Application Note

Measuring and analyzing the dielectric response of

rotating machines

Author
Martin Anglhuber | martin.anglhuber@omicronenergy.com
Stefan Böhler | stefan.boehler@omicronenergy.com
Fabian Öttl | fabian.oettl@omicronenergy.com

Date
14.04.2017

Related OMICRON Product

DIRANA

Application Area
Rotating machines

Keywords
Rotating machines, FDS, PDC+, DIRANA

Version
4.1

Document ID
ANP_15008_ENU

Abstract
This Application Note describes how to perform dielectric measurements on rotating machines using the
DIRANA.
 General Information

OMICRON electronics GmbH including all international branch offices is henceforth referred to as
OMICRON.
The product information, specifications, and technical data embodied in this application note represent the
technical status at the time of writing and are subject to change without prior notice.
We have done our best to ensure that the information given in this application note is useful, accurate and
entirely reliable. However, OMICRON does not assume responsibility for any inaccuracies which may be
present.
OMICRON translates this application note from the source language English into a number of other
languages. Any translation of this document is undertaken for local requirements, and in the event of a
dispute between the English and a non-English version, the English version of this note shall govern.

All rights including translation reserved. Reproduction of any kind, for example, photocopying, microfilming,
optical character recognition and/or storage in electronic data processing systems, requires the explicit
consent of OMICRON. Reprinting, wholly or partly, is not permitted.
© OMICRON 2017. All rights reserved. This Application Note is a publication of OMICRON.

© OMICRON 2018 Page 2 of 22

 Table of Contents

1 Safety Instructions ................................................................................................................................4

2 Using this Document .............................................................................................................................4
2.1 Operator Qualifications and Safety Standards ...............................................................................5
2.2 Safety Measures .............................................................................................................................5
2.3 Related Documents ........................................................................................................................5
2.4 Safety Rules ...................................................................................................................................6
3 Used Symbols ........................................................................................................................................6
4 Safety Instructions for Connecting the DIRANA to the Test Setup..................................................7
4.1 Before Starting ................................................................................................................................7
5 Preparing the Rotating Machine ..........................................................................................................7
6 Setup for the DIRANA Test ...................................................................................................................8
6.1 Configuring the Test .......................................................................................................................8
6.2 Connection to a Rotating Machine .............................................................................................. 10
6.3 Starting the Test .......................................................................................................................... 12
6.4 During the Test ............................................................................................................................ 13
7 Assessment of the Measurements ................................................................................................... 14
7.1 Comparison of Tan(δ) Curves of Different Phases ..................................................................... 14
7.2 Comparison of the Complex Capacitance Curves of Different Phases ....................................... 15
7.3 Insulation Resistance, Polarization Index and Dielectric Absorption Ratio ................................. 17
7.3.1 Insulation Resistance (IR) ............................................................................................................... 17
7.3.2 Polarization Index (PI)..................................................................................................................... 17
7.3.3 Dielectric Absorption Ratio (DAR) ................................................................................................... 18
7.3.4 Interpretation of the Polarization Index (PI) and the Dielectric Absorption Ratio (DAR) .................. 18
7.4 Other Parameters ........................................................................................................................ 18
8 Appendix ............................................................................................................................................. 19
8.1 The Guarding Principle ................................................................................................................ 19
8.2 Measurement Errors .................................................................................................................... 20
8.2.1 Voltage Source Overload ................................................................................................................ 20
8.2.2 Negative Dissipation Factor ............................................................................................................ 20
8.2.3 Dip at the Transition from Time to Frequency Domain.................................................................... 20
8.2.4 Disturbances during Time Domain Measurement ........................................................................... 21

© OMICRON 2018 Page 3 of 22

1 Safety Instructions
This Application Note may only be used in conjunction with the relevant product manuals which contain all
safety instructions. The user is fully responsible for any application that makes use of OMICRON products.
Instructions are always characterized by a  symbol even if they are included in a safety instruction.

DANGER
Death or severe injury caused by high-voltage or current if the respective
protective measures are not complied with.

 Carefully read the contents of these instructions as well as the manuals of

the devices involved before taking them into operation.
 Contact OMICRON Support if you have any questions or doubts regarding
the safety or operating instructions.
 Follow the instructions listed in the manuals, particularly the safety
instructions, since this is the only way to avoid danger that can occur when
working on high-voltage or high current systems.
 Only use the equipment according to its intended purpose to guarantee safe
operation.
 Existing national safety standards for accident prevention and
environmental protection may supplement the equipment’s manual.

Only experienced and competent professionals who are trained for working in high-voltage or high current
environments may perform the applications in this document. In addition, the following qualifications are
required:
• Authorized to work in environments of energy generation, transmission or distribution and familiar
with the approved operating practices in such environments.
• Familiar with the five safety rules.
• Good knowledge of the DIRANA.

2 Using this Document

The DIRANA can be used to measure dielectric properties of rotating machines. This document guides you
through the testing process.
Reading this Application Note alone does not release you from the duty of complying with all national and
international safety regulations relevant to working with the DIRANA.
The regulation EN 50191 "The Erection and Operation of Electrical Test Equipment", as well as all the
applicable regulations for accident prevention in the country and at the site of operation, must be fulfilled.

© OMICRON 2018 Page 4 of 22

2.1 Operator Qualifications and Safety Standards

Working on high-voltage (HV) devices is extremely dangerous. Measurements must only be carried out by
qualified, skilled and authorized personnel. Before starting any work, clearly establish the responsibilities.
Personnel receiving training, instructions, directions or education on the measurement setup must be under
the constant supervision of an experienced operator while working with the equipment.

The operator is responsible for the safety requirements during the whole test. Before performing tests using
high-voltage, read the following:
• Do not perform any test without having carefully read the DIRANA User Manual.

• In particular, read all safety instructions and follow them.

• Do not use the test equipment without a good connection to ground.

The measurement must comply with the relevant national and international safety standards listed below:

• EN 50191 (VDE 0104) "Erection and Operation of Electrical Equipment".

• EN 50110-1 (VDE 0105 Part 100) "Operation of Electrical Installations".

• IEEE 510 "Recommended Practices for Safety in High-Voltage and High-Power Testing".

• LAPG 1710.6 NASA "Electrical Safety".

Moreover, additional relevant laws and internal safety standards must be followed.

2.2 Safety Measures

Before starting a measurement, read the safety rules in the DIRANA User Manual and observe the
application-specific safety instructions in this Application Note when performing measurements to
protect yourself from high-voltage hazards.

2.3 Related Documents

The following documents complete the information covered in this Application Note:

Title Description
Provides information on the DIRANA test system which is controlled by
DIRANA PTM User Manual
the Primary Test ManagerTM (PTM) software.

© OMICRON 2018 Page 5 of 22

2.4 Safety Rules

Before starting a measurement, read the safety rules in the DIRANA User Manual carefully and observe the
application-specific safety instructions in this Application Note when performing measurements to protect
yourself from high-voltage hazards.
General
Always observe the five safety rules:
• Disconnect completely.
• Secure against re-connection.
• Verify that the installation is dead.
• Carry out grounding and short-circuiting.
• Provide protection against adjacent live parts.

CAUTION
Minor or moderate injury may occur if the appropriate safety instructions are
not observed.

 Caution: Never touch any terminal without a visible ground connection!

3 Used Symbols
DANGER
Death or severe injury will occur if the appropriate safety instructions are not
observed.

WARNING
Death or severe injury can occur if the appropriate safety instructions are not
observed.

CAUTION
Minor or moderate injury may occur if the appropriate safety instructions are
not observed.

NOTICE

Equipment damage or loss of data possible.

© OMICRON 2018 Page 6 of 22

4 Safety Instructions for Connecting the DIRANA to the Test
Setup

4.1 Before Starting

DANGER
Death or severe injury will occur if the appropriate safety instructions are not
observed.

 Do not enter the high-voltage area while working with the DIRANA.
 Do not enter the high-voltage area if the red warning light of the DIRANA is
on since the output can carry dangerous voltage.
 Never touch any terminal without a visible ground connection.
 Always obey the five safety rules and follow the detailed safety instructions
in the respective user manual.
 Always establish a proper ground connection for the DIRANA and the
device under test (for example, the rotating machine).
 Beware of nearby parallel systems which are not disconnected. They can
induce hazardous loads in floating segments of a substation.
 Make sure that all terminals of the test object are completely disconnected.
 Always touch the leads and terminals with a grounding hook first.

5 Preparing the Rotating Machine

For a dielectric response measurement, the rotating machine needs to be switched off and then completely
disconnected from the network. All connections have to be removed in the same way as for conventional
dissipation factor tests. The connections should be removed directly at the machine as all attached cables,
lines etc., can cause problems, even if their length is very short.
DC insulation tests prior to the dielectric measurement need to be avoided. If a DC insulation test has been
carried out, the insulation tested has to be shortened by a time of by at least 10 times the DC test time and
by at least one hour.

© OMICRON 2018 Page 7 of 22

6 Setup for the DIRANA Test

6.1 Configuring the Test

Before connecting the DIRANA to the transformer, the test has to be configured in the software.
After starting Primary Test ManagerTM (PTM), select “Create a new job” (Figure 1).

Figure 1: Create a new job in PTM

Then, enter the location name in the “Location” tab (Figure 2). All other information is optional.
If a location has already been defined, it can be loaded via “Load existing location”.

Figure 2: Defining the location

When the location has been defined, the asset (rotating machine) has to be selected (Figure 3).
Alternatively, an existing asset can be loaded.
Select whether the machine is single-phase or three-phase and whether the star point can be opened or not.

© OMICRON 2018 Page 8 of 22

 All other information, such as manufacturer, etc., is optional for the DIRANA test but might be required for
other tests.

Figure 3: Defining the asset

When the asset has been defined, all available tests are generated by clicking on the “Tests” tab. Select the
“DIRANA test” for any measurements with the DIRANA.

© OMICRON 2018 Page 9 of 22

6.2 Connection to a Rotating Machine

This section gives illustrated introductions on how to connect the DIRANA to a rotating machine. Please also
refer to the user manual.
WARNING
Death or severe injury can occur if the appropriate safety instructions are not
observed.

 Before connecting DIRANA to the test object, observe the five safety rules
and all additional relevant laws and internal safety standards.
 Do not touch the OUTPUT connector or any parts of the test setup when the
red LED on the DIRANA front panel lights continuously or blinks.
 Always ensure that the device is safely switched off and the sample is
discharged before touching any parts of the test setup.

For safety reasons, always connect the grounding cable to the ground terminal on the rear panel of the
DIRANA and clamp its other end to the rotating machine ground or any other part which is reliably
connected to the (sub)station ground (Figure 4).

Figure 4: Grounding the DIRANA

It is not necessary to short circuit the winding of the rotating machine as it has very low impedance.
The correct connection scheme depends on the asset type and if the start point is separable.
The DIRANA PTM software automatically derives the optimal connection scheme if the asset has been
defined correctly (Figure 5).

© OMICRON 2018 Page 10 of 22

 Figure 5: Wiring diagram for a rotating machine which has a firmly connected start point

The yellow line in the connection diagram (Figure 5) represents the output, the red line the input CH1, the
blue line the input of CH2 and green lines the guard if used. For further details about guarding, refer to
chapter 8.1 of this Application Note.
If the start point can be opened for a three-phase rotating machine, it is possible to measure the phases
separately. The measurement of phase A and phase B can be performed simultaneously by using both
channels (Figure 6), the measurement of phase C has to be performed in a second measurement (Figure 7).
The configuration can be set in the “Measurement profile” setting.

Figure 6: Wiring diagram for a rotating machine which has a separate start point for phases A and B.

© OMICRON 2018 Page 11 of 22

 Figure 7: Wiring diagram for a rotating machine which has a separate start point for phase C.

6.3 Starting the Test

Before the test can be started, the temperature of the rotating machine has to be entered (Figure 8).

Figure 8: Entering the temperature in a DIRANA test

It is highly recommended using the pre-defined settings for voltage, frequency and measurement mode
(Figure 9). If other settings are made, it might not be possible to determine values such as the Polarization
Index (PI).

© OMICRON 2018 Page 12 of 22

 Figure 9: Settings for the measurement configuration of rotating machines

Before handling DIRANA in any way, connect its equipotential ground terminal with a solid connection of at
least 6 mm2 cross-section to the ground terminal of the high-voltage asset under test.
Connect the test object to the output and measurement cables as displayed in the test instructions (Figure
8). Do not connect the cables to the DIRANA yet. This is done just before starting the test.
Connect the DIRANA to the computer with the USB cable included and switch the computer on.
Then, connect the DIRANA to the mains power supply by using the power cord provided.
Switch the DIRANA on by toggling the power switch on the rear panel.
Connect the PTM to the DIRANA by selecting the device from the list which is available in the very left
corner of the PTM window, and then clicking on “Connect” (Figure 10).

Figure 10: Connecting the DIRANA to PTM

Ensure that all required safety precautions have been taken before starting the test!
To start the test, plug the measurement cables into the DIRANA instrument and press the “Start” button
(Figure 11).

Figure 11: Starting the test

6.4 During the Test

After the measurement is started, the first results are obtained quickly for high frequencies. Check the
capacitance and tan(δ) or power factor at line frequency to see if the results are as expected. A capacitance
larger than 10 nF is usually achieved for rotating machine insulation. If the measured capacitance is
significantly lower, it might be due to a bad connection. In this case, stop the test and check the connections.
After the set measurement time (default ~15 min for one phase, ~17 minutes for the simultaneous
measurements of two phases), the measurement stops automatically. Other tests can be added and
executed if required.

© OMICRON 2018 Page 13 of 22

7 Assessment of the Measurements
As rotating machines are not oil-paper insulated, the moisture assessments which are used for power
transformers, for example, cannot be carried out. However, there are other ways and parameters for
dielectric measurements to be used to determine the status of the insulation.

7.1 Comparison of Tan(δ) Curves of Different Phases

A simple but powerful method of assessment is the comparison of the tan(δ) curves of the different phases.
As the insulation of the phases is usually of the same type and age, the tan(δ) value of the different phase-
ground insulations should be almost the same. This would be the case if the capacitances of the individual
phases are not identical, which is the situation for some special machines.
The comparison of phases which have been measured simultaneously can be done in the “Measurements”
tab (Figure 12) and the comparison of different measurements can be made using the “Comparison” tab
(Figure 13). In the “Comparison” tab, additional measurements from the whole database can be added using
the “Test selector”.

Figure 12: Tan(δ) curves for the phase-ground insulation of phases U and V of a generator in the same measurement

© OMICRON 2018 Page 14 of 22

 Figure 13: Tan(δ) curves for the phase-ground insulation of phases U (x2) and V and W of a generator in the comparison view

Figure 13 shows the tan(δ) values of the ground-phase insulation of a generator. Whereas the values of
phase V (green curve) and phase W (yellow curve) are quite similar, the values of phase U (measured twice,
blue and purple curves) are very different. This difference is also visible at line frequency, but still larger at
lower frequencies. Phase V and phase W are almost identical. The test object in this example had a severe
problem at phase U, usually the differences in the dielectric values are smaller and visible mainly at lower
frequencies.

7.2 Comparison of the Complex Capacitance Curves of Different Phases

Another method, which can be applied in order to compare the phases, is the comparison of complex
capacitances. The complex capacitance C consists of the real part C’, which represents the polarization, and
the imaginary part C’’ which represents the losses in turn:

𝐶𝐶 = 𝐶𝐶 ′ − 𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗′′

The ratio of C’’ to C’ is the loss factor tan(δ):

𝐶𝐶′′
tan(𝛿𝛿) =
𝐶𝐶′

Although the comparison of the C’ and C’’ might seem similar to the comparison of tan(δ) curves, this
method has some advantages as it separates the analysis of polarization and losses whereas the tan(δ)
always considers both.

© OMICRON 2018 Page 15 of 22

 C’ and C’’ can be selected by choosing the corresponding view “Capacitance” in the display settings
(Figure 14).
The curves of C’’ and tan(δ) are quite similar and the method of analysis is also the same (see previous
chapter). The increased values of phase U compared to the other phases are clearly visible in the example
(Figure 14).

Figure 14: C’ and C’’ curves for the phase-ground insulation of a test object

The increase of C’ (which represents the polarization) should be quite low for insulation in good condition. A
small increase always occurs, as phase 2 and phase 3 show (Figure 14). C’ for phase 1 shows a significant
increase towards low frequencies, especially compared to the other phases. This is also a clear indicator for
a problem at phase 1 and confirms the results from the tan(δ) comparisons.
The advantage of the analysis of C’ is that it is less influenced by leakage currents than the values C’’ or
tan(δ). Whereas the increase of those values in phase 1 might be caused by leakage currents, the increase
of C’ is definitely related to problems within the insulation. Therefore, if significant deviations occur for the
tan(δ) curves, an analysis of C’ is recommended to verify the results.

© OMICRON 2018 Page 16 of 22

7.3 Insulation Resistance, Polarization Index and Dielectric Absorption
Ratio

7.3.1 Insulation Resistance (IR)

Parameters, which are often used for the description of the insulation status of a rotating machine, are the
Polarization Index (PI) and the Dielectric Absorption Ratio (DAR). These values are typically obtained at
higher voltages (some kV) using an “insulation tester”, which is a high-voltage DC source and a sensitive
ammeter. The reason for using higher DC voltages lies in history: The application of higher voltages results
in higher currents and historic (mechanical) ammeters had a limited sensitivity, therefore the higher voltage
was required to be able to measure the resulting current. However, modern measurement techniques enable
the measurement of currents in the pA range and under. Thus, low-voltage is also sufficient enough to
measure the dielectric parameter with high accuracy.

The Insulation Resistance (IR) is the value of the resistance which is calculated by dividing the applied
voltage through the measured current. When performing this measurement on a rotating machine insulation,
polarization phenomena leads to a polarization of the insulation. This results in a decreasing current over
time, which will only become stable after many minutes or hours.

𝑈𝑈
𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼(𝑡𝑡) =
𝐼𝐼(𝑡𝑡)

Therefore, the “Insulation Resistance” is not a pure ohmic resistance (which would be constant over time)
but a value which increases over time. Therefore, it is important to know at which time the value was
determined. The values of the Insulation Resistance determined by the formula above are shown in the
numeric display pane in PDC view (Figure 15).

7.3.2 Polarization Index (PI)

The Polarization Index (PI) is defined by the ratio of the resistance at 600 s divided by the ratio of the
resistance at 60 s:

𝑅𝑅600𝑠𝑠
𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃 =
𝑅𝑅60𝑠𝑠

As the applied voltage typically stays the same during the test, the PI can also be expressed by the ratio of
the currents:

𝐼𝐼60𝑠𝑠
𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃 =
𝐼𝐼600𝑠𝑠

The DIRANA PTM software automatically calculates the PI as soon as a measurement time of 600 s has
been reached. The values are shown in the “Measurements” tab (Figure 15).
For any pure ohmic resistance, regardless of the value, the PI would be “1”. As all solid insulation systems
used for rotating machines show polarization, the value is usually above “1”.

© OMICRON 2018 Page 17 of 22

 Figure 15: Polarization Index (PI) and Dielectric Absorption Ratio (DAR) in the numeric display pane in PDC view

7.3.3 Dielectric Absorption Ratio (DAR)

The Dielectric Absorption Ratio (DAR) is also defined by the ratio of resistances, but shorter times of 60 s
and 30 s are used:
𝑅𝑅60𝑠𝑠
𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷 =
𝑅𝑅30𝑠𝑠
As the applied voltage typically stays the same during the test, the DAR can also be expressed by the ratio
of the currents:
𝐼𝐼30𝑠𝑠
𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷 =
𝐼𝐼60𝑠𝑠

7.3.4 Interpretation of the Polarization Index (PI) and the Dielectric Absorption Ratio (DAR)
Although the measurement of the PI and DAR is quite simple, and there are various limits available for the
values, it has to be noted that these values can be difficult to interpret. This is especially true for newer types
of rotating machines, with epoxy-mica or similar insulation, which behave in a different way to older types of
insulation.

As this topic is very complex, please refer to the corresponding standards. A good example is the IEEE
Standard 43-2013, "Recommended Practice for Testing Insulation Resistance of Rotating Machines", which
includes information regarding influence factors and the interpretation of the values for modern types of
insulation.

Please keep in mind that the PI and DAR displayed within the DIRANA PTM software are the values as
determined via the measured currents without any correction of temperature, etc..

7.4 Other Parameters

There is also the possibility to use other parameters for time or frequency domain for evaluation. The
DIRANA PTM software offers multiple ways to display or export the measured or calculated values. The
export of all of the measurements to Excel can be performed via the “Report” function, the export of the
DIRANA results of a job to a .csv-file is performed via the “Manage” function of PTM.

© OMICRON 2018 Page 18 of 22

8 Appendix

8.1 The Guarding Principle

A dielectric response measurement is a three terminal measurement that includes the output voltage, the
measured current and a guard. Generally, the output voltage should be connected to the bushing, which is
mostly exposed to electromagnetic disturbances. These are typically the bigger (HV) bushings, as they form
the larger “antenna” due to their size. For a two-winding transformer, the measurement channel is typically
connected to the LV bushings. For a three-winding transformer, the two measurement channels have to be
connected to windings adjacent to the windings where the output voltage is connected.
Guarding is required to prevent disturbances due to unwanted current paths caused by dirty bushings and
external electromagnetic fields. Figure 16 and Figure 17 illustrate the principle of guarding for a power
transformer. Without guarding, the ammeter measures the current through the insulation volume Ivol and the
unwanted leakage current over the insulation surface Isur, as well as the capacitive current through CH and
CL. After applying a guard wire, the leakage current Isur, as well as the capacitive current through CH and CL,
will bypass the ammeter and flow directly to the voltage source. In doing so, only the relevant volume current
is measured and CH and CL won’t influence the measurement. Additionally, the transformer tank and the
shielded measurement cables will prevent electromagnetic field coupling.

Figure 16: A dielectric response measurement on a power transformer without guarding

Figure 17: A dielectric response measurement on a power transformer with guarding

© OMICRON 2018 Page 19 of 22

8.2 Measurement Errors

8.2.1 Voltage Source Overload

If the instrument is not able to reach the desired voltage, an error message will indicate the instrument
overload. To solve the problem:
• Check whether the measurement setup has resulted in a short-circuit.
• If capacitive currents cause an overload (typically for long cables), decrease the output voltage
or start the measurement at frequencies lower than 1000 Hz; for instance, at 100 Hz.

8.2.2 Negative Dissipation Factor

The dissipation factor curve may turn negative at high frequencies, see Figure 18. Reasons for this problem
may be: firstly, a high guard impedance; secondly, a small measured capacitance in conjunction with a large
guard capacitance; thirdly, high guard currents (dirty bushings); and finally, the inductivity of coils.

Figure 18: Dielectric measurement with negative dissipation factor

To solve the problem:

• Connect all guards on measurement cables and, if possible, an additional wire from the DIRANA
front plate to the transformer tank.
• Try to decrease the guard currents (clean bushings, disconnect all devices which are possibly
still connected to the transformer).
• Check the ratio of capacitances (measure adjacent windings only).
• Ensure a proper connection of the DIRANA housing to the reference potential, usually the
transformer tank.

8.2.3 Dip at the Transition from Time to Frequency Domain

At the transition from time domain (PDC) to frequency domain (FDS) a dip may appear. Two reasons are
possible for this: first, a remaining polarization of the dielectric; and second, disturbances in the time domain
measurement (see also chapter 8.2.4 ).
Figure 19 illustrates a dip caused by a remaining polarization. For this transformer, the resistance of the
dielectric was tested with 5 kV DC prior to the dielectric response measurement using DIRANA. The
remaining polarization shifts the time domain current and, consequently, the dissipation factor as displayed
in frequency domain.

© OMICRON 2018 Page 20 of 22

 Figure 19: Dip at the transition from frequency domain (FDS) to time domain (PDC)

To solve this problem:

• Depolarize the dielectric by connecting the terminals of the HV and the LV bushings to each
other and to the transformer tank. The depolarization time should be at least as long as the
polarization time (the duration for which the voltage was applied), however, this also depends on
the applied voltage. After this, the DIRANA measurement can be repeated.
• Measure the dielectric response using DIRANA prior to the resistance test of the dielectric.

8.2.4 Disturbances during Time Domain Measurement

Disturbances in the time domain current are transformed into the frequency domain and affect the results
displayed there (for example, dissipation factor). Figure 20 shows disturbances on the time domain current
for a measurement period of 600-1100 s, as an example. This causes disturbances in dissipation factor for
the low frequencies. Generally, the disturbances in time domain will appear in frequency domain depending
on their frequency spectrum.

Figure 20: Time domain current with disturbances at around 1000 s (left) and its transformation in frequency domain with
disturbances at the low frequencies (right). The reason for the disturbances was that guarding was not applicable
for this CL-measurement.

To solve this problem:

• Use a guarded measurement set-up.
• Apply all guards on the measurement cables.
• Increase measurement voltage.
• Try to minimize disturbances.
• Perform the measurement in frequency domain only.

© OMICRON 2018 Page 21 of 22

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