Electrostatic Precipitator

electrostatic precipitators, which rely on electrostatic forces

and are capable of removing even very fine particles;
From: Environmental Geochemistry (Second Edition), 2018

Related terms:

Science and Technology, Atmospheric Aerosol, Pollution Control, Electrostatics,

Activated Carbon, Coal-Fired Power Plant, Desulphurisation, Dioxin, Fly Ash,

Flue Gas

Emissions Control Strategies for Power

Plants
Bruce G. Miller, in Coal Energy Systems, 2005

Wet ESPs
Dry ESPs, which have been discussed up to this point, have been
successfully used for many years in utility applications for coarse and fine
particulate removal. Dry ESPs can achieve a 99+% collection efficiency for
particles 1 to 10 μm in size; however, dry ESPs cannot remove toxic gases
and vapors that are in a vapor state at 400°F, cannot efficiently collect
very small fly ash particles, and cannot handle moist or sticky particulate
that would stick to the collection surface; they also require considerable
space for multiple fields due to re-entrainment of particles and rely on
mechanical collection methods to clean the plates that require
maintenance and periodic shutdowns [63].

Wet electrostatic precipitators (WESPs) address these issues and are a

viable technology to collect finer particulate than existing technology
while also collecting aerosols. WESPs have been commercially available
since their first introduction by F. G. Cottrell in 1907 [64]; however, they
have primarily been used in small, industrial-type settings as opposed to
utility power plants. WESPs have been in service for nearly 100 years in
the metallurgical industry and in many other applications. They are used
to control acid mists, submicron particulates (as small as 0.01 μm with
99.9% removal), mercury, metals, and dioxins/furans when installed as the
final polishing device within a multipollutant control system [63]. When
integrated with upstream air pollution control equipment, such as an SCR,
dry ESP, and wet scrubber, multiple pollutants can be removed when the
WESP serves as the final polishing device.

Wet electrostatic precipitators operate in the same three-step process as

dry ESPs: charging, collecting, and cleaning of the particles from the
collecting electrode [65]. However, cleaning of the collecting electrode is
performed by washing the collection surface with liquid, rather than by
mechanically rapping the collection plates. WESPs operate in a wet
environment in order to wash the collection surface; therefore, they can
handle a wider variety of pollutants and gas conditions than dry ESPs
[65]. WESPs find their greatest use where:

• The gas in question has a high moisture content;

• The gas stream includes sticky particulate;
• The collection of submicron particulate is required;
• The gas stream has acid droplets of mist;
• The temperature of the gas stream is below the moisture dew point.

WESPs continually wet the collection surface and create a dilute slurry
that flows down the collecting wall to a recycle tank, never allowing a
layer of particulate cake to build up [65]. As a result, captured particulate
is never re-entrained. Also, when firing low-sulfur coal, which produces a
high resistivity dust, the electrical field does not deteriorate, and power
levels within a WESP can be dramatically higher than in a dry ESP: 2000
W/1000 scfm versus 100 to 500 W/1000 scfm, respectively. Similar to a
dry ESP, WESPs can be configured either as tubular precipitators (i.e., the
charging electrode is located down the center of a tube) with vertical gas
flow or as plate precipitators with horizontal gas flow [66]. For a utility
application, tubular WESPs are appropriate as a mist eliminator above a
flue gas desulfurization scrubber, while the plate type can be employed at
the back end of a dry ESP train for final polishing of the gas.

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Dust Control
Dilip Kumar, Deepak Kumar, in
Sustainable Management of Coal Preparation, 2018

12.4.7 Electrostatic Precipitators

ESPs are particulate control devices that use electrical forces to move
particles from the air stream to the collection plates. Particles passing
through the precipitator are given a negative electrical charge by being
forced to pass through a region, called a corona, in which the gas ions
flow. Once the particle has been negatively charged, it is forced to the
positively charged plate. Particles are removed from the plate by a
knocking action.

ESPs normally have a higher initial cost than local exhaust ventilation
systems, but a number of advantages make them worth considering. Once
installed, ESPs require very little maintenance because there are no
moving parts. The installation time and the operating costs are also lower
than for a local exhaust ventilation system. One last advantage is that the
product is easily recovered and recycled back into the process.

There are four basic types of ESPs: plate and wire (dry), flat plate (dry),
wet, and two-stage. ESPs provide a large air volume, operate favourably in
various temperatures, and require little maintenance. Their limitations
include their physical size, operation expenses and inconsistent collection
efficiencies. A more thorough discussion of ESPs, including distinctions
between single-stage and two-stage types, is available in the ACGIH
handbook, Industrial Ventilation: A Manual of Recommended Practice for
Design (ACGIH, 2010).

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Sources of air emissions from pulp and

paper mills
Nicholas P. Cheremisinoff, Paul E. Rosenfeld, in
Handbook of Pollution Prevention and Cleaner Production, 2010

Electrostatic precipitators
Electrostatic precipitators (ESPs; Figure 6.9), or electrostatic air cleaners,
are particulate collection devices that remove particles from a flowing gas
(such as air) using the force of an induced electrostatic charge. To produce
the free ions and electric field, high internal voltages are required. ESPs
are highly efficient filtration devices that minimally impede the flow of
gases through the device, and can easily remove fine particles, such as
dust and smoke, from the air stream. In contrast to wet scrubbers, which
apply energy directly to the flowing fluid medium, an ESP applies energy
only to the particulate matter being collected and is very efficient in its
consumption of energy. Limitations include the large installation space
required, high potential for ignition sources, and susceptibility to changes
in moisture and resistivity (IUPAC, 2009).
Figure 6.9. Electrostatic precipitator.

Source: Arizona State University, Electrical Engineering Department. “Electrical

Engineering for Pollution Control”, January 2003;
http://www.eas.asu.edu/~holbert/wise/electrostaticprecip.html

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Air pollution control technologies

Daniel A. Vallero, in Air Pollution Calculations, 2019

13.7.2 Electrostatic precipitators for mists and

droplets
ESPs for liquid droplets and mists are essentially of the wetted wall type.
Fig. 13.17 shows a wet-wall precipitator with tubular collection electrodes
[20]. In wet ESPs, the upper ends of the tubes form weirs, and water flows
over the tube ends to irrigate the collection surface. The collecting
electrode becomes coated with a water film. The PM collected in the wet-
type electrostatic precipitator is discharged along with the collecting
electrode washing liquid. Thus, wastewater treatment is necessary.

Fig. 13.17. Wet-wall electrostatic precipitator with tubular collection

electrodes.

(Reproduced with permission from L. Theodore, A.J. Buonicore, Air Pollution

Control Equipment: Selection, Design, Operation and Maintenance, 1982; S.
Oglesby, G.B. Nichols, Electrostatic precipitators, in: A.C. Stern (Ed.), Air Pollution,
1977.)

Fig. 13.18 shows an alternative type of wet precipitator with plate-type

collection electrodes. In this design, sprays located in the ducts formed by
adjacent collecting electrodes serve to irrigate the plates [20]. These are
often supplemented by overhead sprays to ensure that the entire plate
surface is irrigated. The design of such precipitators is similar to that of
conventional systems except for the means of keeping insulators dry,
measures to minimize corrosion, and provisions for removing the slurry.
Fig. 13.18. Wet electrostatic precipitator with plate collection electrodes.

(Reproduced with permission from L. Theodore, A.J. Buonicore, Air Pollution

Control Equipment: Selection, Design, Operation and Maintenance, 1982; S.
Oglesby, G.B. Nichols, Electrostatic precipitators, in: A.C. Stern (Ed.), Air Pollution,
1977.)

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Air Pollution Control

In Environmental Engineering (Fourth Edition), 2003

Electrostatic Precipitators
Electrostatic precipitators are widely used to trap fine particulate matter
in applications where a large amount of gas needs treatment and where
use of a wet scrubber is not appropriate. Coal-burning electric generating
plants, primary and secondary smelters, and incinerators often use
electrostatic precipitators. In an electrostatic precipitator, particles are
removed when the dirty gas stream passes across high-voltage wires,
usually carrying a large negative DC voltage. The particles are electrically
charged on passage past these electrodes and then migrate through the
electrostatic field to a grounded collection electrode. The collection
electrode can be either a cylindrical pipe surrounding the high-voltage
charging wire or a flat plate, like that shown in Fig. 20-10. In either case,
the collection electrode must be periodically rapped with small hammer-
heads to loosen the collected particles from its surface.

Figure 20-10.. Flat-plate electrostatic precipitator.

(Courtesy of the American Lung Association.)

The collection efficiency of an electrostatic precipitator may be estimated

by an empirical equation

𝑅 = 1 − exp (
−𝐴𝑣𝑑
), (20.14)
𝑄

where

A = total area of the collecting surface of the collection electrodes (m2),

Q = flow rate of gas through the pipe (m3/s), and

vd = drift velocity (m/s).

The drift velocity is the velocity of the particles toward the collecting
electrode, and may be calculated theoretically by equating the
electrostatic force on the charged particle in the electrical field with the
drag force as the particle moves through the gas. The drift velocity is
analogous to the terminal settling velocity, as given, for example, in Eq.
(18.9), except that in the latter case the force acting in opposition to the
drag force is gravitational rather than electrostatic. Drift velocity may be
estimated by

𝑣𝑑 = 0.5𝑑, (20.15)

where d is the particle size (in μm). Drift velocities are usually between
0.03 and 0.2 m/s.

As the dust layer builds up on the collecting electrode, the collection

efficiency may decrease, particularly if the collection electrode is the
inside of a cylindrical pipe. Moreover, some dust has a highly resistive
surface, does not discharge against the collection electrode, and sticks to
the electrode. Heated or water-flushed electrodes may solve this
difficulty. Electrostatic precipitators are very efficient collectors of very
fine particles. However, the amount of dust collected is directly
proportional to the current drawn, so that the electrical energy used by an
electrostatic precipitator can be substantial, with resulting high operating
cost.

Figure 20-11 shows the effectiveness of an electrostatic precipitator in

controlling emissions from a power plant. The large white boxes in the
foreground are the electrostatic precipitators. The one on the right,
leading to the two stacks on the right, has been turned off to show the
effectiveness by comparison with the almost undetectable emission from
the stacks on the left.

Figure 20-11.. Effectiveness of electrostatic precipitators on a coal-fired

electric generating plant. The electrostatic precipitator on the right has
been turned off.

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Air Pollution Control

J. Jeffrey Peirce, ... P. Aarne Vesilind, in
Environmental Pollution and Control (Fourth Edition), 1998

Electrostatic Precipitators
Electrostatic precipitators are widely used to trap fine particulate matter
in applications where a large amount of gas needs treatment and where a
wet scrubber is not appropriate. Coal-burning electric generating plants,
primary and secondary smelters, and incinerators often use electrostatic
precipitators, in which particles are removed when the dirty gas stream
passes across high-voltage wires, usually carrying a large negative DC
voltage. The particles are electrically charged as they pass these
electrodes and then migrate through the electrostatic field to a grounded
collection electrode. The collection electrode can be either a cylindrical
pipe surrounding the high-voltage charging wire or a flat plate like that
shown in Figure 21-7. In either case, it must be periodically rapped with
small hammer-heads to loosen the collected particles from its surface.
FIGURE 21-7. Flat-plate electrostatic precipitator

[Courtesy the American Lung Association.]

As the dust layer builds up on the collecting electrode, the collection

efficiency may decrease, particularly if the electrode is the inside of a
cylindrical pipe. Moreover, some dust has a highly resistive surface and
does not discharge against the collection electrode but sticks to it. Heated
or water-flushed electrodes may solve this difficulty. Electrostatic
precipitators are efficient collectors of very fine particles. However, since
the amount of dust collected is directly proportional to the current drawn,
the electrical energy used by an electrostatic precipitator can be
substantial, with resulting high operating cost.

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Urban Air Pollution and Control

Jun He, ... Yong Sun, in
Reference Module in Earth Systems and Environmental Sciences,
2022

Electrostatic precipitator
Electrostatic precipitator (ESP) is a particulate matter control device that
applies an induced electrical force for PM moving to collection surface.
The collection efficiency of ESP is reliable about 99% for the removal of
fine particles for the all kinds of contaminated gases (Alonso et al., 2006).
A general ESP is comprised of six major parts, the inlet and outlet of gas
flow, high voltage, two electrodes (discharging electrode and collecting
electrode), hopper for wastes collection, the electronic cleaning system
and an outer casing for enclosing the electrodes.

In ESP, the dust-laden gas stream flows horizontally through the space
between two electrodes, where a high potential difference is retained and
a powerful ionizing field is formed (Fig. 5). The entrained particles are
charged when passing through the ionizing field, where gas ionization
occurs and corona is created. Then the charged particles migrate to the
oppositely charged collecting electrodes by the electrostatic effect and get
neutralized when deposited to collecting plate, which could be removed
by washing, acoustic blast or mechanical rapping to hopper.

Fig. 5. Cutaway view of large modern ESP.

A number of factors affect collection efficiency of this device. Specific

collection area (SCA), the ratio of total collection area to total gas flow, is
one of the most important factors normally ranging from 20 to 25 m2 per
1000 m3 h−1 to achieve high collection efficiency greater than 99.5%.
Collection efficiency can also be improved when increasing electric field
strength to increase particle drift velocity. Other factors, such as dust
resistivity, particulate size distribution and gas temperature, also need to
be considered when designing such a system.

ESP has widely been applied due to its high collection efficiency of
particles (as small as 0.1 m) removal, with relatively low maintenance and
operating costs. Cleaning methods are simple and pressure drop is low
(0.25–1.25 cm of water) (Meikap et al., 2012). However, large space is
required to deal with dirty gas of high flow rate. Potential explosive
hazard would occur in the period of collecting flammable gases or
particles.

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Control technologies
Naomichi Yamamoto, in Fundamentals of Bioaerosols Science,
2023

7.7.1.1 Electrostatic precipitator

ESP removes aerosol particles by electrically charging them and collecting
them on the oppositely charged plates (Fig. 7.9). In ESP, negative ions (e.g.,
electrons) are generated in the ionization region near the negatively
charged wire electrode by corona discharge (negative corona). Due to the
electrostatic force (Coulomb force), the negative ions generated are
repelled from the negatively charged wire electrode and attracted to the
positively charged plates. As negative ions migrate to the positive plates,
they attach to aerosol particles, resulting in the formation of negatively
charged aerosol particles. Due to the Coulomb force, the negatively
charged aerosol particles are repelled from the negatively charged wire
electrode and attracted to the positively charged plate, resulting in the
removal (plate-out) of aerosol particles. Broadly, ESPs can be divided into
those in which particle ionization and collection are performed in one
stage (Fig. 7.9A) and those in which particle ionization and collection are
performed in two separate stages (Fig. 7.9B). Examples of one-stage ESPs
include one developed by Cottrell (1908), and examples of two-stage ESPs
include one developed by Penney (1937).

Figure 7.9. Schematic diagrams of ESPs. The regions containing high-

voltage wires surrounded by dotted lines represent the ionization regions.
(A) One-stage ESP. (B) Two-stage ESP consisting of an ionization section
and a collection section of aerosol particles. In the ionization regions
around the negatively charged high-voltage wires, negative ions (e.g.,
electrons) are generated by corona discharge (negative corona). The
generated negative ions attach to nearby aerosol particles, producing
negatively charged aerosol particles. The resulting negatively charged
aerosol particles are attracted to the positively charged planar electrode
(collection plate) by electrostatic force. Abbreviations: A, plate spacing; L,
travel distance; Vg, air velocity; VTE, terminal electrostatic velocity.

The efficiency of particle collection by ESP depends on its terminal

electrostatic velocity (VTE). Two primary forces, electrostatic force (FE) and
drag force (FD), act on a particle that moves electrically in the air. And, the
velocity of a particle when the drag of the particle becomes the same as
the electrostatic force is called the terminal electrostatic velocity. The
electrostatic force (FE) is proportional to the amount of charge (q) of the
particle and the electric field strength (E). In the equation, it is given by:

𝐹𝐸 = qE = neE (7.13)

where n is the number of electrons and e is the elementary charge (≈1.602

× 10−19 C). Meanwhile, the drag force (FD) is given by Stokes’ law (Stokes,
1851) (see Chapter 3, Physical Properties). The equation is given by:

𝐹𝐷 =
3𝜋𝑑𝜂𝑉 (7.14)
𝐶𝑐
where d is the particle diameter, η is the dynamic viscosity of air
(≈1.81×10−5 Pa·s), V is the velocity of the particle, and Cc is the
Cunningham correction factor (see Chapter 3, Physical Properties). By
combining Eqs. (7.13) and (7.14) under the condition that 𝐹𝐸 = 𝐹𝐷 , we get:

𝑉TE =
neE𝐶𝑐 (7.15)
3𝜋𝑑𝜂

From this equation, it can be seen that the terminal electrostatic velocity
of the particle is positively related to the number of charges and the
electric field strength, and negatively related to the particle size. Note that
this equation is valid only for laminar flow (Re < 1.0). Knowing the
terminal electrostatic velocity helps design an ESP. For example, in a two-
stage ESP (Fig. 7.9B), it can be seen that particles are collected when the
condition of the following equation is met:

𝑉TE / 𝑉𝑔 ≥ 𝐴 / 𝐿 (7.16)

where VTE is the terminal electrostatic velocity, Vg is the air velocity, A is

the plate spacing, and L is the travel distance. Under this boundary
condition, the values of L, A, and Vg can be determined. This equation
shows that the lower the air velocity (Vg), the shorter the travel distance
(L) required to collect particles, if the other parameters (VTE and A) remain
the same. This implies that the lower the air velocity, the higher the
particle collection efficiency by ESPs, and this has been also confirmed
experimentally for aerosols (Morawska et al., 2002) and bioaerosols (Li
and Wen, 2003). In addition to the air velocity, the particle collection
efficiency by ESP depends on the particle size, since the terminal
electrostatic velocity (VTE) depends on the particle size (d) according to
Eq. (7.15). However, determining VTE is not easy because it also depends
on the number of electrons (n) charged on the particle. According to
Morawska et al. (2002), the particle collection efficiency by ESP is
reported to be the lowest in the particle size range of 0.1–0.45 µm. Finally,
the particle collection efficiency of ESP depends on the voltage of the
discharge electrode, and the efficiency increases as the voltage increases
(Li and Wen, 2003).

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Analytical Methods and Typical

Atmospheric Concentrations for Gases
and Particles
Barbara J. Finlayson-Pitts, James N. PittsJr., in
Chemistry of the Upper and Lower Atmosphere, 2000

c. Electrostatic Precipitators
Electrostatic precipitators operate on the principle of the attraction of a
charged particle for an oppositely charged collector. They have been used
for both collecting particles for further analysis and for controlling
particulate emissions from sources. In one common design, the particles
in air can be charged if introduced into a cylindrical chamber containing a
wire down the axis of the cylinder that is at a high negative voltage (e.g.,
5-50 kV) relative to the walls of the chamber. A corona discharge is set up
around the wire and this produces ions; the negatively charged ions are
attracted to the positively charged outer walls. These ions collide with the
particles in the air, charging them and causing them to move to the outer
walls to be captured there. In place of the corona discharge, ions may also
be generated using radioactive bombardment of the particles.

While electrostatic precipitators have relatively high collection

efficiencies (99-100%) over a wide range of particle sizes (∼0.05–5 μm),
there are a number of disadvantages. These include the lack of size
information, particle reentrainment due to sparking, and practical
problems such as high cost and shock hazards. As a result, they have not
been widely used in ambient air studies.

An example of a study in which this approach was applied involved the

use of a transmission electron microscopy (TEM) grid as the collector
plate in the electrostatic precipitator (Witkowski et al., 1988). After
sample collection, analysis by TEM (vide infra) could then be carried out.
A related area is that of single-particle levitation, which has been used in
a number of studies to isolate a single particle and study its properties
(e.g., see papers by Tang and co-workers in Chapter 9). A review of this
area is given by Davis (1997).

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Control Devices, Technologies, and

Systems
DANIEL A. VALLERO, in
Fundamentals of Air Pollution (Fourth Edition), 2008

B. Electrostatic Precipitators
ESPs for liquid droplets and mists are essentially of the wetted wall type.
Figure 32.12 shows a wet-wall precipitator with tubular collection
electrodes [1]. The upper ends of the tubes form weirs, and water flows
over the tube ends to irrigate the collection surface.

Fig. 32.12. Wet-wall ESP with tubular collection electrodes.

Source: Oglesby Jr., S., and Nichols, G. B., Electrostatic precipitators, in Air Pollution,
3rd ed., Vol. IV (Stern, A. C., ed.), p. 238. Academic Press, New York, 1977.

Figure 32.13 shows an alternative type of wet precipitator with plate-type

collection electrodes. In this design, sprays located in the ducts formed by
adjacent collecting electrodes serve to irrigate the plates [1]. These are
often supplemented by overhead sprays to ensure that the entire plate
surface is irrigated. The design of such precipitators is similar to that of
conventional systems except for the means of keeping insulators dry,
measures to minimize corrosion, and provisions for removing the slurry.

Fig. 32.13. Wet ESP with plate collection electrodes.

Source: Oglesby Jr., S., and Nichols, G. B., Electrostatic precipitators, in Air Pollution,
3rd ed., Vol. IV (Stern, A. C., ed.), p. 239. Academic Press, New York, 1977.

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