COORDINATION

BIOLOGY F5: Innocent JM
COORDINATION
Introduction
The body of a living organism is frequently exposed to variety of stimuli, both,
internal and external stimuli.
For an appropriate response to a stimulus to be given, usually more than one
body parts are involved and their activities are coordinated either by nervous
system or by the endocrine system or both.
Coordination: Is the process whereby a living organism gives a correct
response at a correct time to a particular stimulus.
Coordination can also be defined as the linkage of the bodily functions with
respect to space and time.
There are two types of coordination; nervous coordination and hormonal
coordination.
Nervous coordination in mammals
Nervous coordination mainly comprises of highly specialized cells called
neurons. The function of a neuron is to detect and receive stimuli from
different sensory organs (receptors) and then, integrate them to determine the
mode of response of the living organism.
Nervous coordination in mammals consists of four steps which characterizes
the functions of the nervous system:
(i) Reception of stimuli: To collect information about the internal and external
environment (stimuli) using receptor cells.
(ii) Processing the information: It converts the stimuli into electrical impulses
by the process called transduction.
(iii) Transmission: It transmits nerve impulses from the sensory receptor to the
CNS and then to the effector which is capable of producing appropriate
response
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(iv) Response to stimuli: To act upon the information, normally by

coordinating the organisms’ activities.
Those parts of the body that receive stimuli from internal or external
environment are called receptors and the information collected by receptors is
transmitted by neurons.
Adaptations of the nervous system
(i) It is made up receptors for reception of various stimuli
(ii) It has nerve cells (neurons) for transmission of nerve impulses
(iii) It has a numerous number of mitochondria for generation of energy
required for the transmission of impulses.
(iv) They have neuroglia (glial cells) that provide protection and support to the
tissue.
(v) The cells in the peripheral nervous system (PNS) are capable of
regenerating themselves. This is due to the presence of neurolemma.
(vi) The cells in the nervous tissues produce neurotransmitter chemicals which
act as conveyors that carry impulses from one neuron to another across the
synaptic gap.
(vii) Nerve cells or neurons which make up the nervous system have nodes of
Ranvier and myelin sheath which facilitate rapid transmission of impulses at the
faster speed by saltatory conduction.
NEURONS
Neurons are basic structural and functional unit of the nervous system.
Although neurons vary considerably in size and shape, they all structurally have
three components:
(i) A cell body
(ii) Dendrites
(iii) Axon
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Cell body:
The cell body contains a mass of cytoplasm and a single centrally located
nucleus. A variety of other cellular organelles such as the mitochondrial is also
present.
Dendrites
Dendrites are short and thin, often highly branched cytoplasmic extensions that
are gradually tapered from their bases to their tips. The branching of the
dendrites is their structural adaptation to increase the surface area for reception
of stimuli. The main function of the dendrites is to receive stimuli and conduct
impulses to the cell body.
Axon
The axon is a long, slender extension that transmits an impulse from the cell
body to another neuron or to an organ. A nerve impulse begins at the top of the
dendrites passes through the cell body and moves down the axon.
The cytoplasm of the axon is called axoplasm. Axons terminate by branching
to form extensions called presynaptic terminals.
Functionally, axons conduct action potential from the neuron cell body to the
presynaptic terminals.
The main function of the pre –synaptic terminal is to relay the signals to other
cells by releasing chemical messengers called neurotransmitters.
The junction where one neuron communicates with another is neuron in a
neural pathway is called synapse.
Functional organization of neurons

Functionally, there are three classes of neurons, corresponding to three major
functions of the nervous system. These are:
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(i) Sensory neuron/ afferent: These communicate information (sensory input)

from the sensory receptors to the central nervous system. They have long
dendrites and short axon.
A diagram of the sensory neuron

(ii) Intermediate /Relay neurons: These integrate (provide a link) between
sensory neuron and motor neurons.
They are much smaller nerve cells with many interconnections. They have short
dendrites and they lie entirely within the CNS.
Their functions are to relay information within the CNS between the sensory
neuron and motor neuron.
Dendrites
Cell body
Axon
Synaptic endings
(iii) Motor/ efferent neurons: These convey impulses from the central
nervous system to the effector organ.
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Beside neurons, nervous system also consists of neuroglia cells which usually
cover the axon. These cells are also covered by a fatty substance called myelin
sheath that acts as an insulator. This is why axons are also called myelinated
fibers.
A non-myelinated part of axon between two Schwan cells is called node of
Ranvier. Conduction of action potentials from one node of Ranvier to another
in myelinated neurons is called saltatory conduction.
A diagram of a motor neuron

The three types of neurons are shown together in the diagrams below:
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Classification of neurons based on the number of dendrites

Neurons can also be classified on the basis of the number of their dendrites
arising from the cell body. In this classification, there are three main types of
neurons, unipolar, bipolar and multipolar neurons.
Unipolar neurons have a single short dendrite terminating onto bush – like
clusters. They are found in the granular layer of the cerebellum.
Bipolar neurons are sensory neurons that have two processes coming from the
cell body, one Dendron and one axon. Bipolar neurons are found in the retina of
the eye.
Multipolar neurons form the major parts of the CNS. They include
interneurons and motor neurons.
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Adaptations neurons to their roles

(i) Neurons have dendrites for reception of stimuli and conducting impulses to
the cell body.
(ii) Neurons are made up of axons for quick conduction of action potential from
the neuron cell body to the presynaptic terminals.
(iii) Neurons are covered by myelin sheath for protection and insulation.
NERVE IMPULSES
A nerve impulse is an electrical signal or information about a stimulus that is
transmitted to the central nervous system to trigger a specific response to an
effector organ.
Generation and transmission of nerve impulses

(a) Resting potential
Neurons are not always transmitting signals. The transmission of an impulse
depends on the ionic gradients that exist across the axonal membrane.
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In humans, the concentration of sodium ions is higher in the extracellular fluid

than the concentration of potassium ions. The reverse is true inside the axonal
membrane.
The concentration of potassium ions is higher in the cytosol than the
concentration of sodium ions.
These ions are continuously moved against their concentration gradient by
active transport. For every two K+ ions that are actively transported inward,
three Na+ ions are pumped out.
So, the inside becomes more negative than the outside of the neuron membrane.
Because of unequal distribution of ion in the two sides of the nerve cell
membrane, a potential of 70mV is generated.
This potential is called the resting membrane potential and is expressed as
-70mV. The negative sign means that the inside of the neuron membrane is
negative relative to outside and the neuron membrane is said to be polarized.
Resting potential: This refers to the potential difference existing across the
neuron’s membrane when it is not conducting an impulse.
(b) Action potential
When a neuron receives a stimulus, an action potential is generated. Action
potential is the potential difference that exists between the neuron’s membrane
when it is conducting an impulse. The action potential is established by the
following factors:
(i) The presence of a threshold stimulus (adequate stimulus): This is a

stimulus which is capable of bringing an electrochemical change on a neuron or
to excite a certain tissue.
If the stimulus is not capable of exciting a tissue or fails to arise any response, it
is called a subthreshold or inadequate stimulus.
When a neuron is stimulated by a stimulus of adequate strength (threshold
stimulus), the stimulated area becomes more permeable to Na + than to K+ due
to the opening of Na+ gates.
As a result, sodium ions rush in the cell and now the cell becomes more positive
inside than outside and the membrane potential changes from -70mV to
+40mV.
This reversal of membrane potential is called depolarization.
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(ii) Repolarization of the fiber:

Once the sodium ions have flooded the neuron, the sodium channels close. At
this point, the potassium channels open. Potassium ions therefore diffuse out of
the cell. As the potassium ions move out of the cell, the electrical charge
reverses again. The inside of the cell becomes more negative than the outside of
the cell. The neuron has therefore returned to its original resting potential. This
return of the neuron membrane to its original resting potential is called
repolarization.
(iii) Hyperpolarization:
During repolarization, there is a slight overshoot into a more negative potential
than the original resting potential. This is called hyperpolarization. This is due
to the slight delay of on closing all the potassium gates compared with sodium
gates.
Refractory period
After an action potential, a nerve fiber undergoes a period of recovery in which
it regains its original ionic distribution and polarity and prepares itself for the
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next stimulation. This period of recovery of the nerve fiber is called refractory
period.
The refractory period serves two functions:
(i) It prevents the action potential from being propagated in both directions
along the neuron.
(ii) It separates one action potential from the next so preventing them from
merging.
Generation and transmission of nerve impulses
Nerve impulses are all – or nothing phenomena. Provided that the stimulus
has reached a certain threshold value, an action potential of a fixed value
proceeds along the whole length of the axon.
The threshold value is the minimum energy level which when reached an action
potential is generated.
The mechanism of transmission of nerve impulses is explained as follows:
(i) At resting potential, there is a high concentration of sodium ions outside the
neuron and high concentration of potassium ions inside the neuron.
(ii) When the neuron is stimulated, sodium ions rush into the axon along the
concentration gradient. This causes the depolarization of the membrane. The
point of depolarization itself becomes the stimulus for the adjoining area of the
membrane which in turn becomes depolarized.
(iii) Localized electrical circuits are established which cause a further influx of
sodium ions and thus progression of an impulse. Behind the impulse, potassium
ions begin to leave the axon along the concentration gradient.
(iv) As the impulse progress, the outflux of potassium ions causes the neuron to
become repolarized behind the impulse.
(v) After the impulse has passed and the neuron has repolarized, sodium is
once again actively expelled in order to increase the external concentration so
as to allow the passage of another impulse.
The transmission of nerve impulse along the axon is summarized with the aid of
illustrations as shown below:
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The transmission of nerve impulses along the axon
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THE SYNAPSE
Neurons are not in direct contact with each other but are separated by tiny gaps
between. The junction between two or more neurons (the point where two or
more neurons meet) is called synapse. The tiny gap that separates the neurons
at the synapse is called synaptic cleft.
The structure of a synapse is shown below:
The impulse travelling through a nerve fiber may reach either its destination
(muscle or gland) for action or the dendrites of another neuron for further
transmission. The meeting place is what is called synapse. A neuron which
carries an impulse towards a synapse is called presynaptic neuron
(transmitting neuron). A neuron which receives the impulse after it crosses the
synapse is called the postsynaptic neuron.
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The transmission over a synapse is a chemical process. As the impulse reaches

the terminal end of the axon, the following events occur:
(i) A chemical acetylcholine is released by the end of the axon
(ii) Acetylcholine stimulates the next neuron to start the new impulse.
(iii) Acetylcholine is soon broken down thereby to make the synapse ready for
the next transmission.
Mechanism of synaptic transmission
The movement of impulse across the synapse is called synaptic transmission.
The message which is transmitted across the synapse is in the form of a
chemical messenger called neurotransmitter.
The typical one-way transmission of impulse from one axon to the dendrite or
cell body is due to the fact that the axons have several rounded synaptic knobs
at their distal end which dendrites lack.
These knobs contain numerous sacs called synaptic vesicles and when a nerve
impulse reaches a knob, some of the vesicles respond by releasing
neurotransmitter.
The transmission across the synapse occurs in the following sequence:
(i) An action potential arrives at the presynaptic knob and causes the calcium
channels to open in the presynaptic membrane.
As the calcium concentration inside the presynaptic knob is lower than outside,
calcium ions rush in. As the calcium ion concentration increases, the synaptic
vesicles move towards the membrane.
(ii) The vesicles fuse with the plasma membrane of the transmitting cell.
(iii) The fused vesicles release their neurotransmitter molecules into the
synaptic cleft.
(iv)The released neurotransmitter molecules diffuse across the synaptic cleft
and bind the receptor molecules on the post synaptic cell surface membrane.
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(v) Binding of the neurotransmitter to the postsynaptic neuron receptors open

the channels for Na+ and allows Na+ ions to diffuse across the postsynaptic
membrane. As a result, the postsynaptic membrane depolarizes and an action
potential is generated which is then propagated along the postsynaptic neuron to
the next synapse.
(vi) Once the neurotransmitter has acted on the postsynaptic membrane, they
are immediately broken down by enzymes (for example, acetylcholine is broken
by acetylcholinesterase), and the components diffuse back across the synaptic
cleft into the presynaptic neuron.
The neurotransmitter is quickly hydrolyzed to prevent it from indefinitely
propagating new action potential.
ATP released by the mitochondria present in the presynaptic knob is used to
combine choline and ethanoic acid (acetyl) molecule to form acetylcholine.
This is stored in synaptic vesicles for future use.
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The diagrams that summarize the events of synaptic transmission are shown
below:
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Functions of the synapse

The synapse performs the following functions:
(i) To transmit information between neurons
(ii) Amplification of low-level stimuli: Repeated low-level stimuli can be
amplified as each impulse is arriving at the synapse, causing the release of more
neurotransmitter, resulting in one large impulse in the postsynaptic neuron.
(ii)To act as junctions, allowing impulses to be divided up along many neurons
or merge into one. The convergence of several neurons at the synapse release
sufficient neurotransmitter to generate new action potential to the postsynaptic
membrane which individually would not.
(iii) To ensure that impulses pass across them in one direction. This is because
the synaptic vesicles are found only in the presynaptic knob and released to the
postsynaptic knob.
(iv) To filter out low frequency impulses. Low frequency of impulses releases
small amount of neurotransmitter at the postsynaptic knob as a result impulses
are not carried any further.
(v) To allow adaptation of intense stimulation. Continued high level stimulation
results in the release of neurotransmitters exceeding the rate at which it can be
formed and hence the release of neurotransmitter ceases. This prevents
overstimulation which might damage the receptor.
CLASSIFICATION OF NEUROTRANSMITTERS
Neurotransmitters are classified into two:
(i) Excitatory neurotransmitter
(ii) Inhibitory neurotransmitter
Excitatory neurotransmitters are neurotransmitters which cause increased
membrane permeability to sodium ions and thus trigger nerve impulse (for
example acetylcholine).
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Other neurotransmitters cause decreased membrane permeability to sodium

ions, thus causing the threshold stimulus to be raised. These are called
inhibitory neurotransmitters (for example glycine). This action is called
inhibitory because it lessens the chance that nerve impulse will be transferred to
an adjoining neuron.
Characteristics of nerve impulses
(i) Stimulation: A nerve impulse is generated when a stimulus reaches a
threshold value.
(ii) The all – or nothing principle: If the strength of the stimulus is below
certain threshold intensity, no action potential is evoked. If, however, the
stimulus is above the threshold, an action potential is evoked.
Further increase in the intensity of the stimulus above the threshold value,
however great it is, does not cause a larger potential. In other words, the size of
an action potential does not depend on the intensity of the stimulus above the
threshold value.
(iii) Refractory period: After an axon has transmitted an impulse, it is
impossible for it to transmit another one for a short period. The reason is that,
after it has been active, the axon has to recover, and the membrane has to be
repolarized before another action potential can be transmitted. This period of
recovery is called refractory period.
The refractory period is divided into absolute refractory period and relative
refractory period.
Absolute refractory period is the period during which the axon is completely
incapable of transmitting impulse.
Relative refractory period is the period during which it is possible to generate
an impulse provided that the stimulus is stronger than usual.
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(iv) Transmission speed: For the nervous system to be efficient as a means of

communication, its neurons must transmit impulses as rapidly as possible. The
transmission speed varies depending on the type of neuron and the diameter of
the axon.
Myelinated neurons transmit impulses faster than non – myelinated neurons. In
myelinated neurons, impulses can jump from one node of Ranvier to another.
This mode of transmission is called saltatory conduction.
Regarding the diameter of the axon, the thicker the axon the faster it will
transmit the impulses. The reason for this is connected with the greater area of
the membrane over which ionic exchange can take place. The increased
axon diameter also minimizes the resistance of the axoplasm to the
transmission of a nerve impulses.
The speed of transmission also depends on the body temperature of the
organism such that, the speed of transmission in homeothermic organisms is
greater than in poikilothermic organism.
(v)A nerve impulse is self-propagating: A neuron is usually stimulated at its
dendrites or cell body. For the resulting action potential to function as a signal,
it must somehow travel along the axon to the other end of the neuron.
Actually, the action potential does not travel but is regenerated in sequence
along the axon. The strong depolarization of one action potential ensures that
the neighboring region of a neuron will be depolarized triggering a new action
potential at that position and so on to the end of the axon.
(vi) Unidirectionality: Impulses always flow only in one direction, that is,
from the cell body to terminal dendrites in the neuron or from the presynaptic to
postsynaptic neuron across the synapse.
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Spatial Vs Temporal summation

Both, excitatory postsynaptic potential (EPSP) and inhibitory postsynaptic
potential (IPSP) are graded potentials that vary in magnitude with the number
of neurotransmitter molecules binding to the receptors on the postsynaptic
membrane.
For the postsynaptic cell to generate an action potential, the EPSPs must be
stronger enough to depolarize the membrane.
A single EPSP at one synapse is not usually strong enough to trigger the action
potential.
However, several synaptic terminals acting simultaneously on the same
postsynaptic cell or smaller number of synaptic terminals discharging
neurotransmitters repeatedly in succession can have accumulative impact on the
membrane potential. The additive effect of the postsynaptic potentials is called
summation.
There are two types of summation, temporal summation and spatial
summation
In temporal summation, chemical transmission from one or more synaptic
terminals occurs so close together in time that each postsynaptic potential
affects the membrane before the voltage has returned to the resting potential
after the previous stimulation.
In spatial summation, several different synaptic terminals usually belonging to
different presynaptic neurons, stimulate a postsynaptic neuron at the same time
and have an additive effect on the membrane potential.
Membrane potential Action potential
-70 mv
E1 E1
Time
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E1 is the chemical transmission from one synaptic terminal occurring in

succession to produce an action potential (temporal summation).
Membrane potential Action potential
-70 mv
E1 + E 2
Time
E1 and E2 are different synaptic terminals usually belonging to different
presynaptic neurons stimulating the postsynaptic cell at the same time to
generate an action potential (spatial summation).
Note that:
(i) Repeated subthreshold EPSPs that do not overlap in time do not add together
and therefore do not depolarize the membrane.
(ii) Temporal summation occurs when two or more subthreshold EPSPs that
overlap in time reinforce each other. Here, a second release of neurotransmitter
at the synapse affect the postsynaptic membrane when it is still partially
depolarized from a slightly earlier stimulation.
(iii) Spatial summation occurs when two or more presynaptic cells release
neurotransmitter at the same time, causing the additive voltage change greater
than the individual EPSP. Here, the action potential results from spatial
summation of EPSPs at synapse E1 and E2 depolarizing the membrane.
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RECEPTORS
Receptors are highly specialized cells which detect stimuli and convert it into
nerve impulses.
The physical and chemical conditions in an animal’s internal and external
environments are continuously changing. A change that can be detected is
called a stimulus.
To some extent, all animal cells are sensitive to stimuli, but some cells called
receptors have become especially sensitive to particular stimuli.
Classification of receptors
Receptors are classified according to the type of stimulus energy they detect.
The main types of receptors are:
(i) Mechano receptors; which detect the changes in mechanical energy, such
as movements, pressure, tensions, gravity and sound waves.
(ii) Chemoreceptors; which detect chemical stimuli, for example through taste
and smell. They have the ability to respond to a diverse range of chemical
substances in food, nasal passage and blood. An example includes the olfactory
receptors in the roof of the nasal cavity which can be stimulated by odours.
(iii) Thermoreceptors; which detect temperature changes. They can detect
hotness and coldness. They are thus of two types, hot and cold receptors. They
are found throughout the skin to allow sensory reception throughout the body.
The location and number of thermoreceptors determine the sensitivity of the
skin to temperature changes.
(iv) Electroreceptors; which detects electric fields. They are almost found in
aquatic or amphibious animals because salt water is a better conductor of
electricity than air.
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(v) Photoreceptors; which detect light and other forms of electromagnetic

radiations. There are two types of photoreceptors; rods and cones. These are
found in the retina of the eye for detecting dim and bright light respectively.
(vi) Osmoreceptors: These detect changes in osmotic pressure. The
osmoreceptors are primarily found in the hypothalamus and kidney of most
homothermic organisms. They contribute to regulate fluid balance in the body
(osmoregulation).
(vii) Proprioceptors: These are internal sensory receptors that monitor the
degree of stretch of muscles and tendons around the body. This information
gives an individual a sense of balance and awareness of the position of various
parts of the body in relation to each other.
Classification of sensory receptors based on structure
Based on their structure, there are two types of receptors, single sensory
neuron receptors (simple or primary receptors) and complex receptors, or
secondary receptors (sense organs).
Single sensory neuron receptors are simple and mostly primitive. They consist
of a single sensory neuron which is capable of detecting the stimulus and giving
rise to a nerve impulse passing to the central nervous system. An example
includes skin mechanoreceptors.
Receptors can also be classified according to their structure.
Simple receptors, known as primary receptors consist of a single neuron, one
end of which is sensitive to a particular type of stimulus.
A primary receptor gathers sensory information and transmits it to another
neuron or an effector.
A secondary receptor is more complex. It consists of a modified epithelial cell
which is sensitive to a particular type of stimulus. The cell senses changes and
passes this information to a neuron which transmits it as nerve impulses. Sense
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organs are complex stimulus – gathering structures consisting of grouped

sensory receptors. In many sense organs, several receptors make synaptic
connections with a single receptor neuron. This is called convergence, and it
increases the sensitivity of the sense organs.
Thus, an environmental change may be too weak to generate a nerve impulse
when it stimulates a single receptor, but it will generate a nerve impulse if it
stimulates several receptors simultaneously. This effect is similar to summation
in synapses.
A third classification of receptors is based on the source of stimulation:
exteroceptors respond to stimuli outside the body, for example sound and light
intensity; interoceptors respond to stimuli inside the body, for example CO2
concentration and changes in osmotic pressure and proprioceptors respond
specifically to changes of joint angle and the amount of tension in muscles
(position and movement of skeleton and muscles).
Functions of receptors
Action potentials that reach the brain via sensory neurons are called sensations.
Once the brain is aware of the sensations, it interprets them, giving us the
perception of the stimuli. Sensations and perceptions begin with sensory
reception, the detection of the energy of stimulus by sensory cells. Receptors
are therefore the first component of a sensory system which has four major
functions:
(i) Sensory transduction: Receptors gather sensory information and then
convert it into a form that can be used by the animal (nerve impulse). The actual
detection of a stimulus involves the conversion of the stimulus energy into a
change in the membrane potential of a receptor cell, a process called sensory
transduction. The initial response of the sensory receptor to a stimulus is a
change in its permeability, resulting in graded membrane potentials (receptor
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potential). (Recall that, a graded potential is a change in the membrane

potential which is proportional to the strength of the stimulus.)
(ii) Amplification: The strengthening of the stimulus energy that is otherwise
too weak to be carried into the nervous system is called amplification. For
example, the sound waves are enhanced by a factor of more than 20 before
reaching the receptors of the inner ear.
(iii) Transmission: Once the energy in the stimulus has been transduced into a
receptor potential, transmission or conduction of impulses to the CNS can
occur. The sensory system transmits information about the stimulus to the
central nervous system (CNS) and effectors. The frequency of nerve impulses
propagated along the sensory neuron usually gives information about stimulus
strength. Sensory neurons transmit nerve impulses from the receptors to the
central nervous system.
(iv) Processing (Integration): The central nervous system processes the
information so that appropriate responses can be made to environmental
changes.
A receptor converts the energy from the stimulus into an electrical potential that
is proportional to the stimulus intensity. This graded electrical potential is
known as the receptor potential or generator potential.
If the stimulus is sufficiently high, (that is above the critical threshold value) the
graded potential is high enough to fire an action potential. If the stimulus is
beneath the threshold, no action potential results.
One type of integration by receptor cells is sensory adaptation, a decrease in
responsiveness during continued stimulation.
Sensory adaptation:
Receptors are adapted to detect potentially harmful or beneficial changes in the
environment. When given an unchanging stimulus, most receptors stop
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responding so that the sensory system does not become overloaded with
unnecessary or irrelevant information. Loss of responsiveness is brought about
by a process called sensory adaptation.
An unchanging stimulus results in a decline in the generator potentials
produced by sensory receptors. Consequently, the nerve impulses transmitted in
sensory neurons become less frequent and may eventually stop. The mechanism
of sensory adaptation is not fully understood, but it involves changes in the
membranes of receptor cells.
Sensory adaptation explains why, for example, a person becomes insensitive to
the touch of clothing on the skin.
PHOTORECEPTORS
The eye is a complex light – sensitive organ that enables us to distinguish
minute variations of shape, colour, brightness and distance. The function of the
eye is to transducer light into patterns of nerve impulses. These are transmitted
to the brain where the actual process of seeing is performed.
The retina and vision

The retina is a photosensitive layer at the back of the eye. It contains two types
of photoreceptors called rods and cones and their nerve fibers. In the human
eye, there are about 125 million rods and about 7 million of cones.
Structurally, the retina is made up of three layers:
(i) Photo receptor layer
This is the outer layer of the retina which is made up of photoreceptors. These
photoreceptors are cones and rods.
(ii) Intermediate layer
This is layer next to the photoreceptor layer. This layer contains the bipolar
neurons with synapses connecting the photoreceptor layer and the internal layer.
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It is also made up of horizontal and amacrine cells. These cells help to

integrate the information before it is sent to the brain.
(iii) The internal layer
This layer contains ganglion cells with dendrites in contact with the bipolar
neurons and the axons of the optic nerve. The axons of the ganglion cells
convey the sensations to the brain as action potentials along the optic nerve.
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The structure of a rod cell

Each cone has its own bipolar neuron but many rods may have to share one
bipolar neuron. This enables cones to provide more sensory information, but
they require about more 1000 times lighter than rods before they stimulate their
bipolar neuron to fire an action potential. In other words, cones are sensitive to
high light intensity while rods are sensitive to low light intensity.
Rods are very sensitive to low light intensities because of convergence. The
many rods sharing the same nerve fiber are able to detect light from a relatively
wide area and combine its stimulatory effects. This increased sensitivity to low
intensities is at the expense of visual acuity (the ability to discriminate fine
details).
Rods and cones have different functions in vision, and the relative number of
these two photoreceptors in the retina is partly correlated with whether an
animal is active during the day or night. Rods are more sensitive to light but do
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not distinguish colour; they enable us to see at night, but only in black and
white.
Because it takes more light to stimulate cones, cones do not function in night
vision. Cones can distinguish colour in day light.
Some mammals are nocturnal, and a maximum number of rods in the retina is
an adaptation that gives these animals keen night vision.
The physiology of seeing

Light rays from the object pass from the external part of the eye to the retina
through the conjunctiva, cornea, aqueous humor and pupil.
The pupil is an opening which is controlled by the iris depending on the amount
of light. The stronger the amount of light, the smaller the size of the aperture.
The lens is positioned between the outer and inner chambers of the eye, and its
major function is to focus images on the retina by changing the thickness
depending on the amount of light from either a distant or nearby objects.
On the retina, there are cone and rod photoreceptors which are connected to the
brain via a bundle of fibers called optic nerve.
The information received is processed in the brain, and consequently the object
can be seen.
Mechanism of photoreception
Each rod cell has its outer segment containing vesicles. These vesicles contain
photosensitive pigments called rhodopsin.
Rhodopsin is made up of the protein opsin and retinal, a derivative of vitamin
A. Retinal exists in two forms which are isomers of each other, the cis retinal
and the trans retinal.
When rhodopsin absorbs light, its retinal changes from the cis isomer to trans
isomer. As a result of this, retinal and opsin break apart (split), a process called
bleeching.
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Rhodopsin bleeching Retinene + Scotopsin.

This change triggers the signal transduction pathway that converts the light
signal into an action potential in the rod cell membrane.
Rhodopsin is reformed immediately in the absence of further light stimulation
(in the dark). Trans retinene is first converted into cis retinene and then
recombined with scotopsin. This process is called dark adaptation. In total
darkness, it takes about 30 minutes for all rods to adapt and the eye to achieve
maximum sensitivity again.
The maximum time required for dark adaptation gives the reason to why we
face difficulties in seeing when we move from bright light into a dark room.
Before the rod cell can be activated again, the opsin and retinal must first be
resynthesized into rhodopsin. This resynthesis is carried out by the
mitochondria found in the inner segment of the rod cell, which provide ATP for
the process.
Colour vision
Colour vision results from the presence of three subclasses of cones in the
retina, each with its own type of opsin known as iodopsin. It is thought that
there are three forms of iodopsin, each responding to light of a different
wavelength. Each form of iodopsin occurs in a different cone and the relative
stimulation of each type is interpreted by the brain as a particular colour.
The most generally accepted theory of colour vision is the trichromacy theory,
which states that, different colours are produced by the degree of stimulation of
each type of cone. Equal stimulation of all cones produces the colour sensation
of white.
The deficiency in one or more cones type leads to colour blindness. This
condition is due to the defect on the x- chromosome.
29
Differences between rods and cones

RODS CONES
The outer segment is rod shaped The outer segment is cone shaped
Gives poor visual acuity because Gives a good visual acuity because
many rods share a single neuron each cone has its own neuron
connecting to the brain connecting to the brain
Sensitive to low light intensity (for Sensitive to high light intensity (for
night vision) vision during the day)
Not sensitive to different colours Discriminates colours due to the
presence of the three subclasses of
cones, green, blue and red cones
Contain the visual pigment, Contain the visual pigment, iodopsin
rhodopsin, which has a single form which occur in three forms.
Concentrated on the periphery of the Greatest concentration occurs at the
retina (none is found at the fovea fovea centralis
centralis)
Distribution of rods and cones

In the human eye, rods are found in greatest density at the periphery region and
are completely absent at the fovea, the center of visual fields. This gives the
reasons to why you cannot see an object at night by looking at it directly. If,
however you view an object in a dim light at an angle, you will be able to see it.
You can achieve your sharpest day light vision by looking straight at the object
because cones are most dense at the fovea.
30
Accommodation of the eye

Accommodation is the reflex mechanism by which light rays from an object are
brought to focus on the retina. It involves two processes; reflex adjustment of
the pupil’s size and the refraction of light rays.
Refraction of light rays

Light rays entering the eye must be refracted (bent) in order to focus them onto
the retina so as to give a clear image. However, the degree of refraction needed
to focus light rays onto the retina varies according to the distance from the eye
of the object being viewed. The eye adjusts for near and distant vision by
changing the shape of its lens. This is what varies the extent to which the
incoming light is refracted (bent).
To create a sharp image on the retina, light rays from near objects must be bent
more than those from distant object. This reflex mechanism by which light rays
of an object are brought to focus on the retina is called accommodation.
The lens is adapted for changing its shape as a result of the change in the shape
of the ciliary muscle which is supported to the lens by the suspensory
ligaments.
When the ciliary muscle contracts, the tension on the suspensory ligaments is
reduced and the natural elasticity of the lens causes it to assume a flatter
(convex) shape. In this position, it increases the degree of refraction of light.
When the circular ciliary muscle is relaxed, the suspensory ligaments are
stretched tight, thus pulling the lens outward and making it thinner (less
convex). In this position, it decreases the degree of light refraction.
By changing the shape in this manner, the lens can focus light rays from near
and distant objects into the retina.
Focusing a distant object

In distant vision, the ciliary muscles relax while the suspensory ligaments
contract. The lens is pulled into a flatter shape, and the images of a distant
object are focused onto the retina.
31
Condition of the eye when focusing a distant object
Focusing for near objects

In near vision, the ciliary muscle contracts causing the suspensory ligaments to
relax. With this reduced tension, the elastic lens becomes thicker and rounder,
bending light in such a way that images of near objects can be focused onto the
retina.
Condition of the eye when focusing near object
32
Reflex adjustment of the pupil’s size

This involves the control the amount of light entering the eye either in bright
light
Controlling the amount of light entering the eye
Controlling the amount of light entering the eye is important because if too little
light reaches the retina, the cones may not be stimulated at all. Alternatively, if
the quantity of light is too great, the retinal cells may be overstimulated causing
dazzling.
In bright light, the circular muscle of the iris diaphragm contracts and the radial
muscle relaxes. The pupil becomes smaller and less light enters the eye
preventing damage to the retina.
In dim light, the circular muscle of the iris diaphragm relaxes, the radial muscle
contracts causing the pupil to become larger. This allows more light to enter the
eye.
33
HEARING AND EQUILIBRIUM

The mammalian ear performs functions, hearing and balance.
The mammalian ear can be divided into three regions; the outer ear, the
middle ear and the inner ear. The mammalian hearing organ is located in the
inner ear.
The outer ear
The outer ear consists of the external pinna and the auditory canal. The main
function of the outer ear is to collect sound waves and channel them to the
tympanic membrane (eardrum), separating the outer ear from the middle ear.
The middle ear
The middle ear is made up of three ear ossicles, the malleus (hammer), Incus
(anvil) and Stapes (stirrup). Within the middle ear, the vibrations are conducted
through these ossicles to the inner ear, passing through the oval window, a
membrane beneath the stapes. These ossicles function to transfer vibrations
from the ear drum to the inner ear.
The middle ear also opens into Eustachian tube which connects with the
pharynx and equalizes the pressure between the middle ear and the atmosphere,
thus preventing the damaging of the eardrum.
The inner ear
The inner ear is made up of two main parts, the cochlea and the vestibular
apparatus. The entire inner ear is filled with a fluid called endolymph and is
separated from the skull wall by another fluid called perilymph.
The cochlea is responsible for hearing and the vestibular apparatus is
responsible for balance.
The vestibular apparatus is composed of the semicircular canals and two
membranous fluid- filled pouches, the utricle and saccules.
34
The cochlea and the vestibular apparatus make a structure called membranous
labyrinth.
Membranous labyrinth is a continuous system of ducts filled with endolymph
which is composed of the cochlea duct, three semicircular canals, saccule and
utricles.
The cochlea
The cochlea is made up of three canals, the vestibular canal, the median canal
(cochlea duct) and the tympanic canal.
The vestibular and tympanic canals contain a fluid called perilymph and the
cochlea duct is filled with endolymph.
The floor of the cochlea duct, the basilar membrane bears the organ of corti
which contain the actual receptor cells of the ear, hair cells with hairs
projecting into the cochlea duct. The tectorial and basilar membranes along
with the sensory hair cells are what make up a special structure called the
organ of corti.
35
Many of the hairs are attached to the tectorial membrane which hangs over the
organ of corti.
The function of the organ of corti is to transduce sound vibrations into action
potential (nerve impulse) which is sent to the brain for interpretation.
The diagram of the cochlea showing the organ of corti
Adaptation of the cochlea (organ of corti) as a hearing organ

(i) Presence of perilymph (fluid) which increases the efficiency of vibrating in
the membranes.
(ii) There are sensory cells which convert sound waves to electrical impulses
(iii) Presence of auditory nerve which carry the nerve impulse to the brain for
interpretation
(iv) Presence of movable membranes which enhance the transduction of sound
vibration into nerve impulses.
36
Mechanism of hearing
The sound waves are collected by the pinna and focused into the ear canal (ear
tube) down which they travel until they meet the tympanic membrane
(eardrum).
The sound waves cause the tympanic membrane to vibrate in which these
vibrations are transmitted to the oval window by ear ossicles.
Sound waves to the oval window produce vibrations in the perilymph of the
vestibular canal and these are transmitted via Reisner’s membrane to the
endolymph of the median canal causing the basilar membrane in the organ of
corti to vibrate.
As the basilar membrane moves, the hair cells are bent against the rigid tectorial
membrane and push the sensory hairs against the tectorial membrane. This
produces a generator potential which when reaches a threshold level, it is
transmitted as a nerve impulse along the auditory to the mid brain for
interpretation.
Pitch and intensity discrimination
The ability to distinguish the pitch of sound depends on the frequency of the
vibrations producing the movement of the basilar membrane in the cochlea. The
louder the sound the higher the displacement and vice versa.
The basilar membrane becomes broader and more flexible as it passes from the
base of the cochlea to its apex and its sensitivity to vibrations changes about its
length. At the base of the cochlea, the basilar membrane is narrow, thin and
rigid and its cells respond to high frequencies which are interpreted by the brain
as high – pitched sounds.
In the apex of the cochlea, the basilar membrane is wider and less rigid. It
contains hair cells which are sensitive to low frequency which are interpreted
by the brain as low-pitched sounds.
37
Apex
Base
High notes Low note
Thus, the sounds containing several frequencies simultaneously, stimulates

many regions of the basilar membrane and they are interpreted separately by the
brain.
The vestibular apparatus and the sense of balance

Three structures of the inner ear, the utricle, saccule and the semicircular
canals are responsible for balance. The utricle responds to vertical movement
of the head and the saccule responds to the lateral movement of the head while
the semicircular canals respond to rotational movement of the head.
Hair cells in the utricles and saccule respond to changes in head position with
respect to gravity and movement in one direction.
The inner ear has three semicircular canals, each lying in a different plane at the
right angles to the other two. This arrangement means that changes of
movement in any direction can be detected.
Each canal is filled with fluid (endolymph) and has a small swelling (an
ampulla) containing a sense organ. The sense organ, called a crista, has hair
cells embedded in a gelatinous structure called a cupula. The cupula moves in
response to the movements of the endolymph within the canal, bending the cilia
that project from the hair cells.
When the cilia bend, they produce generator potentials which, if they reach the
threshold level, generate nerve impulses that are transmitted to the brain.
38
The diagram of the ampulla of a semicircular canal

The saccule and utricle, the two sacs in the vestibular apparatus, contain sense
organs called maculae which are lined with hair cells surrounded by a jelly –
like fluid.
Fine granules of calcium carbonate, called otoliths, float in the fluid. Because
this material is heavier than the endolymph within the utricle and saccule,
gravity is always pulling downward on the hair of the receptor cells, sending a
constant series of action potentials along the sensory neurons of the vestibular
branch of the auditory nerve. Different body angles cause different hair cells
and their sensory neurons to be stimulated. When the position of the head
changes with respect to gravity, the force on the hair cells changes and it
increases or decreases its output of neurotransmitter.
The brain interprets the resulting changes in impulse production by sensory
neuron to determine the position of the head.
THE MAMMALIAN ENDOCRINE SYSTEM

The endocrine system is a group of specialized organs and body tissues that
produce, store and secrete chemical substances called hormones.
39
A hormone is a regulatory chemical that is transported by the blood to its target

cells in some other parts of the body. It affects its target cells by attaching onto
specific receptor molecules either on the surface of or within the target cells.
As the body’s chemical messenger, hormones transfer information and
instructions from one set of cells to another.
The endocrine system is made up glands called the endocrine glands.
Characteristics of endocrine glands

1. It secretes chemicals called hormones
2. It has no duct (ductless gland), instead, the hormone is secreted directly into
the blood stream
3. It has a rich supply of blood with a relatively large number of blood vessels.
In contrast, the exocrine glands such as the sweat glands and the salivary glands
release their secretions directly to the target area through ducts.
Some glands have both endocrine and exocrine functions, such as the pancreas,
which secretes the hormones insulin and glucagon and also secrete pancreatic
juice containing digestive enzymes into the pancreatic duct that leads to the gut.
Properties of hormones
(i) It travels in the blood
(ii) It has its effect at a site different from the site where it is made, called target
organ, hence the term messenger.
(iii) It fits precisely into receptor molecules in the target like a key in a lock. It
is therefore specific for a particular target.
(iv) It is a small soluble organic molecule
(v) It is effective in low concentration
The primary glands that make up the human endocrine system are the
hypothalamus, the pituitary gland, the thyroid gland, the adrenal gland, the
40
pancreas and the reproductive glands (the ovaries and testis). The hormones
produced by these glands and their functions are discussed in the respective
topics.
The interaction between hormonal and nervous system

Coordination process is achieved when the nervous and endocrine systems act
together. Although the nervous and endocrine system are two different systems,
both release chemical substances as a means of communication between cells.
The major centers for linking the two systems are the pituitary gland (the
control center for endocrine glands) and the hypothalamus (the control center of
the nervous system).
The hypothalamus collects information from the brain and blood vessels
passing through it to the pituitary gland. The pituitary gland directly or
indirectly controls the secretion of other endocrine glands.
The pituitary gland, which is located at the base of the brain, is directly
connected to the brain region called hypothalamus. This physical link between
the hypothalamus and pituitary is the basis for the connection or link between
the central nervous system and the endocrine system.
For example, the posterior pituitary gland is an extension of the brain. It stores
and releases antidiuretic hormone (ADH) or vasopressin and oxytocin hormone
which are produced by neurosecretory cell bodies, lying in the hypothalamus.
Nerve impulses are relayed to the cell bodies of these neurosecretory cells from
other regions of the brain. They are transmitted down the axons where
hormones are stored in vesicles.
The whole process involves both nervous and endocrine systems.
41
COORDINATION IN PLANTS
Plants, like animals, have communication systems that allow coordination

between different parts of their bodies. Plants do not have the nervous system;
they rely only on chemical coordination. Plants respond to a variety of stimuli
by moving either away or towards the stimulus. The response towards the
stimulus is called positive response while the response away from the stimulus
is called negative response.
Plant responses depend on their ability to move towards certain stimuli such as
light and water. These movements are usually performed by growth responses.
There are three types of growth movements in plants, tactic movement (taxis),
nastic movement and tropic movement (tropism).
Tropism
A tropism is a growth movement of a part of a plant in response to a directional
stimulus. Each response is named according to the nature of the stimulus as
tabulated below:
Stimulus Name of the response
Light Phototropism
Gravity Geotropism
Water Hydrotropism
Chemicals Chemotropism
Touch Thigmotropism
Air Aero tropism
In almost all plants, shots bend towards the direction of light source and
therefore are positively phototropic. Roots bend away from the direction of
light and therefore they are negatively phototropic.
42
Shoots bend away from gravity and water while roots bend towards gravity and
moisture. Thus, shoots are both, positive geotropic and hydrotropic while roots
are negatively geotropic and hydrotropic.
Taxes
A taxi is the movement of a freely motile organism or a freely motile part of the
organism in response to the direction of the stimulus.
As with tropism, the type of stimulus determines the name of the tactic
response. For example, if the stimulus is light, it is called phototaxis, if the
stimulus is chemical is called chemotaxis etc.
Significance of tactic movement
(i) It drives an organism away from undesirable stimulus
(ii) It drives an organism towards the life necessity
(iii) Brings about fertilization by sperm moving towards the egg cell by
chemotaxis
Nastic movement
This is a non-directional movement of the plant in response to environmental
stimulus. The direction of the response is not dependent on the direction of the
stimulus.
Examples of nastic movement include:
(i) Folding of the leaves on warm weathers
(ii)Closing of the leaves of mimosa when touched
(iii) Opening and closing of the flowers in response to light
Nastic movement can also be due changes in turgor or changes in growth.
Nastic movement differ from tropism in that, the direction of the tropic
response depends on the direction of the stimulus whereas the direction of the
nastic movement is independent of the stimulus position.
Significance of nastic movement
43
(i) Food capture, for example, pitcher plant (an example of a carnivorous plant)
encloses some insects for food.
(ii) Closer of leaves and flowers avoid unnecessary conditions.
The type of stimulus also determines the name of the nastic movement.
Depending on the type of stimulus, we can have chemo nasty (if the stimulus is
a chemical), Photonasty (if the stimulus is light), Hydro nasty (if the stimulus is
water) etc.
Plant growth substance/ plant hormones/ Phytohormones

Most communication in plants depends on chemicals called plant growth
substances. This is because the effects of these chemicals are usually on some
aspects of growth.
Five major types of growth substances are recognized, Auxins, gibberellins,
cytokinin’s, abscisic acid and ethene (ethylene).
Characteristics of plant hormones

(i) Plant hormones are chemicals that are required in small amounts to promote
and influence growth. They are active and effective even at a very low
concentration.
(ii) They are produced in certain parts of the plant and transported to other parts
of the plant where they elicit specific biochemical, physiological or
morphological responses.
(iii) They are transported within the plants by four different movements;
localized movements, cytoplasmic streaming, slow diffusion of ions and
through vascular tissue.
(iv) Each plant hormone evokes many different responses
(v) The effects of different plant hormones overlap and may be stimulatory or
inhibitory.
(vi) Each plant hormone performs a specific function in the plant body.
(vii) The biosynthesis of plant hormones within plant tissues is always diffuse
not localized.
44
(viii) The production of plant hormones occurs very often at sites of active
growth within meristems, before cells have been fully differentiated. After the
production, they are sometimes moved to other parts of the plant, where they
cause immediate effect or they can be stored in cells to be released later.
Auxins
Auxins are a group of chemical substances of which IAA (Indoleacetic acid) is
most common.
Our discussion will refer to IAA as auxin in the singular.
Auxin is synthesized in the growing tips of shoots and roots where the cells are
dividing. The transport of auxin occurs in one direction, mainly away from the
tip.
Effects of Auxin in plant growth
The effect of auxin in plant growth depends on its concentration. High
concentration of auxin promotes shoot growth but inhibits root growth. Low
concentration of auxin promotes root growth but inhibits shoot growth.
Experiments have revealed that, roots are more sensitive to auxin than shoots,
that they respond to lower concentration of auxins.
As the concentration of auxin increases, the growth of the roots, far from being
stimulated becomes inhibited.
45
AUXIN AND PHOTOTROPISM (THE BENDING OF THE STEM

TOWARDS LIGHT)
The unilateral light causes the redistribution of auxin so that a greater amount
travels down the shaded side.
As one of the effects of auxin is to cause cell elongation, the cells on the shade
side elongate more than those on the illuminated side. The shoot therefore
bends towards the light.
The model for the effect of unilateral illumination assumes that, the auxin
moves away from the light source. This gives a greater concentration of Auxin
on the shaded side of the shoot which in turn causes increased elongation thus
bending of the shoot towards the light.
46
A diagram showing the effect of auxin in phototropism

In roots, high auxin concentration inhibits growth. This makes the roots
negatively phototrophic
Light
Auxin accumulates on the
underside
The diagram showing the effect of auxin concentration in root responses
47
In roots, high concentration inhibits growth. This causes a negative response to

light (negative phototropism).
Experiments on coleoptiles that helped to explain the mechanism of
phototropism
A coleoptile is a protective sheath that covers the first leaves of a germinating
cereal seedling
A diagram of the germinating seedling showing the coleoptile
EXPERIMENTS WITH PHOTOTROPISM

Plants do not have the obvious sense organs and nervous system of animals but
since they respond to stimuli such as light and gravity, they must have some
ways of detecting them and coordinating responses.
The detection system of phototropism was first investigated by Charles Darwin.
Darwin used a cereal coleoptile which were easy to grow and use in
experiments. Darwin’s experiments with phototropism are described below:
48
49
Conclusion
Generally, auxins are in the tip of the plant because this is where most growth
occurs and for the response of the shoot towards light to occur, auxin must
move to the shaded side.
50
Note that, the first experiment where the coleoptile is directly subjected to the
unilateral source of light is the control experiment.
This can be used to conclude about the location and effects on Auxin hormones
in plants when compared with other experiments.
Auxin and apical dominance

Auxin seems to be involved in determining whether a plant grows upwards or
whether it branches sideways. When the plant has an active growing point at its
apex, this tends to stop buds on the side of the stem (lateral buds) from
growing.
The plant grows upwards rather than branching out sideways. However, if the
bud at the tip of the main shoot (the apical bud) is cut off, then the lateral buds
start to grow. Thus, the presence of apical buds (where auxin is synthesized)
stop the lateral buds from growing, a condition called apical dominance.
Functions of Auxins in plants

(i) They influence cell enlargement, bud formation and root initiation.
(ii) They facilitate the production of phototropic response
(iii) Auxins together with cytokinin control the growth of stems, roots and
fruits.
(iv) They affect cell elongation by altering cell wall plasticity.
(v) They inhibit the growth of lateral buds, hence promotes apical dominance.
(vi) They promote lateral and adventitious root development and growth.
(vii) They inhibit abscission in leaves and fruits.
Other plant hormones that regulate the growth and development of the plants
are gibberellins, cytokinin, ethylene and abscisic acid.
The summary of the function of the plant hormone is tabulated below:
51
HORMONE FUNCTION
Auxin Promotes plant growth, phototropism and apical dominance.
Cytokinin Promotes cell division and differentiation, stimulates buds’
development and breaks dormancy in seeds and buds.
Gibberellins Promote stem elongation especially in dwarf plants, break
dormancy of seeds and buds and stimulate fruit
development
Abscisic acid Inhibits leaf abscission and promotes bud and seed
dormancy
Ethylene Induces leaf abscission and promotes fruit ripening
Note that: Plant hormones can perform their functions either independently
or synergistically (working together to affect a certain function). For example,
Auxins are known to be growth promoters, since they influence plant growth
and assist in producing a phototropic response which result into growth.
Sometimes, auxins and gibberellins act together to bring about cell elongation.
This is called synergism.
Alternatively, two plant hormones may work opposing one another, like auxins
which induces apical dominance while cytokinin prevent it. This is known as
antagonism.
Commercial application of phytohormones
1. Auxin:
(i) Development of adventitious roots. Cuttings which fail to produce root are
dipped in rooting auxins
(ii) Storage. Auxin increase the period of dormancy in some crops, for example
onion and Irish potatoes ensure them to stay for a long time without sprouting.
52
(iii) Used as weed killer. High concentration of auxin interferes with the normal
plant growth which kills the plant. Therefore, synthetic auxins such as 2,4 –
dichlorophenoxyacetic acid is used as a selective weed killer.
2. Gibberellins
(i) Used in breaking seed and bud dormancy
(ii) Used in promoting fruit development and parthenocarpy
(iii) They stimulate stem elongation and pollen tube growth.
(iv) They promote flowering, seed germination and differentiation after
germination
3. Cytokinin
(i) Used to break seed dormancy of some seeds
(ii) Keeps the flowers fresh
(iii) Induce delayed senescence of leaves and fruits.
(iv)They counter the apical dominance induced by auxin.
4. Abscisic acid
This is the major growth inhibitor phytohormone in plants which work
antagonistically with other growth promoters. When sprayed in plants such as
grasses inhibit their growth.
5. Ethylene
(i) It is sprayed in fruits to cause its ripening
(ii) It is applied in plants to close the stomata so that transpiration is at its
minimum rate.
53
EXERCISE
1. (a) Describe the structure and function of a sensory and motor neuron.
(b) The resting potential is said to be −70 mV inside. What does this mean?
(c ) Describe how a neuron maintains this resting potential.
2.(a) Explain what is meant by the terms:

(i ) receptor potential
(ii) threshold receptor potential
(iii) the all-or-nothing law.
(b) Describe the relationship between the strength of the stimulus and the size
of the receptor potential that is generated.
3. (a) Name the process by which vesicles release their contents at the
presynaptic membrane.
(b) Describe the role of acetylcholinesterase during synaptic transmission.
(c ) Suggest why:
(i) impulses travel in only one direction at synapses
(ii) if action potentials arrive repeatedly at a synapse, the synapse eventually
becomes unable to transmit the impulse to the next neuron.
4. The figure shows the changes in potential difference across the membrane of
a neuron over a period of time. The membrane was stimulated at time A and
time B with stimuli of different intensities.
54
(a) Stimulus B resulted in an action potential. Describe what is occurring at C,

D and E.
(b) Suggest why stimulus A did not result in an action potential being produced
whereas stimulus B did.
5. (a) Explain how a nerve impulse is transmitted along a motor neuron.
(b) Describe how an impulse crosses a synapse.
6. (a)Describe the structure of the nervous tissue.
(b) Explain the adaptive features of the nervous tissue.
55
(c ). With the help of diagrams, describe the types of neurons.

7.(a) Explain the following concepts:
(i) Action potential
(ii) Resting potential
(iii) Polarization
(iv) Depolarization of nerve cells
(b) State the role of synapses in the nervous system.
8. (a) Why do synaptic knobs contain many mitochondria?
(b) Briefly describe how the arrival of an impulse at the synapse causes
depolarization of the post-synaptic membrane.
(b) Write short notes about the following:
(i) Refractory period of a neuron
(ii) Temporal and spatial summation at synapses.
(iii) The ‘All or nothing’ law.
(iv) An excitatory synapse.
(v) An inhibitory synapse.
9.(a) State two functions of the synapse.
(b) Explain the factors which ensures the transmission of nerve impulses in
only one direction.
(c) Calcium ions enter the neurons through the presynaptic membranes when
the action potentials arrive. Describe the events which follow the entry of these
ions until the depolarization of the postsynaptic membrane.
10.(a) The diagram shows part of the retina in a human eye.
56
Explain each of the following observations.

(i) When light falls on cells 1 and 2, only one spot of light is seen. But, when light falls on
cells 2 and 3, two spots of light are seen.
(ii) When one unit of light energy falls on cell 3, no light is seen. But, when one unit of light energy
falls on cell 3, one unit falls on cell 4 and one unit falls on cell 5, light is seen.
(b) In the experiment was set up to investigate the effect of unilateral light on the growth of
oat coleoptiles. The diagram in the table represents the experimental set ups at the start, and
the result at the end of the experiment.
Set up Start of the experiment End of experiment
A
Light
B Aluminium cap
C Plate of mica
D Mica
E Tip removed
(i) Account for the results in the experiment set up A

(ii) Explain the purpose of experiment set ups B and E
(iii) Explain the results in the experiment set ups C and D
57

COORDINATION

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COORDINATION

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BIOLOGY F5: Innocent JM

(iv) Response to stimuli: To act upon the information, normally by

Functional organization of neurons

(i) Sensory neuron/ afferent: These communicate information (sensory input)

A diagram of the sensory neuron

A diagram of a motor neuron

Classification of neurons based on the number of dendrites

Adaptations neurons to their roles

Generation and transmission of nerve impulses

In humans, the concentration of sodium ions is higher in the extracellular fluid

(i) The presence of a threshold stimulus (adequate stimulus): This is a

(ii) Repolarization of the fiber:

The transmission of nerve impulses along the axon

The transmission over a synapse is a chemical process. As the impulse reaches

(v) Binding of the neurotransmitter to the postsynaptic neuron receptors open

Functions of the synapse

Other neurotransmitters cause decreased membrane permeability to sodium

(iv) Transmission speed: For the nervous system to be efficient as a means of

Spatial Vs Temporal summation

Membrane potential Action potential

E1 is the chemical transmission from one synaptic terminal occurring in

Membrane potential Action potential

(v) Photoreceptors; which detect light and other forms of electromagnetic

organs are complex stimulus – gathering structures consisting of grouped

potential). (Recall that, a graded potential is a change in the membrane

The retina and vision

It is also made up of horizontal and amacrine cells. These cells help to

The structure of a rod cell

The physiology of seeing

Rhodopsin bleeching Retinene + Scotopsin.

Differences between rods and cones

Distribution of rods and cones

Accommodation of the eye

Refraction of light rays

Focusing a distant object

Condition of the eye when focusing a distant object

Focusing for near objects

Condition of the eye when focusing near object

Reflex adjustment of the pupil’s size

HEARING AND EQUILIBRIUM

The diagram of the cochlea showing the organ of corti

Adaptation of the cochlea (organ of corti) as a hearing organ

High notes Low note

Thus, the sounds containing several frequencies simultaneously, stimulates

The vestibular apparatus and the sense of balance

The diagram of the ampulla of a semicircular canal

THE MAMMALIAN ENDOCRINE SYSTEM

A hormone is a regulatory chemical that is transported by the blood to its target

Characteristics of endocrine glands

The interaction between hormonal and nervous system

Plants, like animals, have communication systems that allow coordination

Plant growth substance/ plant hormones/ Phytohormones

Characteristics of plant hormones

AUXIN AND PHOTOTROPISM (THE BENDING OF THE STEM

A diagram showing the effect of auxin in phototropism

The diagram showing the effect of auxin concentration in root responses

In roots, high concentration inhibits growth. This causes a negative response to

A diagram of the germinating seedling showing the coleoptile

EXPERIMENTS WITH PHOTOTROPISM

Auxin and apical dominance

Functions of Auxins in plants

2.(a) Explain what is meant by the terms:

(a) Stimulus B resulted in an action potential. Describe what is occurring at C,

(c ). With the help of diagrams, describe the types of neurons.