Review Notes Review Notes
Chemistry (derived from the Arabic word
kimia, meaning alchemy) is the science
that deals with the properties of organic
and inorganic substances and their
interactions with other organic and
inorganic substances.
Matter
Matter is anything that occupies space
and has mass(i.e., anything that has
density).
Classification of Matter by Physical
State
• Solid – rigidly structured materials
having a fixed volume and shape.
• Liquid – has a fixed volume but
assumes the shape of its container.
• Gas – most random state of matter,
and has no fixed volume and either
expands or contracts to fill its
container completely.
• Plasma – is an ionized gas, a gas into
which sufficient energy is provided to
free electrons from atoms or
molecules, to allow, ions and
electrons, to coexist.
• Bose-Einstein Condensate (Bose
Condensation) – is a gaseous
superfluid. It occurs at ultra-low
temperature (very near to absolute
zero), close to the point that the atoms
are not moving at all.
Phase Changes
• Melting is the process resulting in
change of phase from a solid to a
liquid. (a.k.a. fusion).
SCIENCES
• Freezing is the phase change from
liquid to solid. (a.k.a. solidification).
• Sublimation of an element or
compound is a transition from the solid
to gas phase without passing the liquid
stage.
• Deposition is a process in which gas
transforms into solid (also known as
de-sublimation).
• Condensation is the change in
matter of a substance to a denser
phase, such as a gas (or vapor) to a
liquid.
• Evaporation is the conversion of
water from a liquid into a gas.
Properties of Matter
• Physical Properties – are properties
which can be measured without
changing the identity and composition
of a substance.
Examples: odor, color, density, boiling
point, etc...
• Chemical Properties – are
properties that lead to changes in the
identity and composition of a
substance.
Examples: combustibility,
flammability, etc.
• Intensive properties – are those
which do not depend on the size of the
sample involved.
Examples: density, boiling point,
freezing point, color, melting point,
taste, hardness, reactivity, luster,
malleability and conductivity
• Extensive properties– are those
that do depend on the size of the
sample involved.
Chemistry
Examples: length, width, surface area,
volume, mass and weight
Types of Matter
• Pure substance – matter that has a
definite composition and boiling point
• Elements – a pure substance which
cannot be broken down into simpler
substances by ordinary chemical
changes. They are represented by
symbols.
• Compounds – composed of two or
more elements combined in a fixed
proportion. It can be broken down into
simpler substances (elements) by
ordinary chemical reactions. They are
represented by a chemical formula.
• Mixtures – combination of two or
more substances in no fixed
proportions which can be separated by
physical means.
• Homogeneous mixture
constituents are not distinguishable
even to some extent of magnification.
• Heterogeneous mixture
constituents are readily visible or easily
identifiable.
History of Chemistry
• Democritus knew that if you took a
stone and cut it in half, each half had
the same properties as the original
stone. He reasoned that if you
continued to cut the stone into smaller
and smaller pieces, at some point you
would reach a piece so tiny that it
could no longer be divided.
• John Dalton (Founder of Atomic
Theory)
1. All elements are composed
(made up) of atoms.
2. All atoms of the same element
are alike. Atoms of different
elements are different.
3. Atoms of different elements
combine to form a compound.
4. Chemical reactions occur
when atoms are separated,
joined, or rearranged. Atoms
of one element are never
changed into atoms of another
element as a result of a
chemical reaction.
• William Crookes – Cathode Ray
Tube
• JJ Thomson
– 1. Discovered electrons using
cathode ray tube experiment.
2. Plum Pudding Model
–
• Eugen Goldstein -He was an early
investigator of discharge tubes, the
discoverer of anode rays, and is
sometimes credited with the discovery
of the proton.
• Ernest Rutherford
In his gold foil experiment, Rutherford
bombarded a beam of alpha particles
on an ultrathin gold foil and then
detected the scattered alpha particles
in zinc sulfide (ZnS) screen.
Observations:
1. Most of the atom’s mass and its
entire positive charge are confined

in a small core, called nucleus. The
positively charged particle is called
proton.
2. Most of the volume of an atom is
empty space.
3. The number of negatively charged
electrons dispersed outside the
nucleus is same as number of
positively charge in the nucleus. It
explains the overall electrical
neutrality of an atom.
• Niels Bohr - Proposed that
electrons should orbit in different
energy levels.
• James Chadwick - Credited for the
discovery of neutrons.
Fundamental Chemical Laws
Law of Conservation of Mass
• The total mass present before a
chemical reaction is the same as
the total mass present after the
chemical reaction.
• Antoine Lavoisier
Law of Definite Proportions
• Each element has a fixed fraction
of the total mass in a compound.
• Joseph Proust
Law of Multiple Proportions
• When two elements combine to
form two or more compounds, the
ratio of the masses of the
elements will always be whole
numbers.
• John Dalton
Review Notes Review Notes SCIENCES Chemistry
The Atom • Atomic Weight (A) – this is neutron. (a.k.a. “heavy hydrogen”)
An atom is a collection of matter consisting approximately the same as the iii) Tritium, (H3) – has two neutrons and a
of apositively charged core (the atomic number of protons + neutrons in the proton in the
nucleus) whichcontains protons and nucleus. nucleus. Unlike H1 and H2, H3 is
neutrons, and which maintains anumber of • Atomic Mass Unit (amu) – One amu radioactive.
electrons to balance the positive charge is equal to 1/12 of the mass of an atom
inthe nucleus. The Periodic Table
of Carbon 12, which is approximately
- The periodic table is a tabular method of
equal to 1.66 x 10–27 kg. This
Electro Neutro displayingthe chemical elements, first
Proton wasformerly defined as 1/16 of the
n n devised in 1869 by theRussian chemist
9.1094E– 1.6726E 1.6749E mass of one atom of Dmitri Mendeleev.Mendeleev intended the
Mass Oxygen 16. (Also called the “Dalton”).
28 g –24 g –24 g table to illustrate recurring("periodic")
Charg –1.602E– +1.602E • Valence – the number of electrons in trends in the properties of the elements.
Neutral the outermostorbitals of an atom.
e 19 C –19 C
1,837 They strongly determine theelectrical • Groups -A group, also known as a
1,839
Smallest times and thermal conductivity of the family, is a vertical column inthe
times
particle the substance. periodic table of the elements.
the
in mass of • Period - A period is a horizontal row
mass of
the the Ions in the periodic table of theelements.
the
atom. electron 1. Ions are formed when atoms gain or • Electronegativity is the ability of an
electron.
. lose electrons. atom in amolecule to attract shared
2. Positive ions (cations) are formed when electrons to itself in acovalent bond. It
• Quark - smallest known building block a neutralatom loses electrons.
is first proposed by Linus Pauling
of matter. Up-quarks have electric 3. Negative ions (anions) are formed when
in1932. Fluorine is the most
charges of +2/3. Down-quarkshave a neutralatom gains electrons.
4. Metallic atoms tend to lose electrons to electronegative element; itpulls very
charges of -1/3. A proton is made up
form positiveions (also known as cations). strongly on the shared electrons in
of two up-quarks and a down-quark. A
5. Nonmetallic atoms tend to gain acovalent bond.
neutron is made up of an up-quark and
electrons to formnegative ions (a.k.a. • Electropositivity is the opposite of
two down-quarks.
anions). electronegativity. It isthe ability of an
• Element – a substance that cannot be
atom to donate electrons.
decomposed into simpler substances
Isotopes – are elements whose atoms • Electron Affinity (EA) for an
during ordinary chemical reactions. have the same element is the energygiven off when
• A molecule is the smallest indivisible atomic number but different atomic an electron is added to the
portion of a pure compound or weights. The nuclei neutralatom. It also refers to the
element that retains a set of unique of isotopes differ from one another only in measure of the willingnessof an atom
chemical properties. A molecule the number
to receive an electron.
consists of two or more atoms bonded of neutrons.
Ex. Hydrogen has three isotopes:
• Ionization Energy is a measure of
together.
i) Normal Hydrogen, (H1) – a single-proton how much energy is required to
• Atomic Number (Z) – the number of
nucleus remove an electron from a neutral
protons in the nucleus.
ii) Deuterium, (H2) – nucleus has a proton atom, which is also the measure of the
and a
 Review Notes Review Notes SCIENCES Chemistry

tendency of an atom to resist the loss BRONSTED-LOWRY BASE is any mass and energy and the law of combining 1. Percentage weight or weight %
of electron. compound that is aproton acceptor when it weights or volumes. The tools used are 𝑊𝑡. 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒
𝑊𝑡. % = 𝑥 100
dissolves in water. chemical formulas, chemical equations, 𝑊𝑡. 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
Types of Compounds LEWIS BASE is any compound that is an atomic weights, and molecular weights. 2. Volume %
1. Acids electron pairdonor. 𝑉𝑜𝑙. 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒
Bases and acids are seen as opposites Solution – a homogeneous mixture of two 𝑉𝑜𝑙 % = 𝑥 100
- An acid is any compound that dissociates 𝑉𝑜𝑙. 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
in waterinto H+ ions. In common usage an because theeffect of an acid is to increase or more substances. 3. Mole %
acid is anysubstance that, when dissolved the hydronium ionconcentrationin water, Parts of a Solution: 𝑀𝑜𝑙𝑒 𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒
in water, gives asolution a pH of less than whereas bases reduce thisconcentration. 1) Solute – the dissolved substance or the 𝑀𝑜𝑙𝑒 % =
𝑀𝑜𝑙𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
𝑥 100
7. The combination of H+and water part that 4. Molarity
(H3O+, known as the hydronium ion) Properties of Bases has a lesser amount 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒
isknown as the Arrhenius theory of acids. - Bases conduct electricity in aqueous 2) Solvent – the dissolving part of the 𝑀=
𝐿𝑖𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
ARRHENIUS ACID is any compound that solutions. solution or the
5. Molinity
dissociatesin water to yield an H+ ion. - Bases have a bitter taste part present in larger quantity.
𝑀𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒
BRONSTED-LOWRY ACID is any - Bases turn red litmus paper to blue 𝑀=
- Bases have a pH between 7 and 14 Factors Influencing Solubility 𝐾𝑔 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
compound that is aproton donor when it
- Bases neutralize acids, forming salts and 1. Nature of solute and solvent 6. Molality
dissolves in water.
𝑀𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒
LEWIS ACID is any compound that is an water 2. Temperature 𝑚=
electron pairacceptor. 3. Particle size of solid solute 𝐾𝑔 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑣𝑒𝑛𝑡
Properties of Acids What is pH? 7. Normality
pH stands for "the power of hydrogen". The Mole Concept 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑚 − 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑣. 𝑤𝑡. 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒
- Acids conduct electricity in aqueous 𝑁=
solutions. The pH scaleis used to determine the The mole is a measure of the quantity of 𝐿𝑖𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
- Acids have a sour taste number of hydrogen ions of an elementor a compound. Specifically, a 8. Formality
- Acids turn blue litmus paper to red agivensubstance. In pure water at 22° C mole of an element willhave a mass equal 𝐹𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑙𝑖𝑡𝑦
- Acids have a pH between 0 and 7 (72° F), H3O+and hydroxyl (OH–) ions to the element’s atomic weight. Amole can 𝐹𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑢𝑙𝑎 𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑖𝑛 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑚𝑠
=
- Acids neutralize bases exist in equal quantities; theconcentration be a number quantity, a unit of mass, or 𝐿𝑖𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
- Acids react with active metals to form of each is 1 x 10–7 moles/liter, creating afixed volume of gas at STP. A mole (mol) 9. Parts per million (ppm)
hydrogen aneutral solution. is defined athe number of atoms in exactly 1 𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑡
1 𝑝𝑝𝑚 =
- Acids react with oxides and hydroxides of p(H) = –log[H3O+] 12 g of Carbon-12 or Avogadro's number, 1 𝑚𝑖𝑙𝑙𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑡𝑠
metals to p(OH) = –log[OH–] NA = 6.022 x 1023. 𝑚𝑔 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒
where [H3O+] and [OH–] are the =
form salts and water 𝑘𝑔 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
concentrationsofhydronium ions and The molar mass of a substance is
2. Bases hydroxyl ions respectively inmoles per liter numerically equal Kinetic Molecular Theory of Gas
- A base is any compound that dissociates (moles/L). to its formula mass in grams. At STP, 1 Behavior
in waterinto OH- ions. It is a chemical Note: pH + pOH = 14 mole of any 2
gas occupies a volume of 22.4 L. 𝑃𝑉 = 𝑁𝐸𝑘
compound that absorbshydronium ions 3
when dissolved in water (a Stoichiometry – is the math behind
protonacceptor). An alkali is a special chemistry. Givenenough information, one where:
example of a base,where in an aqueous can use stoichiometry tocalculate masses, Units of Concentration N = number of molecules
environment, hydroxide ions are moles, and percent within a There are many units of concentration to Ek = average kinetic energy per molecule
donated. chemicalequation. The rules for express solution strengths. P = pressure exerted by a gas
ARRHENIUS BASE is any compound that determining stoichiometric relationships V = volume of gas
dissociatesin water to yield an OH- ion. are based on the laws of conservation of

1 3
𝐸𝑘 (𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑢𝑙𝑒) = 𝑚𝑣𝑟𝑚𝑠 2 = 𝑘𝑇
2 2
m = mass of a molecule
Vrms = root-mean-square speed
k = Boltzmann’s constant
T = absolute temperature
1 3
𝐸𝑘 (𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒) = (𝑀𝑀)𝑣 2 = 𝑅𝑇
2 2
MM = molar mass
R = molar gas constant
Root-Mean-Square Speed
3𝑅𝑇
𝑣𝑟𝑚𝑠 =√
𝑀𝑀
Sapmle Problem
Problem 1. Naturally occurring
magnesium consists 78.70% of 24Mg, with
atoms of mass 23.98504 amu, 10.13% of
25Mg, with atoms of mass 24.98584 amu,
and 11.17% 26Mg, with atoms of mass
25.98259 amu. Calculate the atomic mass
of Magnesium.
Problem 2. Calculate the empirical
formula of a compound with a percent
composition of 52.17% carbon, 13.05%
hydrogen and 34.75% oxygen.
Problem 3. How many moles are there in
one kilogram of water (H20), and how
many molecules does it have? (Atomic
mass of Hydrogen=1 and Oxygen=16)
Problem 4. How many electrons are in
0.01 gram of gold?
Review Notes Review Notes SCIENCES Chemistry
Problem 5. Calculate the number of Problem 14. Calculate the molality of an
moles of hydrogen atoms in 17.4 g of alcohol in aqueous solution if the mole
(NH4)2SO4. (N = 14 amu, H = 1 amu, S = fraction of the alcohol is 0.150.
32.1 amu, O = 16 amu).
Problem 15. Calculate the hydrogen ion
Problem 6. How many molecules are in concentration of solutions with the pH
1.3 liters of H2 gas at STP? value of 12.70.
Problem 7. 17 grams of Magnesium (At. Problem 16. Calculate the pOH of 0.023
Mass = 24.305) occupy 9.77 cc of space. M HCl, a strong acid.
What is the average cu.m. volume of a
Magnesium atom? Problem 17. In a certain experiment,
Argon (40 amu) effuses from a porous cup
Problem 8. 90.10 grams of C6H12O6 at 4.00 mmol/minute. How fast would
(MW = 180.2 g/mol) is dissolved in 250.0 Chlorine (35.45 amu) effuse under the
milliliters of solution. Calculate the molarity same conditions?
of the solution.
Problem 18. Calculate the root-mean-
Problem 9. 500 mL of 2.00 M NaOH is square speed of HCl gas at 100.0°C,
diluted with water to 975 mL. Calculate the assuming it to be ideal.
molarity of the resulting solution.
Problem 10. Calculate the mass percent
of ethanol in an ethanol-water solution if
25.0 grams of ethanol are dissolved in 125
grams of water.
Problem 11. A 3.50-gram sample of
groundwater is found to contain 4.71
micrograms (µg, 10-6g) of Pb2+ ion. What
is the concentration of the Pb2+ ion in
ppm?
Problem 12. Two liters of salt solution
has a molarity of 0.8 M. How much salt is
in the solution?
Problem 13. Calculate the mole fraction
of ammonia in a 2.00 m solution of NH3 in
water.