𝒑𝒎 𝒕𝒐 60 60 𝑠
𝒔
𝝅𝒅𝑵
𝒅𝒖 = 𝑇𝑜𝑟𝑞𝑢𝑒, 𝑇 = 𝐹 × 𝑟
𝟔𝟎
0.818 𝑁𝑚 = 𝐹 × 0.0625
𝐹 = 13.088 𝑁

𝑑𝑢
𝜏=𝜇 𝒅𝒖
𝑑𝑦 𝝉=𝝁
𝐹 𝑑𝑢 𝒅𝒚
=𝜇
𝐴 𝑑𝑦 𝑭 𝒅𝒖
13.088 (0.393) =𝝁
0.137
=𝜇
(0.0015)
𝑨 𝒅𝒚
𝝁 = 𝟎. 𝟑𝟔𝟓𝑵𝒔/𝒎𝟐

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At force, F = 35N,
Example 5 (Viscometer) 𝐹 𝑑𝑢
=𝜇
A viscometer is filled up with a Newtonian fluid of density 𝐴 𝑑𝑦
35 (0.4)
950 kg/m3 in the clearance between cylindrical shaft and =𝜇
sleeve. The diameter of the 25-cm length cylindrical shaft 0.0785 (0.001)
is 10 cm while the diameter of the sleeve is 10.2 cm.
When a force of 35 N is applied to the shaft, the rotation 𝝁 = 𝟏. 𝟏𝟏𝟓 𝑵𝒔/𝒎𝟐
speed is recorded as 40 cm/s. Determine the rotational
speed in rpm if a force of 80 N is applied.
At force, F = 80N, speed in rpm = ??
𝑆𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛:
𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 = 𝜋𝑑ℎ
= 𝜋 × 0.1 × 0.25 𝐹 𝑑𝑢
= 0.0785𝑚 =𝜇
𝐴 𝑑𝑦
80 𝑑𝑢
= (1.115)
0.102 − 0.1 0.0785 (0.001)
𝑑𝑦 = = 0.001𝑚
2
𝒅𝒖 = 𝟎. 𝟗𝟏𝟒𝒎/𝒔

𝑚
𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑡 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑡𝑜 𝑟𝑝𝑚,
𝑠
𝜋𝑑𝑁
𝑑𝑢 =
60
( . )
0.914 = 𝑵 = 𝟏𝟕𝟒. 𝟓𝟔𝟏 𝒓𝒑𝒎

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 Surface tension is usually very small compared with

other forces in fluid flows (e.g. surface tension for
water at 20C is 0.0728 N/m). Normally are neglected.
 Surface tension, , increases the pressure within a
droplet of liquid. The internal pressure, P, balancing
the surface tensional force of a spherical droplet of
radius r, is given by

2𝜎 Pr
𝑃=  Units : N/m
𝑟 2
2𝜋𝑟𝜎 = 𝜋𝑟 𝑃
Taking vertical
equilibrium of
forces on water 34
droplet,

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Example (Surface Tension)

A soap bubble of 50 mm diameter has an internal pressure in excess of the outside pressure of 25
N/m2. Calculate the tension in the bubble film

A hollow bubble has 2 contact surfaces with air, inside and outside. So
there are 2 surfaces subjected to surface tension. Taking vertical
equilibrium of forces,
2𝜋𝑟𝜎 × 2 = 𝜋𝑟 𝑃

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Capillary Effect • Capillary effect is the rise or

fall of a liquid in a small-
diameter tube.
• The curved free surface in
the tube is call the meniscus.
• Water meniscus curves up
because water is a wetting
fluid.
• Mercury meniscus curves
down because mercury is a
nonwetting fluid.
• Force balance can describe
magnitude of capillary rise
Units= m @ mm

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• The surface tension leads to the phenomenon known as

capillarity , where a column of liquid in a tube is supported in the
absence of an externally applied pressure.
• Rise or fall of a liquid in a capillary tube is caused by surface
tension and depends on the relative magnitude of cohesion of
the liquid and the adhesion of the liquid to the walls of the
containing vessels.
• Liquid rise in tubes if they wet a surface (adhesion > cohesion),
such as water, and fall in tubes that do not wet (cohesion >
adhesion), such as mercury.

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Capillary Rise/fall

4𝜎 cos 𝜃
ℎ= Units= m @ mm
𝜌𝑔𝑑

where h = height of capillary rise (or depression)

 = surface tension
 = wetting (contact) angle
 = specific weight of liquid
r = radius of tube

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Example (Capillarity)
A clean tube of diameter 2.5 mm is immersed in a liquid with a coefficient of surface tension
0.4 N/m. The angle of contact of the liquid with the glass can be assumed to be 135. The
density of the liquid is 13600 kg/m3. What would be the level of the liquid in the tube
relative to the free surface of the liquid inside the tube?

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• Vapor Pressure Pv is defined as the

pressure exerted by its vapor in phase
equilibrium with its liquid at a given
temperature.
• As more water vapor enters the
atmosphere, the amount of pressure
exerted by that water vapor increases.
We call this pressure the vapor
pressure.
• The higher the temperature of the
atmosphere, the more vapor pressure it
can withstand.
• There is a limit to how much water
vapor can enter the atmosphere.
• When the vapor pressure maximum is
reached, no more water can enter the
atmosphere.
• At this point, we say that the
Pvapour = P saturation atmosphere is completely saturated. 40

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Vapor Pressure and Cavitation

 The vapor pressure reaches a stage of equilibrium when the pressure is equal to
saturated vapor pressure.
Pvapour = P saturation

 If the water pressure drops below the vapour pressure at that temperature, vapour
bubbles are formed (vaporized) and creating cavities of vapor.
 Vapor cavities collapse when local water pressure, P rises above Pv.
 Collapse of cavities is a violent process which can damage machinery.

 Cavitation is noisy, and can cause structural vibrations.

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The Bulk Modulus Elasticity is a material property characterizing the compressibility of

a fluid - how easy a unit of the fluid volume can be changed when changing the
pressure working upon it.

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Definition: The change of pressure corresponding to frictional chance

in volume @ density of fluid where temperature remains constant
 All fluids are compressible under the application of an external force and
when the force is removed they expand back to their original volume.
 The compressibility of a fluid is expressed by its bulk modulus of elasticity,
K, which describes the variation of volume with change of pressure, i.e.

change in pressure
K
volumetric strain

p
K 
dV / V
Units: N/m2

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Example (Bulk Modulus)

When the pressure of liquid is increased from 3.5 MN/m2 to 6.5 MN/m2, its volume is found to decrease by
0.08%. What is the bulk modulus of elasticity of the liquid?

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Example (Bulk Modulus)

10.2
At a depth of 8.5 km in the ocean,
the pressure is 90 MPa. The specific
weight of the sea water at the 8.5 2.4 GPa
surface is 10.2 kN/m3 and its
average Bulk Modulus is 2.4x109 90
N/m2. Determine:
i. The change in specific volume
ii. The specific volume at 8.5 km
depth
iii. The specific weight of sea water
at 8.5 km depth

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10.2

Example (Bulk Modulus)

8.5 2.4 GPa
i. The change in specific volume
𝑑𝑃 = 𝑃 . − 𝑃 = 90 × 10 𝑃𝑎 90

1 𝑔
𝑆𝑝𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑓𝑖𝑐 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑎𝑡 𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒, 𝑉 = =
𝜌 𝛾
9.81
𝑉@ = = 9.618 × 10 𝑚 /𝑘𝑔
10.2 × 10

𝑑𝑃
𝐵𝑢𝑙𝑘 𝑚𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑙𝑢𝑠, 𝐾 = −
𝑑𝑉
𝑉
90 × 10
(2.4 × 10 ) = −
𝑑𝑉
9.618 × 10
∴ 𝒅𝑽𝒔 = −𝟑. 𝟔𝟎𝟕 × 𝟏𝟎 𝟓 𝒎𝟑 /𝒌𝒈

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Example (Bulk Modulus) 10.

2

ii. The specific volume at 8.5 km depth 8. 2.4 GPa

𝑆𝑝𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑓𝑖𝑐 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑎𝑡 8.5𝑘𝑚, 𝑉 @ . 5
=𝑉@ + 𝑑𝑉 9
0
∴ 𝑽𝒔@𝟖.𝟓 = 9.𝟔𝟏𝟖 × 𝟏𝟎 𝟒
− 𝟑. 𝟔𝟎𝟕 × 𝟏𝟎 𝟓

=𝟗. 𝟐𝟓𝟕 × 𝟏𝟎 𝟒 𝒎𝟑 /𝒌𝒈

ii. The specific weight of sea water at 8.5 km depth

𝑔
𝑆𝑝𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑓𝑖𝑐 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒, 𝑉 =
𝛾
𝑔
∴ 𝑆𝑝𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑓𝑖𝑐 𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡, 𝛾 =
𝑉
𝑔 9.81
𝛾@ . = = = 𝟏𝟎. 𝟓𝟗𝟕𝒌𝑵/𝒎𝟑
𝑉@ . 9.257 × 10

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