Study Guide in CHE 101: CHEMISTRY FOR ENGINEERS Module 5: The Chemistry of Environment

Module No. 5

MODULE TITLE

The Chemistry of the

Atmosphere
MODULE OVERVIEW
Students
In this module, investigate
students the phenomenon
will investigate of electric realm
into the fascinating currentofinthecircuits,
Earth'sthe pathways and
atmosphere through which
its chemical
electricity flows. They work with a variety of components—D-cells, light bulbs, motors,
composition. They will explore the various gases that make up the atmosphere, including nitrogen, oxygen, switches, and wires—
and explore
carbon dioxide,conductors and insulators.
and trace amounts of otherThey
gases.explore series
Students willand parallel
look into thecircuits andand
sources compare thethese
sinks of functioning
gases to
of athebetter
gain components in each of
understanding circuit.
their They formulate
natural cycles and
and justify
how theytheiraffect
predictions, based on their
the atmosphere's observations
overall of
composition.
electricity students
Additionally, transferring
willenergy to produce
learn about lightreactions
chemical and motion.
that occur within the atmosphere, such as the formation
of ozone and the greenhouse effect. They will examine the impact of human activities on the Earth's atmosphere,
exploring how emissions from industries, transportation, and deforestation can alter the chemical balance and
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
lead to environmental consequences such as air pollution and climate change. By engaging in hands-on
experiments, research, and discussions, students will acquire a thorough comprehension of the complex
After studying this chapter, the students should be able to:
chemistry that governs our planet’s atmospheric system.
• Understand the concept of oxidation reduction reaction.

LEARNING OBJECTIVES

After studying this

LEARNING chapter, the students should be able to:
CONTENTS
• Understand the composition of the Earth's atmosphere and the role of different gases,
In Electrochemical Energy, the following subtopics must be encountered:
includingnitrogen, oxygen, carbon dioxide, and trace gases;
a. Redox Reactions
• b.Describe the chemical
Electrochemical Cells reactions and processes that occur in the atmosphere, such as the formation
and depletion
c. Electrolysis of ozone, photochemical smog, acid rain, and greenhouse gas emissions
• d.Explain the role
Cell potentials of greenhouse gases, including carbon dioxide and methane, in the greenhouse
effect and climate change
e. Batteries and Fuel Cells.
• Identify the sources and behavior of air pollutants, such as particulate matter, nitrogen oxides, sulfur
LEARNING POINTS
oxides, volatile organic compounds (VOCs), and their effects on air quality and human health

LEARNING CONTENTS

• Define oxidation-reduction reactions.

In the Chemistry of the Atmosphere, the following subtopics must be encountered:
a.
• Chemical Composition
Balance redox of thethe
reaction using Earth’s Atmosphere
change in the oxidation number method.
b. Chemical Reactions in the Earth’s Atmosphere
c. Human Activities and the Earth’s Atmosphere

LEARNING POINTS
• Understand the composition of the Earth's atmosphere, including the gases and their relative
proportions.
• Describe the various structures and layers of the Earth's atmosphere, such as the
troposphere,stratosphere, mesosphere, thermosphere, and exosphere.
• Explain the significance of the ozone layer within the Earth's atmosphere and its role in protecting
lifeon Earth.
• Analyze the . impact of human activities on the Earth's atmosphere, including pollution, greenhouse
gasemissions, and depletion of the ozone layer.
• Evaluate the management strategies and techniques used to control air pollution from
stationary sources, such as industrial facilities and power plants.
• Identify and assess the key factors involved in waste management for effective control-equipment
selection, considering environmental considerations, regulations, and technological feasibility.

1
 Study Guide in CHE 101: CHEMISTRY FOR ENGINEERS Module 5: The Chemistry of Environment

LEARNING ACTIVITIES

⚫the Atmosphere
Chemistry of Energy powers technology.
FORMS
Origin, OF ENERGY
Evolution and History
There are many forms of energy, but they all fall into two categories– potential or kinetic.
The atmosphere of the Earth (and also of Venus and Mars) is generally believed to have its origin in
Potential
relatively Energy
volatile compounds that were incorporated into the solids from which these planets accreted. Such
compoundsPotential
could include
Energy nitrides , water,
is stored energy carbides, and hydrogen
and the energy compounds
of position, of nitrogen
or gravitational energy.and carbon.
There are
Large amounts of CO , water vapor, N
several forms of potential energy, including:
2 2 , HCl, SO 2 and H 2S are emitted from volcanoes. The more reactive of
these gases would be selectively removed from the atmosphere by reaction with surface rocks or dissolution
⚫ Chemical
in the ocean. The overall Energy is energy
oxidation state of stored in the bonds
the earth’s mantleofisatoms and molecules.
not consistent It is one
with what the energy that holds
would expect
these particles together.
from equilibration with highly reduced volatiles. There is no evidence to suggest that the composition of the
⚫ not
mantle has remained
Stored the same.
Mechanical If thisisisenergy
Energy correct, then in
stored theobjects
primitive atmosphere
by the may
application of awell have had about
force.
the same composition as the gases emitted by volcanoes at the present time. These consist mainly of water
and CO2⚫, together
Nuclear Energy
with is energyof
small amounts stored
N2, Hin the nucleus of an atom—the energy that holds the nucleus
2, H2S, SO2, CO, CH4, NH3, HCl and HF. Any significant
concentration together.
of waterThe energy
vapor in thecan be released
atmosphere when
would the led
have nuclei
to aare combined
runaway or split apart.
greenhouse effect, resulting in
temperatures as high as 400°C.
⚫ Gravitational Energy is the energy of position or place. A rock resting at the top of a hill contains
gravitational potential energy.
3.5 billion years ago the atmosphere probably consisted of carbon dioxide, carbon monoxide,
Kinetic
water, Energyand hydrogen. The hydrosphere was formed 4 billion years ago from the condensation of
nitrogen,
water vapor,
Kinetic is motion—the
resulting
Energy in oceans ofmotion
water of
in waves, electrons, atoms,
which sedimentation molecules,
occurred. substances,
The amount of ozone required to
and objects.
shield Earth from biologically lethal UV radiation, wavelengths from 200 to 300 nanometers (nm), is believed
to have been in existence 600 million years ago.
⚫ Electrical Energy is the movement of electrons. Everything is made of tiny particles called atoms.
Atoms are made of even smaller particles called electrons, protons, and neutrons. Applying a force
Composition ofmake
can the Atmosphere
some of the electrons move.
⚫ Radiant
Atmosphere Energyof
– The mixture is gases,
electromagnetic energyand
water droplets, thatsolid
travels in transverse
particles waves.
above the earth’s surface.
⚫ Thermal Energy, or heat, is the internal energy in substances—the vibration and movement of
atoms
Thickness of and molecules within substances.
the Atmosphere
How high is the atmosphere?
⚫ Motion Energy is the movement of objects and substances from one place to another.
⚫ Sound  Energy is top
No defined the movement of energy through substances in longitudinal
(compression/rarefaction)
 99.99997% of waves.
atmosphere is below 100 km (60 mi)

CONSERVATION OF ENERGY Weather occurs in lowest 11 km (7 mi)
 Atmospheric depth is very thin relative to earth’s horizontal distances
The law of conservation of energy says energy is neither created nor destroyed. Energy can change
Permanent the
form, but totalform
gases quantity of energy
a constant in the universe
proportion remains the and
of the atmosphere, same. The
have onlyresidence
long exceptiontimes
to this law is when
(thousands
a small amount of matter is converted into energy during nuclear fusion and fission.
to millions of years)
EFFICIENCY
Efficiency is how much useful energy you can get out of a system. In theory, a 100 percent energy
efficient machine would change all of the energy put in it into useful work.

workoutput
n=
Qinput

SOURCES OF ENERGY
The ten major energy sources we use today are classified into two broad groups—nonrenewable and
renewable.
⚫ Nonrenewable energy sources
These energy sources are called nonrenewable because they cannot be replenished in a short period
of time. We could run out of economically recoverable nonrenewable resources some day. These
include coal, petroleum, natural gas, propane, and uranium. They are used to generate electricity, to heat
our homes, to move our cars, and to manufacturing plants.

PANGASINAN STATE UNIVERSITY 2

 Study Guide in CHE 111: CHEMISTRY FOR ENGINEERS Module 1: ELECTROCHEMICAL ENERGY

⚫
Variable gases vary energy
Renewable in atmospheric
sourcesconcentration in both time and space.
These energy sources are called renewable energy sources because their supplies are replenished
in a short time. These include biomass, geothermal, hydropower, solar, and wind.
ENERGY USERS
The Department of Energy uses four categories to classify energy users—residential, commercial,
industrial, and others. These categories are called the sectors of the economy.
⚫ Residential
Residences are people’s homes. Residential use are lumped together because homes use energy in
the same ways—for heating, air conditioning, water heating, lighting, and operating appliances. In 2018, the
Philippines consumed for about 28,261 GWh which comprises 34.21 percent of total consumption. .
⚫ Industrial
The industrial sector includes manufacturing, construction, mining, farming, fishing, and forestry. This
Atmospheric pressure can be imagined as the weight of the overlying column of air. Unlike temperature,
sector consumed 27,587 GWH of energy in 2018, which accounted for 33.39 percent of total consumption.
pressure decreases exponentially with altitude. Traces of the atmosphere can be detected as far as 500 km
⚫ Commercial
above Earth's surface, but 80 percent of the atmosphere's mass is contained within the 18 km closest to the
surface. Atmospheric pressure is generally measured in millibars (mb); this unit of measurement is equivalent
Commercial buildings include office buildings, hospitals, stores, restaurants, and schools.
to 1 gram per centimeter squared (1 g/cm2). Other units are occasionally used, such as bars, atmospheres, or
This sectorofhas
millimeters a total consumption of 29.07 percent with 24,016 GWh.
mercury.
⚫ Others
This sector consumed 2,753 GWh of energy in 2018, which accounted for 3.33 percent of total
consumption.

Structure of the Atmosphere

There are different layers of the atmosphere. The atmosphere can be divided into layers based on its
temperature. These layers are the troposphere, the stratosphere, the mesosphere, the thermosphere and a
further region, beginning about 500 km above the Earth's surface, is called the exosphere.

The Troposphere
• The troposphere is the lowest layer of the Earth's atmosphere.
• It starts right above the ground and goes up to an average height of 7 to 20 kilometers (4 to 12 miles).
• It's where weather happens, like clouds, rain, and wind.
• Most of the air in the atmosphere is found in the troposphere, about 75% to 80%.
• The temperature generally decreases with increasing altitude.
• The tropopause is the boundary between the troposphere and the layer above.
• Air density and pressure decrease as you move higher in the troposphere.
• The troposphere contains the air we breathe and helps regulate the Earth's climate.

PANGASINAN STATE UNIVERSITY 3

 Study Guide in CHE 101: CHEMISTRY FOR ENGINEERS Module 5: The Chemistry of the Environment

The Stratosphere
• The stratosphere is the layer of the atmosphere above the troposphere.
• It extends from the top of the troposphere to an average height of about 50 kilometers (31 miles).
• In this layer, the temperature remains relatively constant or even increases with increasing altitude.
• The stratosphere contains the ozone layer, which plays a crucial role in absorbing harmful ultraviolet
(UV) radiation from the sun.
• It experiences less vertical mixing of air, resulting in less turbulence and fewer weather phenomena.
• Jet aircraft often fly in this layer to take advantage of its smoother and less turbulent conditions.
• Air density and pressure continue to decrease with altitude in the stratosphere.
• The upper boundary of this layer, known as the “stratopause”, marks the transition to the next layer of
the atmosphere.
• It is important for protecting life on Earth from excessive UV radiation and for facilitating long-distance
air travel.

The Mesosphere
• The region above the stratosphere is called the mesosphere.
• Here the temperature again decreases with height, reaching a minimum of about -90°C at the
"mesopause".
• The mesosphere is the coldest atmospheric layer surrounding the earth. It becomes cold enough to
freeze water vapor in its atmosphere into ice clouds. These ice clouds are blue-white and are called
noctilucent clouds or polar mesospheric clouds.

The Thermosphere and Ionosphere

• Is the atmosphere's fourth layer, located above the mesosphere and below the exosphere.
The thermosphere begins at a distance of approximately 53-56 miles above the earth's surface and
extends to between 311 and 621 miles from the earth, where the exosphere begins and extends into
space.
• The transitional area between the thermosphere and mesosphere is referred to as the mesopause.
• The transitional area between the thermosphere and the exosphere is referred to as the thermopause.
• Although still considered part of the earth's atmosphere, the thermosphere has such low air density that
it is often considered to be part of space.
• The region of the atmosphere above about 80 km is also caused the "ionosphere", since the energetic
solar radiation knocks electrons off molecules and atoms, turning them into "ions" with a positive
charge.
• The main components of air in the thermosphere include helium, atomic nitrogen, and atomic oxygen.
• The ionosphere reflects and absorbs radio waves, allowing us to receive shortwave radio broadcasts in
New Zealand from other parts of the world.

The Exosphere
• The region above about 500 km is called the exosphere. It contains mainly oxygen and hydrogen
atoms, but there are so few of them that they rarely collide - they follow "ballistic" trajectories under the
influence of gravity, and some of them escape right out into space.
• The exosphere is the uppermost region of Earth's atmosphere as it gradually fades into the vacuum of
space. Air in the exosphere is extremely thin - in many ways it is almost the same as the airless void of
outer space.
• The air in the exosphere is very thin, and is made up mostly of helium, and hydrogen. Traces of other
gases such as atomic oxygen and carbon dioxide can also be found.
• The upper level of the exosphere is the farthest point from earth that is still affected by earth's gravity.

4
PANGASINAN STATE UNIVERSITY
 Study Guide in CHE 101: CHEMISTRY FOR ENGINEERS Module 5: The Chemistry of the Environment

Earth’s Atmosphere and the Ozone Layer

Earth’s atmosphere at sea level is an approximately 80:20 solution of nitrogen and oxygen gases. The sun’s
radiation is the major source of energy that initiates chemical reactions in the atmosphere.
The sun emits many kinds of radiation

• Visible light, which is radiation that the human eye can detect
• Ultraviolet light, which is higher energy radiation that cannot be detected by the human eye. (Ultraviolet
light is used to sterilize items, and, as anyone who has ever suffered severe sunburn knows, it can
produce extensive tissue damage.)
• Direct interaction of UV rays to earth’s surface
Light in the higher energy ultraviolet range is almost totally absorbed by oxygen molecules in the upper layers of
the atmosphere, causing the O2 molecules to dissociate into two oxygen atoms in a cleavage reaction:

Important Atmospheric Chemical Species:

• Inorganic oxides: CO, CO2, NO2, SO2
• Oxidants: O3, H2O2, HO• radical, ROO• radicals, NO3 radical
• Reductants: CO, SO2, H2S
• Hydrocarbons: Natural CH4, pollutant alkanes, alkenes, aromatics
• Oxidized Organic: Aldehydes, ketones, acids, organic nitrates
• Photochemically active species: NO2, formaldehyde
• Acids: H2SO4, H2SO3, HNO3
• Bases: NH3
• Salts: NH4HSO4
• Unstable reactive species: Electronically excited nitrogen dioxide (NO2 ), HO•

Solid and Liquid particles in aerosols and clouds

• Sources and sinks for gas-phase species
• Sites for surface reactions on solids
• Aqueous phase reactions in water droplet

Loss of Excitation Energy from Electronically Excited Species:

Emission of a photon (light): NO2 NO2 + hv

Called Luminescence if instantaneous, Phosphorescence if slower and Chemiluminescence when the
excited species that emits a photon is formed as the result of a chemical reaction
O3 + NO O2 + NO2 (luminescent species)
Direct reaction of an excited species
O2 + O3 2O2 + O
Dissociation
NO2 NO + O (very important tropospheric reaction)
O2 O + O (important in stratosphere leading to O3)
Photoionization (formation of ions in the ionosphere)
N2 N2 + e-

5
PANGASINAN STATE UNIVERSITY
 Study Guide in CHE 101: CHEMISTRY FOR ENGINEERS Module 5: The Chemistry of the Environment

Photochemical reaction, a chemical reaction initiated by the absorption of energy in the form of light. The
consequence of molecules' absorbing light is the creation of transient excited states whose chemical and
physical properties differ greatly from the original molecules.

Basic composition of SMOG

• Nitrogen oxides
• Ozone
• Aldehydes
• Unreacted carbon
• Particular matter
• Peroxyaceyl nitrate (PAN)

Photochemical smog generation

Generation Mechanism:

Three ingredients required:

• Ultraviolet light
• Hydrocarbons
• Nitrogen Oxide
O3
• HC PANs
• NO UV Light Other oxidants
(aldehyde,ketones etc)
Basics of Photochemical Reaction
VOLATILE ORGANIC COMPOUNDS (VOC)
Carbon-based molecules such as Aldehydes, ketones and
hydrocarbons RCH3+2O2+2NO RCHO+2NO2+H2O
Sources:
• Paint thinners, solvents, and petroleum constituents
• Trees: emits isoprene and terpenes
• Methane from termites, cows and cultivation

Other compound
Peroxyacetyl Nitrates (PAN)
• Are secondary pollutants formed from peroxyacid radicals and NO2
- CH3CHO+OH
- CH3CO+O2
- CH3C(O)OO+NO2 CH3C(O)OONO2 (PAN)

6
 Study Guide in CHE 101: CHEMISTRY FOR ENGINEERS Module 5: The Chemistry of the Environment

• SMOG
- Smog is formed by the mixing of air pollutants and exhaust gases resulting from human activities,
such as industrial emissions, transportation (including an increasing number of cars), and the
burning of coal, wood, and other solid fuels in stoves. When these emissions react with heat and
sunlight in the atmosphere, smog is formed.
- Smog is unhealthy for humans and animals, causing difficulties in breathing, asthma, reduced
resistance to lung infections, and eye irritation. It can also have detrimental effects on plants and
trees, damaging them through the presence of ozone.

Smog effect (Beijing, China)

Ozone is responsible for the pungent smell we associate with lightning discharges and electric motors. It is also
toxic and a significant air pollutant, particularly in cities.

• A gas composed of three atoms of oxygen

• Bluish gas that is harmful to breathe
• Nearly 90% of the earth’s ozone is in the stratosphere and is referred to as the ozone layer.
• Ozone absorbs a band of ultraviolet radiation called UVB(ultraviolet B-rays/type B ultraviolet)

Ozone depleting substances

• CFCs,
• HCFCs,
• Halons,
• Methyl bromide
• Carbon tetrachloride
• Methyl chloroform

Oxides of sulfur Coal and petroleum often contains sulfur compounds, their combustion generates sulfur dioxide.
Further oxidation of SO2, usually in the presence of a catalyst such as NO2, forms H2SO4, and thus acid rain.

7
 Study Guide in CHE 101: CHEMISTRY FOR ENGINEERS Module 5: The Chemistry of the Environment

Acid rain
-precipitation that has a pH of less than that of natural rainwater (which is about 5.6 due to dissolved carbon
dioxide)
-formed when sulfur dioxides and nitrogen oxides, as gases or fine particles in the atmosphere, combined with
water vapor and precipitate as sulfuric acid or nitric acid in rain, snow or fog.
Causes of acid rain
Man-made or Anthropogenic
• Combustion of coal and oil
• Power plants and manufacturing industries
• Automobiles and other vehicles

Natural
• Volcanic eruptions
• Decaying vegetation, wildfires, and biological processes
• Lightning

Formation of acid rain

- It forms when water vapor condenses, or as the rain falls, they dissolve in the water to form
sulfuric acid (H2SO4) and nitric acid (HNO3).
- While the air in cleaned of the pollutants in this way, it also causes precipitation to become acidic,
forming acid rain.
- When water vapor condenses, or as the rain falls, they dissolve in the water to form sulfuric acid
(H2SO4) and nitric acid (HNO3)

Biogeochemical Cycle

A biogeochemical cycle or an inorganic-organic cycle is a circulating or repeatable pathway by which either a

chemical element or a molecule moves through both biotic (biosphere) and abiotic (lithosphere, atmosphere and
hydrosphere) components of an ecosystem.

Carbon Cycle

8
PANGASINAN STATE UNIVERSITY
 Study Guide in CHE 101: CHEMISTRY FOR ENGINEERS Module 5: The Chemistry of the Environment

Carbon is the backbone of life on Earth. We are made of carbon, we eat carbon, and our civilizations—our
economies, our homes, our means of transport—are built on carbon. We need carbon, but that need is also
entwined with one of the most serious problems facing us today: global climate change.

Slow carbon cycle

Any change in the cycle that shifts carbon out of one reservoir puts more carbon in the other reservoirs.
Changes that put carbon gases into the atmosphere result in warmer temperatures on Earth. Through a
series of chemical reactions and tectonic activity, carbon takes between 100 200 million years to move between
rocks, soil, ocean, and atmosphere in the slow carbon cycle. The slow cycle returns carbon to the atmosphere
through volcanoes. The time it takes carbon to move through the fast carbon cycle is measured in a lifespan.
Fast carbon cycle
The fast carbon cycle is largely the movement of carbon through life forms on Earth, or the biosphere. Between
1015 and 1017 grams (1,000 to 100,000 million metric tons) of carbon move through the fast carbon cycle every
year. The time it takes carbon to move through the fast carbon cycle is measured in a lifespan. The fast carbon
cycle is largely the movement of carbon through life forms on Earth, or the biosphere. Between 1015 and 1017
grams (1,000 to 100,000 million metric tons) of carbon move through the fast carbon cycle every year.

Oxygen Cycle

Photosynthesis :

During the day, plants take energy from the sun, carbon di oxide from the air, and water from the soil to make their
food. Their food is simple – glucose. This process is called photosynthesis. Oxygen is released into the air as a by-
product of photosynthesis. During the night, plants take in oxygen and release carbon di oxide, to maintain their
metabolism. This is why it is not a good idea to sleep under trees at night.

Respiration :

The oxygen that is released by plants is used by humans, animals, and other organisms for respiration, i.e.
breathing. We use oxygen to break down simple sugars and generate energy to sustain ourselves. During
respiration, organisms take in oxygen and release carbon di oxide into the air.
Repeat :

This carbon di oxide is again, taken up by plants, for photosynthesis. Thus, we see that our life force is
generated chiefly by plants. This is why it is super important to preserve plant life on earth.

Nitrogen Cycle

In general, the nitrogen cycle has five steps:

1. Nitrogen fixation (N2 to NH3/ NH4+ or NO3-)

2. Nitrification (NH3 to NO3-)
9
PANGASINAN STATE UNIVERSITY
 Study Guide in CHE 101: CHEMISTRY FOR ENGINEERS Module 5: The Chemistry of the Environment

3. Assimilation (Incorporation of NH3 and NO3- into biological tissues)

4. Ammonification (organic nitrogen compounds to NH3)
5. Denitrification(NO3- to N2)

C. Human Activities and the Earth’s Atmosphere

1 Carbon Footprints
A carbon footprint is the amount of greenhouse gases—primarily carbon dioxide—released into the
atmosphere by a particular human activity. It is usually measured as tons of CO2 emitted per year, a number
that can be supplemented by tons of CO2-equivalent gases, including methane, nitrous oxide, and other
greenhouse gases.

A. Commercial and Residential Use

Greenhouse gas emissions from businesses and homes arise primarily from fossil fuels burned for heat, and
consumption or usage of certain products/services.
Examples: Food, Electricity, and Refrigerators

B. Combustion of Hydrocarbon Fuels

When hydrocarbon fuels are burned, they release carbon dioxide and other greenhouse gases, which in turn
trap heat in our atmosphere, making them the primary contributors to global warming and climate change.
Examples: Fossil fuels, Wood, Coal, Natural gas, Gasoline, and Oil

C. Transportation Industries
This industry is a major user of energy, and burns most of the world's petroleum which creates air pollution,
including nitrous oxides and particulates, and is a significant contributor to global warming through emissions of
carbon dioxide. Also, this causes automobile-oriented urban sprawl, which can consume natural habitat and
agricultural lands.

D. Manufacturing Industries
Greenhouse gas emissions from industry primarily come from burning fossil fuels for energy, as well as
greenhouse gas emissions from certain chemical reactions necessary to produce goods from raw materials.

2 Land Cover and Use

A. Deforestation
The permanent removal of trees to make room for something besides forest. Fewer trees means more carbon
dioxide left in the atmosphere. The carbon cycle is also disrupted due to the reduction of trees for carbon
dioxide absorption
10
PANGASINAN STATE UNIVERSITY
 Study Guide in CHE 101: CHEMISTRY FOR ENGINEERS Module 5: The Chemistry of the Environment

B. Kaingin System
The cutting down and burning of trees and plant growth in an area for cultivation purposes. Kaingin is a Filipino
word that means clearing. Known as swidden farming in other countries.

C. Urbanization
This refers to general increase in population and the amount of industrialization of a settlement. Urbanization
happens because of the increase in the extent and density of urban areas. Due to uncontrolled urbanization,
environmental degradation has been occurring very rapidly and causing many problems such as land
insecurity,excessive air pollution, and increased greenhouse gas emissions.

3 Creation of Ozone-Depleting Substances (ODS)

These compounds are transported into the stratosphere by turbulent mixing after being emitted from the surface,
mixing much faster than the molecules can settle. Once in the stratosphere, they release halogen atoms through
photodissociation, which catalyze the breakdown of ozone (O3) into oxygen (O2).

Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs)
these are nontoxic, nonflammable chemicals containing atoms of carbon, chlorine, and fluorine. They are used
in the manufacture of aerosol sprays, blowing agents for foams and packing materials, as solvents, and as
refrigerants.

4 Overpopulation and Overconsumption

The level of human population on Earth is a multiplier of all other environmental problems. Rapid
humanpopulation growth is the primary driver behind many ecological and even societal threats.
Overconsumption is a situation where resource use has outpaced the sustainable capacity of the ecosystem.
It can be measured by the ecological footprint, a resource accounting approach which compares human
demandon ecosystems with the amount of planet matter ecosystems can renew.

5. Greenhouse Effect

A. Natural Greenhouse Effect

A natural process that warms the Earth’s surface. When the Sun’s energy reaches the Earth’s atmosphere,
some of it is reflected back to space and the rest is absorbed and re-radiated by greenhouse gases. The
absorbed energy warms the atmosphere and the surface of the Earth. This process maintains the Earth’s
temperature at around 33 degrees Celsius warmer than it would otherwise be, allowing life on Earth to exist.

B. Enhanced Greenhouse Effect

It refers to human activities that are adding to the warming of the atmosphere due to the greenhouse effect—the
presence of gases that increases the atmosphere's retention of the heat energy of the sun.

PANGASINAN STATE UNIVERSITY 11

 Study Guide in CHE 101: CHEMISTRY FOR ENGINEERS Module 5: The Chemistry of the Environment

Global warming
It is the long-term heating of Earth’s climate system observed since the pre-industrial period (between 1850 and
1900) due to human activities, primarily fossil fuel burning, which increases heat-trapping greenhouse gas
levels in Earth’s atmosphere.

Climate change
It is a long-term change in the average weather patterns that have come to define Earth’s local, regional and
global climates.
There are the common Human activities contribute to triggered global warming and climate change:
1. Burning fossil fuels
2. Deforestation/Cutting down tress that absorb carbon.
3. Sending heat-trapping gases into atmosphere.
• Carbon dioxide
• Methane
• Nitrous oxide
• Fluorinated gases
4. Increasing livestock farming
5. Producing fertilizers containing nitrogen

These are some future effects of climate change in our world:

1. Temperatures will continue to rise
2. Frost-free season (and Growing Season) will lengthen
3. Changes in precipitation patterns
4. Hurricanes will become stronger and more intense
5. Sea level will rise 1-4 feet by 2100
6. Arctic likely to become ice-free

1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 2000 2002 2003

Carbon
monoxide 197.3 184.0 177.8 169.6 143.6 120.0 102.4 96.4 93.7
(CO)

Nitrogen
oxides 26.9 26.4 27.1 25.8 25.1 24.7 22.3 20.8 20.5
(NO₂)

Particulate
matter
(PM)˄d
PM₁₀ 12.2 7.0 6.2 3.6 3.2 3.1 2.3 2.4 2.3
PM₂₅ NA NA NA NA 2.3 2.2 1.8 1.8 1.8

Sulfur
dioxide 31.2 28.0 25.9 23.3 23.1 18.6 16.3 15.3 15.8
(SO₂)

Volatile
organic 33.7 30.2 30.1 26.9 23.1 21.6 16.9 15.8 15.4
compounds

Lead 0.221 0.16 0.074 0.022 0.005 0.004 0.003 0.003 0.003

Totals 301.5 275.8 267.2 249.2 218.1 188.0 160.2 150.2 147.7

PANGASINAN STATE UNIVERSITY 12

 Study Guide in CHE 101: CHEMISTRY FOR ENGINEERS Module 5: The Chemistry of the Environment

AIR-POLLUTION MANAGEMENT OF STATIONARY SOURCES

Notes:
In 1985 and 1996 EPA refined its methods for estimating emissions. Between 1970 and 1975, EPA revised its
methods for estimating particulate matter emissions.
The estimates for 2003 are preliminary.
NO2, estimates prior to 1990 include emissions from fires. Fires would represent a small percentage of the NO2
emissions.
PM estimates do not include condensable PM, or the majority of PM25 that is formed in the atmosphere from
―precursor‖ gases such as SO2 and NO2.
EPA has not estimated PM23 emissions prior to 1990.
The 1999 estimate for lead is used to represent 2000 and 2003 because lead estimates do not exist for these
years.
PM25 emissions are not added when calculating the total because they are included in the PM10 estimate.
• Nitrogen gases. Nitrous oxide, nitric oxide, nitrogen dioxide, other nitrous oxides
• Halogens, halides. Hydrogen fluoride, hydrogen chloride, chlorine, fluorine, silicon tetrafluoride
• Photochemical products. Ozone , oxidants
• Cyanides. Hydrogen Cyanide
• Ammonium compounds. Ammonia
• Chlorofluorocarbons , 1,1,1-trichloro-2,2,2-trifluoroethane : trichlorofluoromethane, dichlorofluoromethane,
chloropentafluoroethane

ORGANIC POLLUTANTS CONSIST OF:

1. Hydrocarbons
a. Paraffins. Methane, ethane, octane
b. Acetylene
c. Olefins. Ethylene, butadiene
d. Aromatics. Benzene, toluene, benzpyrene, xylene, styrene
2. Aliphatic oxygenated compounds
a. Aldehydes. Formaldehyde
b. Ketones. Acetone, methylethyketone
c. Organic acids
d. Alcohols. Methanol, ethanol, isopropanol
e. Organic halides. Cyanogen chloride bromobenzyl cyanide
f. Organic sulfides. Dimethyl sulfide
g. Organic hydroperoxides. Peroxyacetyl nitrite or nitrate (PAN)

• PARTICULATE POLLUTANTS
- Particulates may be defined as solid or liquid matter whose effective diameter is larger than
molecule but smaller than approximately 100um. Particulates dispersed in a gaseous medium
are collectively termed an aerosol. The terms smoke, fog, haze, and dust are commonly used
to describe particular types of aerosols, depending on the size, shape, and characteristic
behavior of the dispersed particles. Aerosols are rather difficult to classify on a scientific basis
in terms of their fundamental properties such as settling rate under the influence of external
forces, optical activity, ability to absorb an electrical charge, particle size and structure, surface-
to-volume ratio, reaction activity, physiological action, and so on. In general, particle size and
settling rate have been the most characteristic
properties for many purposes.

PANGASINAN STATE UNIVERSITY 13

 Study Guide in CHE 101: CHEMISTRY FOR ENGINEERS Module 5: The Chemistry of the Environment

Typical Gaseous Pollutants and their Principal Sources and Significance

• Air pollutants From manufacturing In typical industries Cause these damaging
sources such as these effects
Alcohols Used as solvent in Surface coatings, Sensory and respiratory
coating printing irritation

Aldehydes Results from thermal
decomposition of fats,
oil, or glycerol; used in
some glues and binders
Aromatics
Used as a solvent in
coatings
Carbon dioxide
An irritating odor,
suffocating, pungent,
Food processing, light choking; not
process, wood immediately dangerous
furniture, chip board to life; can become
intolerable in a very
short time
Surface coating, Irritation of mucous
printing membranes, narcotic
effects; some are
carcinogens

Fuel combustion; Industrial boilers, Greenhouse gas

Carbon monoxide calcining cement and lime
production
Reduction in oxygen-
Fuming of metallic Primary metals; steel carrying capacity of
Chlorine oxides, gas-operated and aluminum blood
fork trucks
Attacks entire
Manufactured by Textiles, chemicals respiratory tract and
electrolysis, bleaching mucous membrane of
Hydrochloric acid cotton and flour; by- eye
product of organic
chemicals Coal-fired boilers
Lead incinerators Irritant to eyes and
Combustion of coal or respiratory system
wastes containing
chlorinated plastics Copper and lead
smelting, MSWs Neurological
Incineration, smelting impairments; kidney,
and casting, liver, and heart damage
transportation
Fly ash, rock dusts and ordinary flour. Smoke implies a certain degree of optical density and is typically
derived from the burning of organic materials such as wood, coal, and tobacco. Smoke particles are very fine,
ranging insize less than 0.01 µm up to 1 µm. They are usually spherical in shape if of liquid or tarry composition
and irregular in shape if of solid composition. Owing to their very fine particle size, smokes can remain in
suspensionfor long periods of time and exhibit lively Brownian motion.
Fumes are typically formed by processes such as sublimation, condensation, or combustion, generally
at relatively high temperatures. They range in particle size from less than 0.1 µm to 1 µm. Similar to smokes,
they settle very slowly and exhibit strong Brownian motion.
Mists or fogs are typically formed either by the condensation of water or other vapors on suitable nuclei,
giving a suspension of small liquid droplets, or by the atomization of liquids. Particle sizes of natural fogs and
mists lie between 2 and 200 µm. Droplets larger than 200 µm are more properly classified as drizzle or rain.
Many of the important properties of aerosols that depend on particle size.
When a liquid or solid substances is emitted to the air as particulate matter, its properties and effects
may be changed. As a substance is broken up into smaller and smaller particles, more of its surface area is
exposed to the air. Under these circumstances, the substance, whatever its chemical composition, tends to
combine physically or chemically with other particles or gases in the atmosphere. The resulting combinations
are frequently unpredictable. Very small aerosol particles (from 0.001 to 0.1 µm) can act as condensation
nucleito facilitate the condensation of water vapor, thus promoting the formation of fog and ground mist.
Particles less than 2 or 3 µm in size (about half by weight of the particles suspended in urban air) can penetrate
the mucous

PANGASINAN STATE UNIVERSITY 14

 Study Guide in CHE 101: CHEMISTRY FOR ENGINEERS Module 5: The Chemistry of the Environment

membrane and attract and convey harmful chemicals such as sulfur dioxide. In order to address the special
concerns related to the effects of very fine, inhalable particles, EPA now has ambient standards in place for
both PM₁₀ and PM₂₅.
By virtue of the increased surface area of the small aerosol particles and as a result of the absorption
ofgas molecules or other such properties that are able to facilitate chemical reactions, aerosols tend to exhibit
greatly enhanced surface activity. Many substances that oxidize slowly in their massive state will oxidize
extremely fast or possibly even explode when dispersed as fine particles in the air. Dust explosions, for
example, are often caused by the unstable burning or oxidation of combustible particles, brought about by their
relatively large specific surfaces. Adsorption and analytic phenomena can also be extremely important in
analyzing and understanding the problems of particulate pollution. The conversion of sulfur dioxide to corrosive
sulfuric acid assisted by the catalytic action of iron oxide particles, for example, demonstrates the catalytic
nature of certain types of particles in the atmosphere. Finally, aerosols can absorb radiant energy and rapidly
conduct heat to the surrounding gases of the atmosphere. These are gases that ordinarily would be incapable
of absorbing radiant energy by themselves. As a result, the air in contact with the aerosols can become much
warmer.

• ESTIMATING EMISSIONS FROM SOURCES

-Knowledge of the types and rates of emissions as fundamental to evaluation of any air pollution problem. A
comprehensive material balance on the process can often assist in this assessment . Estimate of the rates at
which pollutants are discharged from various processes can also be obtained by utilizing published emission
factors . With all succeeding supplements and the EPA Technology Transfer Network’s CHIEF. The emission
factor is a statistical average of the rate at which pollutant S are emitted from the burning or processing of a
given quantity of material or on the basis of some other meaningful parameter. Emission factors are affected by
the techniques employed in the processing, handling, or burning operations, by the quality of the material used,
and by the quality material used, and by the efficiency of the air pollution control. Since the combination of
these factors tends to be unique to a source, emission factors appropriate for one source may not be
satisfactory for another source . Hence , care and good judgement must be exercised in the identifying
appropriate emission factor. If appropriate emission factors cannot be found or if the air-pollution control
equipment is to be designed, specific source sampling should be conducted.

• EFFECTS OF AIR POLLUTANTS

Materials – The damage that air pollutants can do to some materials is well known : ozone photochemical
smog cracks rubber, weakens fabrics, and fades dyes: hydrogen sulfide tarnishes silver : smoke dirties laundry :
acid aerosols ruin nylon hose. Among the most important effects are discoloration, corrosion, the soiling of
goods, and impairment of visibility.

• VEGETATION

-Vegetation is more sensitive than animals to many air contaminants, and methods have been
developed that use plant response to measure and identify contaminants. The effects of air pollution
on vegetation can appear as death, stunted growth, reduced crop yield, and degradation Of color. It
is interesting to note that in some cases of color damage such as the silvering of leafy vegetables by
oxidants, the plant may still be used as food without any danger to the consumer : however ,the
consumer usually will not buy such vegetables on aesthetic grounds , so the grower still sustain a
loss. Among the pollutants that can harm plants are sulfur dioxide, hydrogen fluoride, and ethylene.
Plant damage caused by constituents of photochemical smog has been studied extensively.
Damage has been attributed to the ozone and peroxyacetyl nitrites, higher aldehydes, and products
of the reaction of ozone with olefins.
• ANIMALS

- Considerable work continues to be performed on the effects of pollutants on animals , including , for a
few species, experiments involving mixed pollutants and mixed gas-aerosol systems. In general, such
work has shown that mixed pollutants may act in several different ways. They may produce an effect
that is additive, amounting to the sum of the effects of each contaminant acting alone: they may produce
an effect that is greater than the simply additive or less than the simply additive : or they may produce
an effect that differs in some other way from the simply additive.

PANGASINAN STATE UNIVERSITY 15

 Study Guide in CHE 101: CHEMISTRY FOR ENGINEERS Module 5: The Chemistry of the Environment

The mechanism by which an animal can become poisoned in many instances is completely different
from that by which humans are affected . As in humans, inhalation is an important route of entry in acute
air-pollution exposures such as the Meuse Valley and Donora incidents. However , probably the most
common exposures for herbivorous animals grazing within a zone of pollution will be the ingestion of
feed contaminated by air pollutants. In this case, inhalation is of secondary importance.
Air pollutants that present a hazard to livestock, therefore, are those that are taken up by vegetation or
deposited on the plants. Only a few pollutants have been observed to cause harm to animals. These
include arsenic, fluorides, lead, mercury, and molybdenum.

• Humans

- These seems to be little question that , during many of the more serious episodes, air pollution can have
a significant effect on health, especially upon the young, elderly, or people already in ill health. Hundreds
of excess deaths have been attributed to incidents in London in 1952,1956, 1957, and 1962 : in Donora.
Pennsylvania, in 1948: in New York City in 1953, 1963, and 1966 : and Bhopal, India in 1989. Many
of the people affected were in failing health, and they were generally suffering from lung conditions. In
addition, hundreds of thousands of persons have suffered from serious discomfort and inconvenience,
including eye irritation and chest pains, during these and other such incidents. Such acute problems are
actually the lesser of the health problems.

WASTE MANAGEMENT
FACTORS IN CONTROL-EQUIPMENT SELECTION
- In order to solve an air-pollution problem, the problem must be defined in detail. A number of factors
must be considered prior to selecting a particular piece of air-pollution-control equipment. In general,
these factors can be grouped into three categories : environmental, engineering, and economic.

ENVIROMENTAL FACTORS
- These include equipment location, available space, ambient conditions, availability of adequate utilities
and ancillary-system facilities , maximum allowable emission, aesthetic considerations, contributions of
the air-pollution-control system to wastewater and land pollution, and contribution of air-pollution-control
system to plant noise levels.

ENGINEERING FACTORS
- These include:
1. Contaminant characteristics (e.g., physical and chemical properties, concentration, particulate shape
and size distribution [in the case of particulates] , chemical reactivity, corrosivity, abrasiveness and
toxicity)
2. Gas-Stream characteristics (e.g., volume flow rate, temperature, pressure, humidity, composition,
viscosity, density, reactivity, combustibility, corrosivity, and toxicity)
3. Design and Performance characteristics of the particular control system (i.e., size and weight,
fractional efficiency curves , mass-transfer and/or contaminant-destruction capability , pressure drop,
reliability, turndown capability, power requirements, utility requirements, temperature limitations,
maintenance requirements, operating cycles and flexibility toward complying with more stringent air
pollution codes.
ECONOMIC FACTORS
- These include capital cost (equipment, installation, engineering, etc.) , operating cost (utilities,
maintenance, etc.), emissions fees, and life-cycle cost over the expected equipment life time.

COMPARING CONTROL-EQUIPMENT ALTERNATIVES

The final choice in equipment selection is usually dictated by the equipment capable of achieving compliance
with regulatory codes at the lowest uniform annual cost. To compare specific control-equipment alternatives,
knowledge of the particular application and site is essential. A preliminary screening, however may be
performed by reviewing the advantages and disadvantages of each type of air-pollution-control equipment

PANGASINAN STATE UNIVERSITY 16

 Study Guide in CHE 101: CHEMISTRY FOR ENGINEERS Module 5: The Chemistry of the Environment

Answer the following questions.

1. What are the primary components of Earth's atmosphere, and what are their approximate percentages?
2. Describe the process of atmospheric deposition and its impact on ecosystems.
3. How do atmospheric aerosols affect climate and air quality?
4. How do pollutants, such as sulfur dioxide and nitrogen oxides, contribute to the formation of acid rain?
5. How do atmospheric reactions involving nitrogen oxides and volatile organic compounds contribute to
theformation of ground-level ozone?
6. Explain the concept of photochemical smog and the role of sunlight in its formation.
7. How does the presence of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere contribute to the greenhouse effect
and global warming?

PANGASINAN STATE UNIVERSITY 17