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( Fall 2021 )

Lecture 1
Functions
Definition: A function 𝑓 from a set 𝐴 to a set 𝐵 is a rule that assigns to each element
𝑥 in 𝐴 one and only one element 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥) in 𝐵. The set 𝐴 is called the domain of the
function, and the set of assigned elements in 𝐵 is called the range.

Graphically: The vertical Line Test

A curve in the 𝑥𝑦 − plane is the graph of a function of 𝑥 if and only if no vertical line
intersects the curve more than once.

Domain and Range

Domain(𝒇) = the set of all possible input values “𝑥” that
we can substitute in the given function 𝑓(𝑥).
Domain(𝒇) =the projection of the curve of 𝑓 on the 𝑥-axis.

Range(𝒇) = the set of all output values “𝑦” we obtained by

substituting the domain values “𝑥” in the function 𝑓(𝑥).
Range(𝒇) = the projection of the curve of 𝑓 on the 𝑦-axis.

➢ 𝑥 is called the independent variable.

➢ 𝑦 is called the dependent variable.

Dr.Mostafa Elogail
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Example: Find the domain and range of;
𝑥+2
(a) 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 2 + 1 , (b) 𝑓(𝑥) = √ , (c) 𝑓(𝑥) = √ 1 − 𝑥 2
𝑥−4

Solution

Note that: The domain of a function is restricted to:

1) You cannot have zero in a denominator

2) You cannot take the square root (or fourth root, sixth root, …) of a negative number.

(a) Domain(𝑓) is 𝑥 ∈ ] −∞, ∞ [ ,

Range(𝑓) is 𝑦 ∈ [ 1, ∞ [.

𝑥+2
(b) We must have that ≥ 0 and 𝑥 ≠ 4
𝑥−4

Domain(𝑓) is 𝑥 ∈ ] −∞, − 2 ] ∪ ] 4, ∞ [ ,
Range(𝑓) is 𝑦 ∈ [ 0, 1 [ ∪ ] 1, ∞ [.

(c) We must have that 1 − 𝑥 2 ≥ 0

⟹ 𝑥2 ≤ 1 ⟹ |𝑥| ≤ 1 ⟹ −1 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 1
Domain(𝑓) is 𝑥 ∈ [ −1, 1 ]
Range(𝑓) is 𝑦 ∈ [ 0, 1 ].

Dr.Mostafa Elogail
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Graphs of some famous functions

Domain: 𝑥 ∈ ]−∞, ∞[ Domain: 𝑥 ∈ ]−∞, ∞[ Domain: 𝑥 ∈ ]−∞, ∞[ Domain: 𝑥 ∈ [0, ∞[

Range: 𝑦 ∈ ]−∞, ∞[ Range: 𝑦 ∈ [0, ∞[ Range: 𝑦 ∈ ]−∞, ∞[ Range: 𝑦 ∈ [0, ∞[

Domain: 𝑥 ∈ ]−∞, ∞[ Domain: 𝑥 ∈ ]−∞, 0[ ∪ ]0, ∞[ Domain: 𝑥 ∈ ]−∞, 0[ ∪ ]0, ∞[

Range: 𝑦 ∈ [0, ∞[ Range: 𝑦 ∈ ]−∞, 0[ ∪ ]0, ∞[ Range: 𝑦 ∈ ]0, ∞[

Arithmetic operations of functions

Like numbers, functions can be added, subtracted, multiplied, and divided (except where the denominator is
zero) to produce new functions.

Function Domain

𝑓(𝑥) + 𝑔(𝑥) 𝐷(𝑓) ∩ 𝐷(𝑔)

𝑓(𝑥) − 𝑔(𝑥) 𝐷(𝑓) ∩ 𝐷(𝑔)
𝑓(𝑥) ∙ 𝑔(𝑥) 𝐷(𝑓) ∩ 𝐷(𝑔)
𝑓(𝑥)
𝐷(𝑓) ∩ 𝐷(𝑔) − {𝑧𝑒𝑟𝑜𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑔(𝑥)}
𝑔(𝑥)

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( Fall 2021 )
Composition of functions (Putting one function inside another function)

Definition: If 𝑓 and 𝑔 are functions, the composite function (𝑓 ∘ 𝑔) (“𝑓 composed with 𝑔”)
is defined by
(𝑓 ∘ 𝑔)(𝑥) = 𝑓(𝑔(𝑥)).
The domain of (𝑓 ∘ 𝑔) consists of the numbers 𝑥 in the domain of 𝑔 for which 𝑔(𝑥) lies in the domain
of 𝑓.

𝑓(𝑔(𝑥)) is defined whenever

both 𝑔(𝑥) and 𝑓(𝑔(𝑥))
are defined

Example: If 𝒇(𝒙) = 𝒙𝟐 + 𝟕, 𝒈(𝒙) = √𝒙 , and 𝒉(𝒙) = √𝟐 − 𝒙 find

(a) (𝒇 ∘ 𝒈)(𝒙) (b) (𝒈 ∘ 𝒇)(𝒙) (c) (𝒉∘ 𝒈)(𝒙) (d) (𝒉 ∘ 𝒉)(𝒙)

Composite Domain

2
(𝑓 ∘ 𝑔)(𝑥) = 𝑓(𝑔(𝑥)) = (𝑔(𝑥)) + 7 = 𝑥 + 7 [0, ∞[

(𝑔 ∘ 𝑓)(𝑥) = 𝑔(𝑓(𝑥)) = √𝑓(𝑥) = √𝑥 2 + 7 ]−∞, ∞[

(ℎ ∘ 𝑔)(𝑥) = ℎ(𝑔(𝑥)) = √2 − 𝑔(𝑥) = √2 − √𝑥 [0, 4]

(ℎ ∘ ℎ)(𝑥) = ℎ(ℎ(𝑥)) = √2 − √2 − 𝑥 [−2, 2]

➢ Note that: the functions 𝑔 ∘ 𝑓 and 𝑓 ∘ 𝑔 are usually quite different.

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Transformations of graphs of functions ( 𝑎 > 0)

𝒚 = 𝒇(𝒙) ± 𝒂 translate 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥) parallel to the 𝑦 − axis by ± 𝒂 units

𝒚 = 𝒇(𝒙 ± 𝒂) translate 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥) parallel to the 𝑥 − axis by ∓ 𝒂 units

𝒚 = − 𝒇(𝒙) reflect 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥) in the 𝑥 − axis

𝒚 = 𝒇( – 𝒙 ) reflect 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥) in the 𝑦 − axis

𝒚 = 𝒂 𝒇(𝒙) stretch 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥) parallel to the 𝑦 − axis by a scale factor of 𝒂

𝟏
𝒚 = 𝒇( 𝒂𝒙 ) stretch 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥) parallel to the 𝑥 − axis by a scale factor of 𝒂

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( Fall 2021 )

Example: Describe the transformations needed to transform the graph of 𝒚 = 𝒙𝟐

into the graph of 𝒚 = 𝟒 − 𝒙𝟐 .

Solution

First, a reflection in x −axis followed by

a translation four units upwards parallel to

the 𝑦 − axis.

𝟐
Example: Sketch the graph of 𝒇(𝒙) = .
𝒙 + 𝟓

Solution

𝟏
This is the graph of 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝒙 translated

parallel to the 𝑥 − axis by – 𝟓, then stretched

parallel to the 𝑦 − axis by a scale factor of 2.

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( Fall 2021 )

Example: Complete the square and explain how to transform the graph of 𝒚 = 𝒙𝟐
into the graph of 𝒚 = 𝟑𝒙𝟐 − 𝟔𝒙 + 𝟐.
Solution

𝒚 = 𝟑𝒙𝟐 − 𝟔𝒙 + 𝟐
Completing the square
𝒚 = 𝟑[ 𝒙𝟐 − 𝟐𝒙 ] + 𝟐
𝒚 = 𝟑[ (𝒙 − 𝟏)𝟐 − 𝟏] + 𝟐
𝒚 = 𝟑(𝒙 − 𝟏)𝟐 − 𝟏

This is the graph of 𝑦 = 𝑥 2 translated 1 unit

to the right, stretched parallel to the 𝑦 − axis
by a scale factor 3, then translated parallel to the 𝑦 −axis by −1 unit.

Symmetry

Even Function
If a function 𝑓 satisfies 𝑓(−𝑥) = 𝑓(𝑥) for every number 𝑥
In its domain, then 𝑓 is called an even function.
( graph of 𝑓 is symmetric with respect to the 𝑦-axis )

Odd Function
If a function 𝑓 satisfies 𝑓(−𝑥) = − 𝑓(𝑥) for every number 𝑥
In its domain, then 𝑓 is called an odd function.
( graph of 𝑓 is symmetric about the 𝑜𝑟𝑖𝑔𝑖𝑛 )

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( Fall 2021 )
Exercises
(1) Find the domain of the given function 𝑓(𝑥);
𝑥 3 − 𝑥
a) 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 2 b) 𝑓(𝑥) = √ .
− 𝑥 +1 𝑥 + 2

(2) Find the 𝑥 − and 𝑦 − intercepts, if any, of the function 𝑓.

a) 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 4 – 5𝑥 2 + 4 b) 𝑓(𝑥) = √ 4 − 𝑥 2 .

(3) Find the set of values of 𝑘 for which the line 𝑥 = 𝑦 + 2 intersects the curve 𝑦 = 𝑥 2 + 3𝑥 + 𝑘 at
two distinct points.

(4) ABC is a right-angled triangle with 𝐴𝐵 perpendicular to 𝐵𝐶. The coordinates of the points 𝐴, 𝐵, and
𝐶 are (−5,0), (𝑥, −5), and (3, −2), respectively. Find the possible values of 𝑥.

(5) Use the method of completing the square to sketch:

a) 𝑦 = 𝑥 2 + 10𝑥 + 4, b) 𝑦 = 6 + 𝑥 − 𝑥 2 ,
𝒄) 𝑦 = −2𝑥 2 − 4𝑥.

(6) Let 𝑓(𝑥) = 5 − 𝑥 2 and 𝑔(𝑥) = 2 − √ 𝑥 . Find the domain of the given function.
a) 𝑓(𝑔(𝑥)) b) 𝑔(𝑓(𝑥)).

(7) Express 𝐹(𝑥) = √ 9𝑥 3 + 4 as the composition of two functions 𝑓 and 𝑔.

(8) Use the graph of 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥) to match the function with its graph.

(i) 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥 + 5)
(j) 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥) − 5
(k) 𝑦 = −𝑓(−𝑥) − 2

(l) 𝑦 = −𝑓(𝑥 − 4)
(m) 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥 + 6) + 2

(n) 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥 − 1) + 3

Dr.Mostafa Elogail
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( Fall 2021 )

Lecture 2
FAMILIES OF CURVES
The graph of a constant function 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑐 is the graph of the equation 𝒚 = 𝒄 , which is the horizontal
line shown in the opposite Figure. If we vary c, then we obtain a set or family of horizontal lines

An equation of the form 𝒚 = 𝒎𝒙 + 𝒃 represents a line of slope 𝑚 and 𝑦 −intercept 𝑏. If we keep

𝑏 fixed and vary 𝑚, then we obtain a family of lines whose members all have 𝑦 −intercept 𝑏, and if
we keep 𝑚 fixed and vary 𝑏, we obtain a family of parallel lines whose members all have slope 𝑚

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Polynomial functions

A function 𝑃 is a polynomial if

𝑃(𝑥) = 𝑎𝑛 𝑥 𝑛 + 𝑎𝑛−1 𝑥 𝑛−1 + ⋯ + 𝑎1 𝑥 + 𝑎0 .

where 𝑛 is a non-negative integer, 𝑎𝑛 , 𝑎𝑛−1 , … , 𝑎0 are real constants (called the coefficients of the
polynomial). All polynomials have the domain ]−∞, ∞[, and if 𝑎𝑛 ≠ 0, then 𝑛 is called the degree of
the polynomial.

Ex. 𝑓(𝑥) = 4 Constant function (polynomial of degree zero)

𝑓(𝑥) = 5𝑥 + 1 Linear function (polynomial of degree 1)

𝑓(𝑥) = 2𝑥 2 − 4𝑥 + 2 Quadratic function (polynomial of degree 2)

𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 3 − 7 Cubic function (polynomial of degree 3)

Rational Functions

A rational function 𝑓 is a ratio of two polynomials:

Polynomial

𝑃(𝑥)
𝑓 (𝑥 ) =
𝑄(𝑥)

Polynomial

The domain of a rational function is the set of all real 𝑥 for which 𝑄(𝑥) ≠ 0.

1
Ex: 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 2 is a rational function with domain { 𝑥 | 𝑥 ≠ 0 }.

3𝑥 4 −𝑥 2 −7
Ex: 𝑓(𝑥) = is a rational function with domain { 𝑥 │ 𝑥 ≠ ±1 }.
𝑥2 − 1

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Asymptotes
1-Vertical Asymptotes
If at least one of the following statements is true, then the line 𝑥 = 𝑐 is a vertical asymptote of the
graph of 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥)

(𝐚) lim 𝑓(𝑥) = ∞, (𝒃) lim+ 𝑓(𝑥) = ∞, (𝐜) lim 𝑓(𝑥) = −∞, (𝒅) lim+ 𝑓(𝑥) = −∞
𝑥→𝑐 − 𝑥→𝑐 𝑥→𝑐 − 𝑥→𝑐

𝑃(𝑥)
For a rational function 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑄(𝑥) , where 𝑃(𝑥) and 𝑄(𝑥) are polynomials. If 𝑐 is a real number such
that 𝑄(𝑐) = 0 and 𝑃(𝑐) ≠ 0, then the graph of 𝑓 has a vertical asymptote at 𝑥 = 𝑐.

2- Horizontal Asymptotes
If either (𝐚) lim 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝐿 or (𝐛) lim 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝐿
𝑥→∞ 𝑥→ −∞

Then the line 𝑦 = 𝐿 is a horizontal asymptote of the graph of y = f(x).

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3- Slant Asymptote
For a rational function
𝑃(𝑥)
For a rational function 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑄(𝑥) , where the degree of 𝑃(𝑥) is greater than the degree of 𝑄(𝑥),
then using long division to obtain
𝑃(𝑥) 𝑟(𝑥)
𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑄(𝑥) = 𝑑(𝑥) + 𝑄(𝑥)

𝑟(𝑥)
It is clear that → 0 as 𝑥 → ±∞, so that 𝑓(𝑥) is asymptotic to the graph of the polynomial
𝑄(𝑥)
𝑑(𝑥) as 𝑥 → ±∞.

Asymptotes of Graphs of Rational Functions

𝑷(𝒙) 𝒂𝒏 𝒙𝒏 +𝒂𝒏−𝟏 𝒙𝒏−𝟏 +⋯+𝒂𝟏 𝒙+𝒂𝟎
Let 𝒇(𝒙) = = ; 𝒂𝒏 ≠ 𝟎, 𝒃𝒎 ≠ 𝟎 be a rational function.
𝑸(𝒙) 𝒃𝒎 𝒙𝒎 +𝒃𝒎−𝟏 𝒙𝒎−𝟏 +⋯+𝒃𝟏 𝒙+𝒃𝟎

Suppose that the polynomial functions 𝑃(𝑥) and 𝑄(𝑥) have no common factors.

1- If 𝑎 is real zero of 𝑄(𝑥), then 𝑥 = 𝑎 is a vertical asymptote for the graph of 𝒇.

𝑎
2- If 𝑛 = 𝑚, then 𝑦 = 𝑏 𝑛 is a horizontal asymptote for the graph of 𝒇.
𝑚

3- If 𝑛 < 𝑚, then 𝑦 = 0 is a horizontal asymptote for the graph of 𝒇.

4- If 𝑛 > 𝑚, then the graph of 𝒇 has no horizontal asymptote.

5- If 𝑛 = 𝑚 + 1, then the quotient 𝑦 = 𝑚𝑥 + 𝑏 of 𝑃(𝑥) and 𝑄(𝑥) is a slant asymptote for

the graph of 𝒇.

6- Determine whether the graph will intersect its nonvertical asymptote 𝑦 = 𝑏 or 𝑦 = 𝑚𝑥 +

𝑏 by solving 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑏 or 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑚𝑥 + 𝑏 .

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( Fall 2021 )

𝒙
Example: Analyze and sketch the rational function 𝒇(𝒙) =
𝒙𝟐 − 𝟏

Solution

1- We first observe that the numerator 𝑃(𝑥) = 𝑥 and the denominator 𝑄(𝑥) = 𝑥 2 − 1 have no
common factors.

2- Also, since 𝑓(−𝑥) = − 𝑓(𝑥) ⟹ 𝑓(𝑥) is an odd function (graph of 𝑓 is symmetric with respect
to the origin.

3- Since 𝑓(0) = 0 implies the 𝑦 −intercept is (0, 0).

4- Solving 𝑃(𝑥) = 𝑥 = 0 implies 𝑥 = 0, and so the only intercept is (0, 0).

5- Since the degree of the numerator is one and the degree of the denominator is two and
( 1 < 2 ) it follows that 𝑦 = 0 is a horizontal asymptote.

6- Zeroes of the denominator 𝑄(𝑥) = 𝑥 2 − 1 are 𝑥 = ±1 . Therefore the lines 𝑥 = 1 and 𝑥 =

−1 are vertical asymptotes.
𝒙 𝒙
lim = −∞ lim =∞
𝑥→−1− (𝒙−𝟏)(𝒙+𝟏) 𝑥→−1+ (𝒙−𝟏)(𝒙+𝟏)

𝒙 𝒙
lim− (𝒙−𝟏)(𝒙+𝟏) = −∞ lim+ (𝒙−𝟏)(𝒙+𝟏) = ∞
𝑥→1 𝑥→1

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𝒙𝟐 + 𝟐𝒙
Example: Analyze and sketch the rational function 𝒇(𝒙) =
𝒙𝟐 − 𝟏

𝒙 + 𝟐𝒙 𝟐
Solution
Example: Analyze and sketch the rational function 𝒇(𝒙) = 𝟐
𝒙 − 𝟏
2
1- We first observe that the numerator 𝑃(𝑥) = 𝑥 + 2𝑥 = 𝑥(𝑥 + 2) and the denominator 𝑄(𝑥) =
𝑥 2 − 1 = (𝑥 − 1)(𝑥 + 1) have no common factors.

2- No symmetry: 𝑓(𝑥) is neither even nor odd.

3- Since 𝑓(0) = 0 implies the 𝑦 −intercept is (0, 0).

4- Solving 𝑃(𝑥) = 0 implies 𝑥 = 0, 𝑥 = −2 and so the 𝑥-intercepts are (0,0) and (−2,0).

5- Since the degree of 𝑃(𝑥) = 2 equal degree of 𝑄(𝑥) = 2. Hence 𝑓(𝑥) has a horizontal asymptote
1
which is 𝑦 = 1 ⟹ 𝑦 = 1 is a horizontal asymptote.

6- Zeroes of the denominator 𝑄(𝑥) = 𝑥 2 − 1 are 𝑥 = ±1 . Therefore the lines 𝑥 = 1 and 𝑥 = −1

are vertical asymptotes.
𝒙 𝒙
lim = −∞ lim =∞
𝑥→−1− (𝒙−𝟏)(𝒙+𝟏) 𝑥→−1+ (𝒙−𝟏)(𝒙+𝟏)

𝒙 𝒙
lim = −∞ lim =∞
𝑥→1− (𝒙−𝟏)(𝒙+𝟏) 𝑥→1+ (𝒙−𝟏)(𝒙+𝟏)

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𝟐(𝒙𝟐 − 𝟗)
Example: Analyze and sketch the rational function 𝒇(𝒙) =
𝒙𝟐 − 𝟒

Solution

1- Note that the numerator 𝑃(𝑥) = 2(𝑥 2 − 9) and the denominator 𝑄(𝑥) = 𝑥 2 − 4 have no
common factors.
𝟐- Since 𝑓(−𝑥) = 𝑓(𝑥), ⟹ 𝑓(𝑥) is an even function (graph of 𝑓 is symmetric with respect to the
𝑦 −axis.
9 9
3- Since 𝒇(0) = 2 implies the 𝑦 −intercept is (0, 2 ).

4- Solving 𝑃(𝑥) = 2(𝑥 2 − 9) = 0 implies 𝑥 = −3 and 𝑥 = 3,

so the 𝑥 −intercepts are (−3, 0) and (3, 0).

5- The zeros of 𝑄(𝑥) = 𝑥 2 − 4 are obviously 𝑥 = 2 and 𝑥 = −2

So the lines 𝑥 = 2 and 𝑥 = −2 are vertical asymptotes.

𝟐(𝒙−𝟑)(𝒙+𝟑) 𝟐(𝒙−𝟑)(𝒙+𝟑)
lim = −∞ lim =∞
𝑥→−2− (𝒙−𝟐)(𝒙+𝟐) 𝑥→−2+ (𝒙−𝟐)(𝒙+𝟐)

𝟐(𝒙−𝟑)(𝒙+𝟑) 𝟐(𝒙−𝟑)(𝒙+𝟑)
lim− =∞ lim+ = −∞
𝑥→2 (𝒙−𝟐)(𝒙+𝟐) 𝑥→2 (𝒙−𝟐)(𝒙+𝟐)

6- Since the degree of 𝑃(𝑥) = 2 equal degree of 𝑄(𝑥) = 2. Hence 𝑓(𝑥) has a horizontal asymptote
2
which is 𝑦 = 1 ⟹ 𝑦 = 2 is a horizontal asymptote.

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( Fall 2021 )

𝒙𝟐 – 𝒙 – 𝟔
Example: Analyze and sketch the rational function 𝒇(𝒙) =
𝒙− 𝟓

Solution
1- Note that the numerator 𝑃(𝑥) = 𝑥 2 − 𝑥 − 6 and the denominator 𝑄(𝑥) = 𝑥 − 5 have no
common factors.
𝟐- 𝒇(𝒙) is neither even nor odd.
6 6
3- Since 𝒇(0) = 5 implies the 𝑦 −intercept is (0, 5 ).

4- Solving 𝑃(𝑥) = (𝑥 + 2)(𝑥 − 3) = 0 implies 𝑥 = −2 and 𝑥 = 3,

so the 𝑥 −intercepts are (−2, 0) and (3, 0).

5- The zeros of 𝑄(𝑥) = 𝑥 − 5 is obviously 𝑥 = 5. So 𝑥 = 5 is a vertical asymptote.

𝒙 𝒙
lim = −∞ lim =∞
𝑥→5− (𝒙−𝟏)(𝒙+𝟏) 𝑥→5+ (𝒙−𝟏)(𝒙+𝟏)

6- Since the degree of 𝑃(𝑥) = 2 > degree of 𝑄(𝑥) = 𝟏. Hence 𝑓(𝑥) has no horizontal asymptote.
But it has an oblique asymptote.

To find it, we use long division or synthetic division

𝒙𝟐 – 𝒙 – 𝟔 14
= (𝑥 + 4) + . 𝑓 has a slant asymptote 𝑦 = 𝑥 + 4.
𝒙− 𝟓 𝑥−5

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Definition: One-to-One Functions
A function 𝑓 is said to be one−to −one if each 𝑦 −value in its range corresponds to only one
𝑥 −value in its domain.
That is 𝑓(𝑥1 ) ≠ 𝑓(𝑥2 ) whenever 𝑥1 ≠ 𝑥2

Or equivalently 𝑓(𝑥1 ) = 𝑓(𝑥2 ) then 𝑥1 = 𝑥2

Horizontal line Test

A function is one– 𝑡𝑜–one if and only if no horizontal line intersects its graph more than once.

𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 3 is one−𝑡𝑜 −one 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 2 is not one−𝑡𝑜 −one

Inverse Functions
Since each output of a one-to-one function comes from just one input, the effect of the function can

be inverted to send an output back to the input from which it came.

Definition: Inverse function

Let ƒ be a one-to-one function on a domain 𝑋 with range 𝑌. Then its inverse function 𝒇−𝟏 has domain
𝑌 and Range 𝑋 and is defined by

𝑓 −1 (𝑦) = 𝑥 ⇔ 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥).
for any 𝑦 in 𝑌

𝟏
➢ CAUTION The symbol 𝒇−𝟏 (𝒙) does not mean .
𝒇(𝒙)

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𝑓 = {(1,5), (3,7), (8, −10)}

𝑓 −1 = {(5,1), (7,3), (−10,8)}

The inverse function reverses inputs and outputs

Properties of the inverse functions

1- The domain of 𝑓 −1 = range of 𝑓.

2- The range of 𝑓 −1 = domain of 𝑓.
3- 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥) is equivalent to 𝑥 = 𝑓 −1 (𝑦).
4- The graph of 𝑓 and 𝑓 −1 are reflections in the line 𝑦 = 𝑥.
5- 𝑓(𝑓 −1 (𝑥)) = 𝑥 for 𝑥 in the domain of 𝑓 −1 .
6- 𝑓 −1 (𝑓(𝑥)) = 𝑥 for 𝑥 in the domain of 𝑓 .

• If 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑓 −1 (𝑥), then we say that 𝑓(𝑥) is a self-inverse function.

• If we have a function 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥) and are able to solve this equation for 𝑥 in terms of 𝑦 write,
then according to the last definition, we must have 𝑥 = 𝑓 −1 (𝑦). If we want to call the
independent variable 𝑥, we interchange 𝑥 and 𝑦 and arrive at the equation 𝑦 = 𝑓 −1 (𝑥).

To get 𝒇−𝟏 (𝒙) ∶

Algebraically

a) 𝐋𝐞𝐭 𝒚 = 𝒇(𝒙),
b) Write 𝒙 in terms of 𝒚,
c) Interchange 𝒙 and 𝒚,
d) Replace 𝒚 by 𝒇−𝟏 (𝒙).

Geometrically
Reflecting the graph of 𝒚 = 𝒇(𝒙) in the line 𝒚 = 𝒙.

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Example: Find the inverse function 𝑓 −1 (𝑥) when 𝑓(𝑥) = 5𝑥 2 + 4, 𝑥 ∈ [0, ∞[. Find the
domain and range of the inverse function.
Solution
We write, 𝑦 = 5𝑥 2 + 4
𝑦–4
⟹ 𝑥2 = 5

𝑦–4
⟹ 𝑥 = +√ 5

Interchanging 𝑥 and 𝑦
𝑥–4
⟹ 𝑦 = √ 5

Replace 𝑦 by 𝑓 −1 (𝑥)
𝑥–4
⟹ 𝑓 −1 (𝑥) = √ 5

The domain of 𝑓(𝑥) is 𝑥 ∈ [ 0, ∞ [ and the range of 𝑓(𝑥) is 𝑦 ∈ [ 4, ∞ [

So, the domain of 𝑓 −1 (𝑥) is 𝑥 ∈ [ 4, ∞ [ and the range of 𝑓 −1 (𝑥) is 𝑦 ∈ [ 0, ∞ [.

𝟒
Example: Find the inverse function and its domain and range if 𝒇(𝒙) = , 𝐟𝐨𝐫 𝒙 ∈
𝒙–𝟑
ℝ − {𝟑}.

Solution
4
Make 𝑥 the subject of 𝑦 = 𝑥 – 3

⟹ 𝑦 (𝑥 − 3) = 4
⟹ 𝑥𝑦 = 3𝑦 + 4
3𝑦 + 4
⟹ 𝑥=
𝑦
Interchanging 𝑥 and 𝑦 and
replace 𝑦 by 𝑓 −1 (𝑥)
3𝑥 + 4
⟹ 𝑦= 𝑥
3𝑥 + 4
⟹ 𝑓 −1 (𝑥) = 𝑥

𝑓 −1 (𝑥) exists for all real values except 𝑥 = 0 ,

So, the domain of 𝑓 −1 (𝑥) is 𝑥 ∈ ℝ − {0}.
The range of 𝑓 −1 (𝑥) is the domain of 𝑓(𝑥) giving 𝑦 ∈ ℝ − {3}.

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Exercise (2)
(1) Express the given limit as a number, as −∞, or as ∞.
1 1
a) lim b) lim
𝑥→5− 𝑥 − 5 𝑥→1 ( 𝑥 − 5 )4

2 10
c) lim d) lim
𝑥→4 + ( 𝑥 +4 )4 𝑥→2− 𝑥 2 − 4

𝑥 2 − 3𝑥 𝑥
e) lim f) lim .
𝑥→∞ 4𝑥 2 + 5 𝑥→−∞ 4𝑥 2 + 1

(2) Graph the rational functions. Include the graphs and equations of the asymptotes

𝑥2 𝑥
a) 𝑓(𝑥) = b) 𝑓(𝑥) =
𝑥 − 1 (𝑥 2 − 1)2

𝑥2 − 1 𝑥 2 + 2𝑥 − 8
c) 𝑓(𝑥) = d) 𝑓(𝑥) =
𝑥 + 1 𝑥2 − 4

𝑥− 2
e) 𝑓(𝑥) = .
( 𝑥 − 1)2 (𝑥−3)

(3) Find the inverse for each of the following functions:

2
a) 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 2 − 2, 𝑥 ∈ ℝ, 𝑥 ≥ 0 b) 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 + 5 , 𝑥 ∈ ℝ, 𝑥 ≠ −5

c) 𝑓(𝑥) = √ 𝑥 − 3, 𝑥 ∈ ℝ, 𝑥 ≥ 3.

(4) The given function f is one-to-one. Without finding the inverse, find the domain and range of 𝑓 −1 .
𝑥–1
a) 𝑓(𝑥) = 3 + √ 2𝑥 − 1 b) 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 – 4 .

(5) Use the definition of inverses to determine whether 𝑓 and 𝑔 are inverses.
1 1
a) 𝑓(𝑥) = 2𝑥 + 4 , 𝑔(𝑥) = 2 𝑥 − 2 b) 𝑓(𝑥) = −3𝑥 + 12, 𝑔(𝑥) = 3 𝑥 − 12
𝑥+1 2𝑥+1 2 6𝑥+2
c) 𝑓(𝑥) = , 𝑔(𝑥) = d) 𝑓(𝑥) = , 𝑔(𝑥) = .
𝑥−2 𝑥−1 𝑥+6 𝑥

𝑥
(6) 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥−1 , 𝑥 ∈ ℝ, 𝑥 ≠ 1. Show that 𝑓(𝑥) is a self-inverse function, that is 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑓 −1 (𝑥).

(7) Challenge
For the given function 𝑓(𝑥) = √𝑥 + 2, 𝑥 ∈ [−2, ∞ [. Find 𝑥 such that 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑓 −1 (𝑥).

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Lecture 3
Angles are measured in radians or degrees
𝑺( units of length )
𝜃 (radians) =
𝒓 ( units of length )

2𝜋 radians (rad) = 360∘

180 ∘
1 rad = ( ) ≈ 57.3∘
𝜋
𝜋
1∘ = 180 rad ≈ 0.017 rad

Graphs of The Trigonometric Functions

A graph of 𝒚 = 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝜽 is generated as a point moves around the unit circle.

Graphs of 𝑦 = sin 𝜃 and 𝑦 = cos 𝜃 over one period of length 2𝜋.

Periodic Function: A function 𝑓(𝑥) is called periodic with period 𝑇 if 𝑓(𝑥 + 𝑇) = 𝑓(𝑥) (for all
𝑥) and 𝑇 is the smallest positive number with this property.
The sine and cosine functions are periodic with period 𝑇 = 2𝜋 since angles that differ by an
integer multiple 2𝜋𝑘 correspond to the same point on the unit circle.
- The functions sin 𝜃 and cos 𝜃 are defined for all real numbers 𝜃. We often write sin 𝑥 and
cos 𝑥 instead of 𝜃 depending on the application.

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Recall that there are four other standard trigonometric functions, each defined in terms of sin 𝑥 and
cos 𝑥.
sin 𝑥 𝑏 cos 𝑥 𝑎
tan 𝑥 = = cot 𝑥 = =
cos 𝑥 𝑎 sin 𝑥 𝑏

1 𝑐 1 𝑐
sec 𝑥 = = csc 𝑥 = =
cos 𝑥 𝑎 sin 𝑥 𝑏

Trigonometric Identities
cos2 𝑥 + sin2 𝑥 = 1 sin(𝑥 + 𝑦) = sin 𝑥 cos 𝑦 + cos 𝑥 sin 𝑦 … … (1)
1 + tan2 𝑥 = sec 2 𝑥 sin(𝑥 − 𝑦) = sin 𝑥 cos 𝑦 − cos 𝑥 sin 𝑦 … … (2)
cot 2 𝑥 + 1 = csc 2 𝑥 cos(𝑥 + 𝑦) = cos 𝑥 cos 𝑦 − sin 𝑥 sin 𝑦 … … (3)
cos(𝑥 − 𝑦) = cos 𝑥 cos 𝑦 + sin 𝑥 sin 𝑦 … … (4)

From (1) sin(2𝑥) = 2 sin 𝑥 cos 𝑥 … … . (5)

From (3) cos(2𝑥) = cos2 𝑥 − sin2 𝑥
cos(2𝑥) = cos2 𝑥 − (1 − cos2 𝑥) = (1 − sin2 𝑥) − sin2 𝑥
cos(2𝑥) = 2 cos 2 𝑥 − 1 = 1 − 2 sin2 𝑥 … … . (6)
𝟏 𝟏
From (6) 𝐜𝐨𝐬𝟐 𝒙 = [ 𝟏 + 𝐜𝐨𝐬(𝟐𝒙) ] and 𝐬𝐢𝐧𝟐 𝒙 = [ 𝟏 − 𝐜𝐨𝐬(𝟐𝒙) ]
𝟐 𝟐

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Inverse Trigonometric Functions
The six trigonometric functions are not 1-1. However, we can restrict their domains to intervals on
which they are one-to-one. So that they can have inverse functions.

Domain restrictions that make the sin, cos, and tan functions 1-1

reflection in the line 𝒚 = 𝒙

𝜋 𝜋
𝑦 = sin−1 𝑥 𝑜𝑟 𝑦 = arcsin 𝑥 ⟺ 𝑥 = sin 𝑦 where −1 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 1 −2 ≤𝑦≤ 2
−1
𝑦 = cos 𝑥 𝑜𝑟 𝑦 = arccos 𝑥 ⟺ 𝑥 = cos 𝑦 where −1 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 1 0≤𝑦≤𝜋
𝜋 𝜋
𝑦 = tan−1 𝑥 𝑜𝑟 𝑦 = arctan 𝑥 ⟺ 𝑥 = tan 𝑦 where −∞ < 𝑥 < ∞ −2<𝑦< 2

Examples:
√3 𝜋 1 𝜋
(1) sin−1( 2 ) = (2) sin−1(− ) = −4
3 √2
−1 1 𝜋 −1 1 2𝜋
(3) cos ( ) = 4 (4) cos (− 2) = 3
√2
1 𝜋 𝜋
(5) tan−1 ( ) = 6 (6) tan−1 (−√3) = − .
3
√3

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Examples:
𝜋 𝜋
(a) sin−1(sin 6 ) = 6 .

1 1
(b) cos −1(cos ) = .
3 3

3𝜋 𝜋
(c) tan−1 (tan ) = tan−1(−1) = − 4 .
4

𝟑
Example: Find 𝐭𝐚𝐧(𝐬𝐢𝐧−𝟏 (𝟒)).

Solution

3 3
Method 1: You need to find tan 𝜃 given that 𝜃 = sin−1 (4) → sin 𝜃 = 4

3 2 √7
∵ cos 2 𝜃 + sin2 𝜃 = 1 ⟹ cos 𝜃 = √ 1 − (4) = 4
(taking +ve root for cosine in the 1st quadrant)

3
sin 𝜃 3 3 3
Hence, tan 𝜃 =
cos 𝜃
= 4
= and tan(sin−1 (4)) = .
√7 √7 √7
4

3
Method 2: Draw a triangle to show sin 𝜃 = 4

Use Pythagoras’ Theorem:

𝑥 2 + 32 = 42

𝑥 = √16 − 9 = √7

3 3 3
So tan 𝜃 = and tan(sin−1 (4)) =
√7 √7

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Definition: Exponential functions

The function 𝒇(𝒙) = 𝒂𝒙 ; 𝑥 is a real number, 𝑎 > 0, 𝑎 ≠ 1, is called the exponential function,
base 𝑎.

𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑎 𝑥 , 0 < 𝑎 < 1 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑎 𝑥 , 𝑎 > 1

The domain is 𝑥 ∈ ] −∞, ∞ [ The domain is 𝑥 ∈ ] −∞, ∞ [
The range is 𝑦 ∈ ] 0, ∞ [ The range is 𝑦 ∈ ] 0, ∞ [
Horizontal Asymptote 𝑦 = 0 Horizontal Asymptote 𝑦 = 0
decreasing on its domain. increasing on its domain.

The Natural Exponential Function

𝒇(𝒙) = 𝒆𝒙

which has the base, 𝒆 ≈ 2.718281828459 …

Among all exponential functions 𝑦 = 𝑎 𝑥 , the base 𝒆 is the unique

base for which the slope of the tangent line to the graph of
𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑒 𝑥 at the point (0,1) is equal to 1. ( i.e. 𝑓 ′ (0) = 1 ).

We shall show later that

𝟏 𝒏
𝒆 = 𝐥𝐢𝐦 ( 𝟏 + ) .
𝒏→∞ 𝒏

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Logarithmic functions
𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑎 𝑥 has an inverse 𝑓 −1 , which is called the logarithmic function with base 𝒂 and is denoted
by 𝐥𝐨𝐠 𝒂 .
∵ 𝑓 −1 (𝑥) = 𝑦 ⇔ 𝑥 = 𝑓(𝑦)

Then we have log 𝑎 𝑥 = 𝑦 ⇔ 𝑥 = 𝑎𝑦

Thus, if 𝑥 > 0, then log 𝑎 𝑥 is the exponent to which the base 𝑎 must be raised to give 𝑥.

For 𝑥 > 0 , 𝑎 > 0, 𝑎 ≠ 1. The logarithmic function has domain ] 0, ∞ [ and range ] −∞, ∞ [

Inverse Properties for 𝒂𝒙 𝐚𝐧𝐝 𝐥𝐨𝐠 𝒂 𝒙

− 𝐥𝐨𝐠 𝒂 𝒂𝒙 = 𝒙 for every 𝒙 ∈ ℝ

− 𝒂𝐥𝐨𝐠 𝒂 𝒙 = 𝒙 for every 𝒙 > 𝟎

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Natural Logarithms

𝐥𝐨𝐠 𝒆 𝒙 = 𝐥𝐧 𝒙 (𝒂=𝒆)

- ln 𝑥 = 𝑦 ⇔ 𝑥 = 𝑒𝑦

- ln 𝑒 = 1

- ln 𝑒 𝑥 = 𝑥 , 𝑥∈ℝ

- 𝑒 ln 𝑥 = 𝑥 , 𝑥>0

- lim ln 𝑥 = ∞
𝑥→∞

- lim ln 𝑥 = − ∞
𝑥→0+

Change of base formula

Every logarithmic function is a constant multiple of the natural logarithm

ln 𝑥
log 𝑎 𝑥 = ln 𝑎

For 𝑎, 𝑏 > 0 and 𝑐 any real number

- ln(𝑎𝑏) = ln 𝑎 + ln 𝑏
𝑎
- ln ( 𝑏 ) = ln 𝑎 − ln 𝑏

- ln 𝑎𝑐 = 𝑐 ln 𝑎

Example: Find the inverse function 𝒇−𝟏 (𝒙) for the function 𝒇(𝒙) = 𝟏 + 𝒆−𝒙 . Sketch
the graphs of 𝒇(𝒙) and 𝒇−𝟏 (𝒙) on the same diagram, labeling any intersections with
the coordinate axes. Give the domain and range of 𝒇−𝟏 (𝒙) .
Solution

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𝑦 = 1 + 𝑒 −𝑥

⟹ ln(𝑦 − 1) = ln(𝑒 −𝑥 ) = −𝑥

Interchanging 𝑥 and 𝑦.

⟹ ln(𝑥 − 1) = −𝑦

⟹ 𝑦 = − ln(𝑥 − 1)

∴ 𝑓 −1 (𝑥) = − ln(𝑥 − 1)

Domain 𝑓 −1 (𝑥) is 𝑥 ∈ ]1, ∞[

Range 𝑓 −1 (𝑥) is 𝑦 ∈ ]−∞, ∞[

Exercise
(1) Solve the equations
(a) 2 cos2 𝑥 = 1 − sin 𝑥 for 0 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 2𝜋.

(b) cos 2 𝑥 = cos 𝑥 for 0 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 2𝜋.

(c) sin 𝑥 = cos 𝑥 for 0 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 2𝜋.

(2) Sketch the graph of the function identifying the range and domain.

(a) 𝑦 = −1 + 2 cos 𝑥 (b) 𝑦 = 2 − sin 𝑥

𝜋
(c) 𝑦 = − tan 𝑥 (d) 𝑦 = 3 − 3 sin(𝑥 + 2 )
4 𝑥 𝜋
(e) 𝑦 = 𝜋 tan−1(𝑥 − 3) (f) 𝑦 = sin−1 ( 3 ) + 2
𝜋
(h) 𝑦 = + cos −1(𝑥 + 1)
2

(3) Write the expression in algebraic form.

(a) cos (sin−1(2𝑥)) (b) sec( sin−1(𝑥 − 1))

(c) sin( 2 cos−1 𝑥 ) (Hint use : sin 2𝜃 = 2 sin 𝜃 cos 𝜃).

(4) Solve, where possible

(a) 𝑒 2𝑥 − 7𝑒 𝑥 + 12 = 0 (b) 𝑒 4𝑥 + 4𝑒 2𝑥 − 5 = 0
(c) 3 ln(𝑥 2 ) + 5 ln 𝑥 = 6 (d) 𝑒 𝑥 + 5𝑒 −𝑥 = 6

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(5) Using Transformations, sketch the graph of each function and state the horizontal Asymptote.
(a) 𝑓(𝑥) = 1 − 𝑒 −𝑥 (b) 𝑓(𝑥) = −𝑒 −𝑥−2 + 3.
2
(c) 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑒 −𝑥 (d) 𝑓(𝑥) = 2 + 𝑒 𝑥
(e) 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑒 𝑥 − 2

(6) Find the domain of the given function. Find the 𝒙 − intercept and the vertical Asymptote of the
graph. Use transformations to sketch the graph.

(a) 𝑓(𝑥) = ln(𝑥 + 2) (b) 𝑓(𝑥) = 1 − ln(1 − 𝑥).

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Lecture 4 [ The Derivative ]

Tangent lines and rates of change

Consider the curve 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥) and a secant line intersecting the curve at the points 𝑃(𝑎, 𝑓(𝑎)) and
𝑄(𝑎 + ℎ, 𝑓(𝑎 + ℎ))

⃡ is
The slope of the secant line 𝑃𝑄

𝑓(𝑎 + ℎ) − 𝑓(𝑎)
𝑚𝑠𝑒𝑐 =
ℎ
= The average rate of change of 𝑓
on the interval [𝑎 , 𝑎 + ℎ]

As ℎ approaches zero (ℎ → 0)
𝑓(𝑎+ℎ)−𝑓(𝑎)
𝑚𝑡𝑎𝑛 = lim (provided existence) (∗)
ℎ→0 ℎ

= The slope of the tangent line at 𝑥 = 𝑎

= The instantaneous rate of change of 𝑓
at 𝑥 = 𝑎

= 𝑓′ (𝑎) (the derivative of 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥) at 𝑥 = 𝑎)

Equation of the tangent line through (𝑎, 𝑓(𝑎)) with slope 𝑚𝑡𝑎𝑛 = 𝑓 ′ (𝑎) is

𝑦 − 𝑓(𝑎) = 𝑓 ′ (𝑎) (𝑥 − 𝑎)

Replacing 𝑎 by 𝑥 in the expression (∗) gives the definition of the derivative.

The derivative
𝑓(𝑥 + ℎ) − 𝑓(𝑥)
𝑓 ′ (𝑥) = lim
ℎ→0 ℎ

𝑓 ′ (𝑥), when it exists, is the slope of the tangent line (and the instantaneous rate of change) at the
variable point (𝑥, 𝑓(𝑥)).

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The most common notations used to denote the derivative of 𝒚 = 𝒇(𝒙)
𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑓 𝑑
𝑓′ (𝑥) , , , (𝑓(𝑥)) , 𝑦′ (𝑥) , 𝐷𝑥 (𝑓(𝑥)).
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥

Example: 𝐋𝐞𝐭 𝒚 = 𝒇(𝒙) = √𝒙 ;

𝒅𝒚
(1) Compute ,
𝒅𝒙
(2) Find an equation of the line tangent to the graph of 𝒇 at (4, 2).
Solution
𝑓( 𝑥 + ℎ ) − 𝑓(𝑥)
(1) 𝑓 ′ (𝑥) = lim
ℎ→0 ℎ

√ 𝑥 + ℎ − √𝑥 √ 𝑥 + ℎ − √𝑥 ( √𝑥 + ℎ + √𝑥 )
= lim = lim .( +ℎ + 𝑥 )
ℎ→0 ℎ ℎ→0 ℎ √𝑥 √

𝑥 + ℎ − 𝑥 ℎ
= lim ℎ ( = lim ℎ
ℎ→0 √𝑥+ℎ + √ 𝑥) ℎ→0 (√𝑥 + ℎ + √𝑥 )

1 1 1
= lim = = .
ℎ→0 √ 𝑥 + ℎ + √𝑥 √𝑥 + √𝑥 2√𝑥

(2) The slope of the tangent line at (4, 2) is

𝑑𝑦 1 1
| = =
𝑑𝑥 𝑥=4 2√4 4
Therefore, an equation of the tangent line is
1 1
𝑦−2= (𝑥 − 4) or 𝑦= 𝑥 +1
4 4

Rules of differentiation
𝒅
𝑪=𝟎 , 𝑪 is any real number.
𝒅𝒙
𝒅
𝒙𝒓 = 𝒓 𝒙𝒓−𝟏 , for any real number 𝑟.
𝒅𝒙

𝒅
𝑪 𝒇(𝒙) = 𝑪 𝒇′ (𝒙)
𝒅𝒙
𝒅
[𝒇(𝒙) ± 𝒈(𝒙)] = 𝒇′ (𝒙) ± 𝒈′ (𝒙)
𝒅𝒙
𝒅
[𝒇(𝒙) ∙ 𝒈(𝒙)] = 𝒇(𝒙) ∙ 𝒈′ (𝒙) ± 𝒈(𝒙) ∙ 𝒇′ (𝒙)
𝒅𝒙
𝒅 𝒇(𝒙) 𝒈(𝒙) ∙ 𝒇′ (𝒙) − 𝒇(𝒙) ∙ 𝒈′ (𝒙)
[ ]= ; 𝒈(𝒙) ≠ 𝟎.
𝒅𝒙 𝒈(𝒙) [ 𝒈(𝒙) ]𝟐

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Example:

𝑑
5=0
𝑑𝑥
𝑑
𝑥=1
𝑑𝑥
𝑑 𝑑 1⁄2 1 −1⁄2 1 1 1
√𝑥 = 𝑥 = 𝑥 = 1⁄2
=
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 2 2𝑥 2√𝑥

𝑑 −3⁄2 3
𝑥 = − 𝑥 −5⁄2
𝑑𝑥 2
𝑑
5𝑥 2 = 10𝑥
𝑑𝑥
𝑑 1 𝑑 −1 −1
( )= 𝑥 = (−1) 𝑥 −2 = 2
𝑑𝑥 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑥
𝑑 1 −2
( 2)= 3
𝑑𝑥 𝑥 𝑥
𝑑 −1 4
( 𝑥 + 3𝑥 3 − 2𝑥 ) = −2𝑥 3 + 9𝑥 2 − 2
𝑑𝑥 2
𝑑
[(3𝑥 2 − 5𝑥)(𝑥 3 + 2𝑥 2 + 9)] = (3𝑥 2 − 5𝑥)(6𝑥 + 4𝑥) + (𝑥 3 + 2𝑥 2 + 9)(6𝑥 − 5)
𝑑𝑥
2 2 2
𝑑 3− 𝑥 ( 𝑥 + 4 ) ( 2 ) – ( 3 − )(1)
𝑥 𝑥
( )=
𝑑𝑥 𝑥 + 4 ( 𝑥 + 4 )2

The Chain Rule

Let 𝑢 = 𝑔(𝑥) and 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑢)

⟹ The derivative of the composite function 𝑦 = 𝑓( 𝑔(𝑥) ) can be expressed as

𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑢
= ∙ (Version 1)
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑢 𝑑𝑥

OR
𝑑
𝑓(𝑔(𝑥)) = 𝑓′ (𝑔(𝑥)) ∙ 𝑔′ (𝑥) (Version 2)
𝑑𝑥

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Example: Find 𝒚′ . If 𝒚 = (𝒙𝟑 + 𝒙 − 𝟏)𝟓
Solution

Let 𝑢 = 𝑥 3 + 𝑥 − 1 ⟹ 𝑦 = 𝑢5
𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑢
and = ∙ = 5𝑢4 ∙ 𝑢′ = 5(𝑥 3 + 𝑥 − 1)4 ∙ (3𝑥 2 + 1).
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑢 𝑑𝑥

Example: Find 𝒚′ . If 𝒚 = √𝟑𝒙 − 𝒙𝟐 − 𝟏

Solution

Let 𝑢 = 3𝑥 − 𝑥 2 − 1 ⟹ 𝑦 = √𝑢
𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑢 1 1 1
and = ∙ =2 ∙ 𝑢′ = 2 ∙ 𝑢′ = ∙ (3 − 2𝑥).
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑢 𝑑𝑥 √𝑢 √ 𝑢 2√3𝑥−𝑥 2 −1

The General Power Rule

If 𝑦 = [ 𝑢(𝑥 ) ]𝑛
𝑑𝑦
Then = 𝑛 [ 𝑢(𝑥 ) ]𝑛−1 ∙ 𝑢′ (𝑥 ).
𝑑𝑥

𝟏 + 𝟒𝒙
Example: Find 𝒚′ . If 𝒚 = ( )𝟑
𝟏 – 𝟒𝒙
Solution
1 + 4𝑥 2 (1−4𝑥)(4)− (1+4𝑥)(−4)
𝑦′ = 3 ( ) ∙( ).
1 – 4𝑥 (1−4𝑥 )2

Repeated use of the Chain Rule

Example: Find 𝒚′ . If 𝒚 = ( √𝒙𝟑 + 𝟒 − 𝟑𝒙𝟒 )𝟑⁄𝟐 .

Solution

3 3𝑥 2
𝑦′ = ( √𝑥 3 + 4 − 3𝑥 4 )1⁄2 ∙ ( − 12 𝑥 3 ).
2 3
2√𝑥 + 4

Example: Find 𝒚′ . If 𝒚 = √ 𝟏 + √𝟏 + √𝒙.

Solution

1 1 1
𝑦′ = ∙( ).( ).
2 √𝟏 + √𝒙 2 √𝑥
2 √𝟏 + √𝟏 + √𝒙

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( Fall 2021 )
Higher Order Derivatives
Higher derivatives are obtained by repeatedly differentiating a function 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥). If 𝑓 ′ (𝑥) is
differentiable, then the second derivative, denoted 𝑓 ′′ or 𝑦 ′′ , is the derivative
𝑑
𝑓 ′′ (𝑥) = (𝑓 ′ (𝑥))
𝑑𝑥
The second derivative is the rate of change of 𝑓 ′ (𝑥). The process of differentiation can be continued,
provided that the derivatives exist. The third derivative, denoted 𝑓 ′′′ (𝑥) is the derivative of 𝑓 ′′ (𝑥).
More generally the nth derivative 𝑓 (𝑛) (𝑥) is the derivative of the (𝑛 − 1)st derivative.

Example: Calculate 𝒇′′′ (−𝟏) for 𝒇(𝒙) = 𝟑𝒙𝟓 − 𝟐𝒙𝟐 + 𝟕𝒙−𝟐 .

Solution
We must calculate the first three derivatives:
𝑓 ′ (𝑥) = 15𝑥 4 − 4𝑥 − 14𝑥 −3
𝑑
𝑓 ′′ (𝑥) = 𝑑𝑥 (15𝑥 4 − 4𝑥 − 14𝑥 −3 ) = 60𝑥 3 − 4 + 42𝑥 −4
𝑑
𝑓 ′′ ′(𝑥) = 𝑑𝑥 (60𝑥 3 − 4 + 42𝑥 −4 ) = 180𝑥 2 − 168𝑥 −5

At 𝑥 = −1, 𝑓 ′′′ (−1) = 180 + 168 = 348.

Ecercise

(1) Use the definition of the derivative to find 𝑓 ′ (𝑥):

(a) 𝑓(𝑥) = √𝑥 + 1 (b) 𝑓(𝑥) = ( 𝑥 + 1 )2 .

(2) Find the first derivative of the following functions:

(i) 𝑦 = (4𝑥 3 + 5)(𝑥 4 − 2𝑥)3

3𝑥 + 2
(ii) 𝑦 = √ 7𝑥 – 2
8 6
(iii) 𝑦 = 4 √𝑥 + – 3 + 3𝜋 2 + 𝑥 𝜋 .
𝑥 √𝑥

(3) Find the points on the curve 𝑦 = 𝑥 3 + 3𝑥 2 − 4 where the tangent is parallel to the line 𝑦 =
9𝑥 − 2.

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( Fall 2021 )
(4) Find the second derivative of the following functions:
(i) 𝑦 = (1 − 5𝑥 )2⁄3
𝑥3
(ii) 𝑦= (𝑥+1)
.

(5) Find the points on the graph of 𝑓(𝑥) = −𝑥 3 + 3𝑥 2 + 2 where the tangent is horizontal?

(6) Match the graph of each function in (a) – (d) with the graph of its derivative in (i) – (iv).

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 P a g e | 36
( Fall 2021 )

Lecture 5
Derivatives of sine and cosine functions
𝒅 𝒅
𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒙 = 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝒙 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝒙 = − 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒙
𝒅𝒙 𝒅𝒙

The derivatives of the other Trigonometric functions are

𝒅 𝒅
𝐭𝐚𝐧 𝒙 = 𝐬𝐞𝐜 𝟐 𝒙 𝐜𝐨𝐭 𝒙 = −𝐜𝐬𝐜 𝟐 𝒙
𝒅𝒙 𝒅𝒙
𝒅 𝒅
𝐬𝐞𝐜 𝒙 = 𝐬𝐞𝐜 𝒙 𝐭𝐚𝐧 𝒙 𝐜𝐬𝐜 𝒙 = −𝐜𝐬𝐜 𝒙 𝐜𝐨𝐭 𝒙
𝒅𝒙 𝒅𝒙

𝒅
Verify the formula 𝐭𝐚𝐧 𝒙 = 𝐬𝐞𝐜 𝟐 𝒙
𝒅𝒙
Solution

Use the Quotient Rule and the identity cos2 𝑥 + sin2 𝑥 = 1:

𝑑 𝑑 sin 𝑥 cos 𝑥 (cos 𝑥) − sin 𝑥 (− sin 𝑥) cos 2 𝑥 + sin2 𝑥 1
tan 𝑥 = ( )= 2
= 2
= = sec 2 𝑥 .
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 cos 𝑥 cos 𝑥 cos 𝑥 cos 2 𝑥

Example: Find the derivative of 𝒚 = 𝐬𝐞𝐜 𝒙 ∙ 𝐜𝐬𝐜 𝒙

Solution
𝑦 ′ = sec 𝑥 (− csc 𝑥 cot 𝑥 ) + csc 𝑥 (sec 𝑥 tan 𝑥 ).

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𝐬𝐞𝐜 𝒙
Example: Find the derivative of 𝒚 = 𝟏 +𝐭𝐚𝐧 𝒙

Solution

′
(1 + tan 𝑥)(sec 𝑥 tan 𝑥) − sec 𝑥 (sec 2 𝑥) sec 𝑥 (tan 𝑥 + tan2 𝑥 − sec 2 𝑥)
𝑦 = =
(1 + tan 𝑥)2 (1 + tan 𝑥)2
sec 𝑥 (tan 𝑥 −1 )
= .
(1 +tan 𝑥)2

If 𝑢 = 𝑔(𝑥) is a differentiable function, then applying the chain rule:

𝒅 𝒅
𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒖 = 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝒖 ∙ 𝒖′ 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝒖 = − 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒖 ∙ 𝒖′
𝒅𝒙 𝒅𝒙
𝒅 𝒅
𝐭𝐚𝐧 𝒖 = 𝐬𝐞𝐜 𝟐 𝒖 ∙ 𝒖′ 𝐜𝐨𝐭 𝒖 = −𝐜𝐬𝐜 𝟐 𝒖 ∙ 𝒖′
𝒅𝒙 𝒅𝒙
𝒅 𝒅
𝐬𝐞𝐜 𝒖 = 𝐬𝐞𝐜 𝒖 𝐭𝐚𝐧 𝒖 ∙ 𝒖′ 𝐜𝐬𝐜 𝒖 = −𝐜𝐬𝐜 𝒖 𝐜𝐨𝐭 𝒖 ∙ 𝒖′
𝒅𝒙 𝒅𝒙

Example: Find 𝒚′ if,

1) 𝑦 = cos(𝑥 3 ) ⟹ 𝑦 ′ = − sin(𝑥 3 ) ∙ 3𝑥 2 .

2) 𝑦 = csc 4 (𝑥 2 ) ⟹ 𝑦 ′ = 4 csc 3 (𝑥 2 ) ∙ (− csc(𝑥 2 )cot (𝑥 2 )) ∙ 2𝑥.

1
3) 𝑦 = √ 1 + tan4 𝑥 ⟹ 𝑦′ = (4 tan3 𝑥 ∙ sec 2 𝑥 ).
2√1+tan4 𝑥

4) 𝑦 = sin (cos (sin 𝑥)) ⟹ 𝑦 ′ = cos(cos(sin 𝑥)) ∙ (− sin(sin 𝑥)) ∙ (cos 𝑥).
cos (1+x) (1+cos 𝑥) ∙ (− sin(1+𝑥)) − cos (1+𝑥) ∙ (− sin 𝑥)
5) 𝑦 = ⟹ 𝑦′ = ( 1+cos 𝑥)2
1+cos 𝑥

6) 𝑦 = [ 1 + cot 5 (𝑥 4 + 1)]9 ⟹ 𝑦 ′ = 9[1 + cot 5 (𝑥 4 + 1)]8 ∙ 5 cot 4 (𝑥 4 + 1) ∙ (− csc 2 (𝑥 4 + 1)) ∙ 4𝑥 3 .

Example: Find the equation of the tangent line to 𝒚 = 𝒙 𝐜𝐨𝐬(𝒙𝟐 ) + 𝟑 at the point (𝟎, 𝟑).

Solution

∵ 𝑦 = 𝑥 cos(𝑥2 ) + 3 ⟹ ∴ 𝑦 ′ = 𝑥 (− sin(𝑥 2 ) ∙ 2𝑥) + cos(𝑥 2 )

⇒ The slope at 𝑥 = 0 is 𝑚 = 𝑦 ′ |𝑥=0 = 1

∴ An equation of the tangent line is (𝑦 − 3) = (1)(𝑥 − 0) or 𝑦 = 𝑥 + 3.

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( Fall 2021 )
Derivatives of Inverse trigonometric functions
𝑑
sin−1 𝑥 =? ?
𝑑𝑥
𝜋 𝜋
Let 𝑦 = sin−1 𝑥 ⇔ 𝑥 = sin 𝑦 −2 ≤ 𝑦 ≤ 2
𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑦 1
⟹ 1 = cos 𝑦 𝑑𝑥
⟹ 𝑑𝑥
= cos 𝑦
𝜋 𝜋
and cos 𝑦 > 0 since − 2 ≤ 𝑦 ≤ 2
, so cos 𝑦 = √1 − sin2 𝑦 = √ 1 − 𝑥 2

𝑑𝑦 1 1
Therefore = =
𝑑𝑥 cos 𝑦 √ 1 − 𝑥2

𝑑 1
sin−1 𝑥 = −1≤𝑥 ≤1
𝑑𝑥 √ 1 − 𝑥2

The general formulas of the derivative of inverse trigonometric functions

𝑑 1 𝑑 −1
1. sin−1 𝑢 = . 𝑢′ |𝑢| < 1 2. cos −1 𝑢 = . 𝑢′ |𝑢| < 1
𝑑𝑥 √ 1 − 𝑢2 𝑑𝑥 √ 1 − 𝑢2

𝑑 1 𝑑 −1
3. tan−1 𝑢 = . 𝑢′ 4. cot −1 𝑢 = . 𝑢′
𝑑𝑥 1+ 𝑢2 𝑑𝑥 1+ 𝑢2

𝑑 1 𝑑 −1
5. sec −1 𝑢 = . 𝑢′ |𝑢| > 1 6. csc −1 𝑢 = . 𝑢′ |𝑢| > 1
𝑑𝑥 |𝑢| √𝑢2 − 1 𝑑𝑥 |𝑢| √𝑢2 − 1

𝒅𝒚
Example: Find for each the following :
𝒅𝒙

1) 𝒚 = 𝒙 ∙ 𝐬𝐢𝐧−𝟏 𝒙
1
⟹ 𝑦′ = 𝑥 ∙ + sin−1 𝑥 ∙ (1).
√ 1 − 𝑥2

2) 𝒚 = 𝒙 ∙ 𝐭𝐚𝐧−𝟏 (𝒙𝟐 ) + (𝐜𝐬𝐜 −𝟏 𝟑𝒙)𝟐

2𝑥 −𝟏 (𝒙𝟐 ) + 2 (𝐜𝐬𝐜−𝟏 𝟑𝒙) ∙ (
−3
⟹ 𝑦′ = 𝑥 ∙ + 𝐭𝐚𝐧 ).
1 + (𝑥 2 )2 3𝑥 √(3𝑥)2 − 1

3) 𝒚 = 𝐜𝐨𝐭(𝐜𝐨𝐬 −𝟏 (𝒙𝟐 )) + 𝐜𝐨𝐭 −𝟏 (𝐜𝐨𝐬𝟐𝒙)

− 2𝑥 −1
⟹ 𝑦 ′ = − csc 2( (cos−1 (𝑥2 )) ∙ +( 1+ (cos 2𝑥)2
∙ (−2 sin 2𝑥 ) )
√ 1 − (𝑥 2 )2

4) 𝒚 = 𝒙𝟐 𝐭𝐚𝐧−𝟏 (√𝒙) + 𝐬𝐞𝐜 −𝟏 (𝟒𝒙)

1 1 4
⟹ 𝑦′ = 𝑥2 ∙ 𝟐 ∙ + tan−1 (√𝑥 ) ∙ 2𝑥 + .
1+(√𝒙) 2 √𝑥 4𝑥 √ (4𝑥)2 − 1

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( Fall 2021 )
𝐭𝐚𝐧−𝟏 (√𝒙)
5) 𝒚 =
𝐜𝐨𝐬 −𝟏 (𝒙)
1 1 −1
cos−1 (𝑥) ∙ ( )( ) − tan−1 ( √𝑥 ) ∙ ( )
′ 1 + 𝑥 2√𝑥 √ 1 − 𝑥2
⟹𝑦 = ( cos−1 𝑥)2
.

𝟏 𝒙𝟑 + 𝟏
6) 𝒚 = 𝐬𝐢𝐧−𝟏 (𝒙)
+ 𝐜𝐨𝐭 −𝟏 ( 𝒙𝟑 − 𝟏
)

1
0 − ( )
′ √ 1 − 𝑥2 ( −1 ) ( 𝑥 3 −1 )∙( 3𝑥 2 ) − ( 𝑥 3 + 1 )∙(3𝑥 2 )
⟹𝑦 = ( sin−1 𝑥)2
+ 𝒙𝟑 + 𝟏
[ ( 𝑥 3 −1 )2
].
1 +( 𝟑 )2
𝒙 − 𝟏

Implicit Differentiation
Fortunately, we don’t need to solve an equation for 𝑦 in terms of 𝑥 in order to find the derivative of

𝑦. Instead we can use the method of Implicit differentiation. This consists of differentiating both
sides of the equation with respect to 𝑥 and then solving the resulting equation for 𝑦 ′ .

𝒅𝒚
Example: Find for 𝟑𝒚𝟐 + 𝟐𝒚 + 𝒙𝟐 𝒚 = 𝒙𝟑
𝒅𝒙
Solution

Differentiating both sides with respect to 𝑥

⟹ 6 𝑦 𝑦 ′ + 2 𝑦 ′ + 𝑥 2 𝑦 ′ + 2𝑥𝑦 = 3𝑥 2

⟹ 𝑦 ′ [ 6𝑦 + 2 + 𝑥 2 ] = 3𝑥 2 − 2𝑥𝑦

3𝑥 2 −2𝑥𝑦
⟹ 𝑦′ = [ ].
6𝑦 +2 + 𝑥2

𝒅𝒚
Example: Find for 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒚 − 𝐜𝐨𝐬(𝒙𝒚) = 𝒙 − 𝒚.
𝒅𝒙

Solution
Differentiating both sides with respect to 𝑥

⟹ cos 𝑦 ∙ 𝑦 ′ + sin(𝑥𝑦) [ 𝑥 ∙ 𝑦 ′ + 𝑦] = 1 − 𝑦 ′

⟹ 𝑦 ′ [ cos 𝑦 + 𝑥 sin(𝑥𝑦) + 1] = 1 − 𝑦 sin(𝑥𝑦)

1 − 𝑦 sin(𝑥𝑦)
⟹ 𝑦′ = [ ].
cos 𝑦 + 𝑥 sin(𝑥𝑦) + 1

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Derivative of the exponential function (𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑒 𝑥 )
𝑓( 𝑥 + ℎ ) − 𝑓(𝑥)
𝑓 ′ (𝑥) = lim
ℎ→0 ℎ

𝑒 𝑥+ℎ − 𝑒 𝑥 𝑒ℎ ∙ 𝑒𝑥 − 𝑒𝑥 𝑒 𝑥 ∙(𝑒 ℎ − 1 )
= lim = lim = lim
ℎ→0 ℎ ℎ→0 ℎ ℎ→0 ℎ

(𝑒 ℎ − 1 )
= 𝑒 𝑥 lim = 𝑒 𝑥 ∙ 𝑓 ′ (0) = 𝑒 𝑥 ∙ (1) = 𝑒 𝑥
ℎ→0 ℎ

𝑑 𝑥
𝑒 = 𝑒𝑥
𝑑𝑥

Derivative of the exponential function (𝒇(𝒙) = 𝒂𝒙 )

∵ 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑎 𝑥 = (𝑒 ln 𝑎 )𝑥 = 𝑒 𝑥 ln 𝑎 ⟹ 𝑓 ′ (𝑥) = 𝑒 𝑥 ln 𝑎 ∙ ln 𝑎 ( Chain Rule )

𝑑
⟹ 𝑎𝑥 = 𝑎𝑥 ∙ ln 𝑎
𝑑𝑥

𝑑
Ex: 5𝑥 = 5𝑥 ∙ ln 5.
𝑑𝑥

Derivative of the logarithmic function (𝒇(𝒙) = 𝐥𝐧 𝒙)

𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑦 1 1
∵ 𝑦 = ln 𝑥 ⇔ 𝑒𝑦 = 𝑥 ⟹ 𝑒𝑦 ∙ 𝑑𝑥 = 1 ⟹ 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑒𝑦 = 𝑥

𝑑 1
⟹ 𝑑𝑥
ln 𝑥 = 𝑥

Derivative of the logarithmic function (𝒇(𝒙) = 𝐥𝐨𝐠 𝒂 𝒙)

𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑦 1 1
∵ 𝑦 = log𝑎 𝑥 ⇔ 𝑎𝑦 = 𝑥 ⟹ 𝑎𝑦 ∙ ln 𝑎 ∙ 𝑑𝑥 = 1 ⟹ 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑎𝑦 ∙ ln 𝑎 = 𝑥 ln 𝑎

𝑑 1
⟹ 𝑑𝑥
log 𝑎 𝑥 = 𝑥 ln 𝑎

In general:
𝒅 𝒅
1) 𝒆𝒖 = 𝒆𝒖 ∙ 𝒖′ 2) 𝒂𝒖 = 𝒂𝒖 ∙ 𝒖′ ∙ 𝐥𝐧 𝒂
𝒅𝒙 𝒅𝒙

𝒅 𝟏 𝒅 𝟏
3) 𝐥𝐧 𝒖 = ∙ 𝒖′ 4) 𝐥𝐨𝐠 𝒂 𝒖 = ∙ 𝒖′
𝒅𝒙 𝒖 𝒅𝒙 𝒖 𝐥𝐧 𝒂

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𝒅𝒚
Example: Find if:
𝒅𝒙

𝑥2
1- 𝑦 = 𝑥𝑒 2𝑥 + 𝑥 𝑒 + 2𝑒 + 7𝑒

𝑥2 2
⟹ 𝑦 ′ = 𝑥 ∙ 𝑒 2𝑥 (2) + 𝑒 2𝑥 + 2𝑒 ∙ 𝑒 𝑥 ∙ 2𝑥 ∙ ln 2 .

2- 𝑦 = tan(𝑒 tan 𝑥 ) + log 5 (𝑥 2 + 1)

2𝑥
⟹ 𝑦 ′ = sec 2 (𝑒 tan 𝑥 ) ∙ 𝑒 tan 𝑥 ∙ sec 2 𝑥 + ( 𝑥 2 +1 ) ∙ ln 5
.

3- 𝑦 = cos(1 − 𝑒 −𝑥 ) + sin(3𝑥 )

⟹ 𝑦 ′ = − sin(1 − 𝑒 −𝑥 ) ∙ 𝑒 −𝑥 + cos(3𝑥 ) ∙ 3𝑥 ∙ ln 3 .
−1
4- 𝑦 = ln(sec(ln 𝑥)) + 𝑒 tan 𝑥

−1 𝑥
1 1 −1 1 tan(ln 𝑥) 𝑒 tan
⟹ 𝑦 ′ = sec(ln 𝑥) ∙ sec(ln 𝑥) ∙ tan(ln 𝑥) ∙ + 𝑒 tan 𝑥
∙ 1+𝑥 2 = + .
𝑥 𝑥 1+𝑥 2

𝒅
To find [ 𝒇(𝒙)𝒈(𝒙) ] , Logarithmic differentiation could be used, as in the next example.
𝒅𝒙

Example: Differentiate 𝒚 = 𝒙√𝒙 .

Solution
Take ln both sides,

⟹ ln 𝑦 = ln 𝑥 √𝑥 ⟹ ln 𝑦 = √𝑥 ln 𝑥

1 1 1 √𝑥 ln 𝑥
⟹ 𝑦 ′ = √𝑥 ∙ + ln 𝑥 ∙ 2 ⟹ 𝑦 ′ = 𝑦[ +2 ]
𝑦 𝑥 √𝑥 𝑥 √𝑥

√𝑥 ln 𝑥
⟹ 𝑦 ′ = 𝑥 √𝑥 ∙ [ +2 ].
𝑥 √𝑥

1 1 √𝑥 ln 𝑥
Or 𝑦 = 𝑒 √𝑥 ∙ ln 𝑥 ⟹ 𝑦 ′ = 𝑒 √𝑥 ∙ ln 𝑥 [√𝑥 ∙ 𝑥
+ ln 𝑥 ∙ 2
√𝑥
] = 𝑥 √𝑥 ∙ [ 𝑥
+2
√𝑥
].

Taking the derivative of some complicated functions can be simplified by using logarithms.

𝒙 √ 𝒙𝟐 + 𝟏
Example: Find 𝒚′ if 𝒚 = (𝒙+𝟏)𝟓 (𝟑𝒙𝟐 +𝟏 )𝟐

Solution

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ln 𝑦 = ln (𝑥 √𝑥 2 + 1 ) − ln((𝑥 + 1 )5 (3𝑥 2 + 1 )2 )

ln 𝑦 = ln 𝑥 + ln √𝑥 2 + 1 − [ln(𝑥 + 1 )5 + ln(3𝑥 2 + 1 )2 ]

1
ln 𝑦 = ln 𝑥 + ln(𝑥 2 + 1) − 5 ln(𝑥 + 1) − 2 ln(3𝑥 2 + 1)
2

1 ′ 1 1 2𝑥 5 6𝑥
𝑦 = + 2
− −2( 2 )
𝑦 𝑥 2 𝑥 +1 𝑥+1 3𝑥 + 1

𝑥 √𝑥 2 + 1 1 𝑥 5 12𝑥
𝑦′ = (𝑥+1)5 (3𝑥 2 +1 )2
∙ [𝑥 + − − ].
𝑥 2 +1 𝑥+1 3𝑥 2 +1

Exercise 5:
(1) Solve the equations
(a) 2 cos2 𝑥 = 1 − sin 𝑥 for 0 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 2𝜋.

(b) cos 2 𝑥 = cos 𝑥 for 0 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 2𝜋.

(c) sin 𝑥 = cos 𝑥 for 0 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 2𝜋.

(2) Find the first derivative of the following functions;

(a) 𝑦 = sec(tan2(𝑥 4 )).

(b) 𝑦 = sec 3 (sec √𝑥 2 + 1) .

(c) 𝑦 = (1 + cos 3 𝑥) cot 3 2𝑥.

(d) 𝑦 = √ tan2 𝑥 + 𝑥 csc 3 𝑥.

(f) 𝑦 = tan2(cos 3 (1 + 𝑥 2 )) .

sin 3𝑥
(g) 𝑦 = 4 .
+ cos 𝑥

𝑥 (1 − cos2 2𝑥)
(h) 𝑦 = .
sin 𝑥 cos 𝑥

cot 2𝑥 ( cos2 𝑥−sin2 𝑥 )2

(i) 𝑦= .
cos3 2𝑥

(3) If 𝒚 = 𝒂 𝐜𝐨𝐬(𝝎𝒙) + 𝒃 𝐬𝐢𝐧(𝝎𝒙), show that 𝒚′′ + 𝝎𝟐 𝒚 = 𝟎.

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(4) Find the 1st derivative of :

(a) tan−1 √3𝑥 + ( tan−1 𝑥 2 )2

(b) csc −1 ( 𝑥 −1 ) + cot −1 𝑥

sin−1 𝑥
(c) + √ 𝑥 2 + 1 sec −1 𝑥
sin 𝑥

(d) tan−1 ( cos 𝑥) + cos−1 (sin−1 𝑥).

sin−1 𝑥
(5) If 𝑦 = √1 , show that ( 1 − 𝑥 2 ) 𝑦 ′′ = 3𝑥𝑦 ′ + 𝑦 .
− 𝑥2

𝑥−1
(6) If 𝑓(𝑥) = sin−1 (𝑥 + 1) and 𝑔(𝑥) = 2 tan−1(√𝑥 ), show that 𝑓 ′ (𝑥) = 𝑔′ (𝑥).

𝑥2 1 𝑥
(7) If 𝑦 = cos−1 𝑥 + 4 sin−1 𝑥 − 4 √ 1 − 𝑥 2 . Show that 𝑦 ′ = 𝑥 cos −1 𝑥 .
2

(8) Find an equation of the tangent line to the graph of the equation tan−1(𝑥𝑦) = sin−1(𝑥 + 𝑦)
at the point (0, 0).
1
(9) Find the point(s) on the graph of 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 = 25 at which the slope of the tangent is 2

(10) Find the derivative of the given function.

(a) 𝑦 = ln 𝑥 2 + ( ln 𝑥 )2

(b) 𝑦 = ln(ln(ln 𝑥)) + 𝑒 −𝑥 tan(𝑒 𝑥 )

2
(c) 𝑦 = csc(𝑒 tan 𝑥 ) + √ln √𝑥
−1 𝑥
(d) 𝑦 = 𝑥 sin

(e) 𝑦 = [ln(sin 𝑥)]cos 𝑥

(f) 𝑦 = sin−1(𝑒 −𝑥 ) + cos −1 (ln 𝑥)

(g) 𝑦 = sec −1(𝑥 ) + (sin 𝑥)𝑥

tan 𝑥 cos3 ( 𝑥 2 )
(h) 𝑦 = ln( )
tanh−1 √𝑥

cot3 (2𝑥) ln(1+𝑥 2 )

(i) 𝑦 = .
𝑥 𝑥 cos 𝑥

(11) Find an equation of the tangent line to the graph of 𝑦 = ln(𝑒 3𝑥 + 𝑥) at 𝑥 = 0.

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(12) Explain why there is no point on the graph of 𝑦 = 𝑒 𝑥 at which the tangent line is parallel to
2𝑥 + 𝑦 = 1.

(13) Show that the given function satisfies the given differential equation, where 𝑐1 and 𝑐2 are arbitrary
real constants.
(a) 𝑦 = 𝑐1 𝑒 −3𝑥 + 𝑐2 𝑒 2𝑥 ; 𝑦 ′′ + 𝑦 ′ − 6𝑦 = 0
(b) 𝑦 = 𝑐1 𝑥 −1⁄2 + 𝑐2 𝑥 −1⁄2 ln 𝑥 ; 4𝑥 2 𝑦 ′′ + 8𝑥𝑦 ′ + 𝑦 = 0 , for 𝑥 > 0.

(14) Find 𝑦 ′ if :

(i) 𝑥𝑦 + 𝑦𝑥 = 4 .
2
(ii) 𝑒 𝑥𝑦 cos −1 (𝑥 + 𝑦) + 𝑥 sin 𝑦 = 3.

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