Microwave Theory For ISRO

Micr
Microowave
Theory
For
ISRO
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Contents
S.No. Topic Page No.

1. ................. Microwave Tubes and Circuits ............................................. 1-39
2. ................. Microwave Semiconductor Devices ..................................... 40-89

3. ................. Radiation and Propagation of Waves .................................... 90-111
4. ................. Microwave Ferrite Device .................................................... 112-118
5. ................. Microwave Measurements .................................................... 119-134
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Chapter 1
Microwave Tubes and Circuits

1.1. Klystron
A klystron is a vacuum tube that can be used either as an amplifier (oscillator) or a generator
at microwave frequencies.
Commonly used klystrons are -
a) Two-cavity klystron amplifier.
b) Multicavity klystron amplifier.
c) Two-cavity klystron oscillator.
d) Reflex klystron.
1.1.1 Two-Cavity Klystron Amplifier:
A two-cavity Klystron is a widely used microwave amplifier operated by the lprinciples of
velocity and current modulation.
A) Construction :
The schematic diagram for a klystron is as shown below -
Buncher cavity Catcher cavity
Electron beam
Input Electron Output
bunchers
Collector
B+
Drift
Cathode Gap A space Gap B
Focusing
electrodes
Fig.1.1-1: Two cavity klystron amplifier.

B) Operation :
All electrons injected from the cathode arrive at the first cavity (called buncher cavity) at
uniform velocity given by
2eVo
.COM
v0 =
m
Where,
e = Charge on electron = 1.6 × 10 –19 C.
m = Mass of electron = 9.1×10 – 31 kg.
Vo = Applied d.c. voltage
Putting these values, we can also write as
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2
Electronics Engg. Microwave
v 0 = 0.593 × 106 V0 m/s
These electrons passing through the buncher cavity gap at zero of gap or signal voltage pass
through with unchanged velocity, those passing through the positive half cycle of the gap
voltage undergo an increase in velocity & those passing through the negative half of gap
voltage are slowed down. As a result of this action, the electron gradually bunch together as
they travel down the field free drift space. This variation in velocity of electron beam in
drift space due to bunching action is known as Velocity modulation.
As bunched electron beam passes through second cavity (known as catcher cavity), the
density of electron beam varies cyclically with time in the cavity gap. Due to continuous
flow of bunches of electron beam, the electron beam contains an alternating component
and is said to be Current modulated.
The maximum bunching should occur approximately mid-way between second cavity grids
during its retarding phase. Thus, the kinetic energy of electron beam is transferred to the
field of the second cavity. The electrons thus emerge from the second cavity with reduced
velocity and finally terminate at the collector.
C) Operating Characteristics of Two-Cavity Klystron :
a) Frequency – 250 MHz to 100 GHz.
b) Power gain – 30 dB.
c) Power Output – Average power up to 500 KW and Pulsed power up to 30 MW.
d) Theoretical efficiency – 58%.
(nominal – 40%).
e) Bandwidth – 10 – 60 MHz.
f) Noise Figure – 15 – 20 dB.
D) Applications :
a) As a power amplifier in
i) In UHF TV transmitters
ii) In tropo-spheric scattering transmitters.
iii) Satellite communication ground stations
iv) Radar transmitters
b) Power oscillator in Range 5 – 50 GHz
. E) Assumption for Quantitative Analysis is of Two-Cavity Klystron :
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a) Uniform density of electrons in the cross- section of beam.
b) Space charge effect is negligible.
c) Magnitude of input signal is much small than d.c. accelerated voltage.
F) Mathematical Analysis :
I. Velocity Modulation Process -
a) Velocity of electron beam before entering the buncher grid -
1 2
mvo = eVo
2
Where, Vo is the d.c. grid voltage.
2eVo
vo = = 0.593  106 Vo
m
3
b) Related Parameters -
Fig.1.1-2: Signal voltage in the buncher gap.

Let, VS = V1 sin t
Here, d is the buncher cavity gap
i) Average transit time through the buncher gap () :
d
 =  t1  to
vo
ii) Average transit angle (g) :
d
g =  = (t1 – to) =
vo
iii) Beam coupling co–efficient of input cavity gap (i ) :
sin(g / 2) sin(d / 2vo )
i = =
g / 2 d / 2vo
iv) Average microwave voltage in buncher gap (Vs,avg) :
  
Vs,avg = V1 i Sin  to  g 
 2
c) Exit velocity of beam when it comes out of input/buncher cavity gap
2e   g  
v(t1 ) =  Vo  i V1 sin  to   
m  2 
1/ 2
2eVo  i V1 g  
v(t1 ) =
m
 1 
Vo

sin  to   
2 
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 
Now, let us suppose that,i V1 << Vo
By using Binomial Expansion for the above expression, we have
 i V1  g  
v(t1 )  vo 1  sin  to   
 2Vo  2 
 V 
 vmin = vo 1  i 1 
 2Vo 
4
 V 
and, vmax = vo 1  i 1 
 2Vo 
II) Bunching Process of Electron Beam -
z
Distance from
Buncher grid
L
0 t
ta tb tc td

2

2
Fig. 1.1-3 : Bunching distance.

The distance of the electron bunching point form the buncher grid for electron at tb is -
L = vo (td – tb)
Therefore, the distance of the bunching centre for the electrons at ta and tc are -
  
L = vmin (td – ta) = vmin  td  tb 
 2 
  
= vmax [td – te] = vmax  td  tb 
 2 
Vo
L = vo 
i V1
a) d.c. transit-time
L
To =
vo
Where, L is the travel distance between the two cavities (or drift space length).
b) Total transit time .COM
L  V  g  
T =  To 1  i 1 sin  t1   
v(t1 )  2Vo  2 
By using Binomial theorem,
i V1  g 
T = To  To sin t1  
2Vo  2
 g 
= o  X sin t1  
 2
5
c) d.c Transit Angle -
L
o = To  = 2 N
vo
Where, N is no. of transit cycles in the drift space.
Thus,
i V1
X = o
2Vo
‘X’is called as Bunching Parameter of klystron.
2Vo X
 V1 =
i o
Where, V1 is the magnitude of the microwave signal applied at the input cavity.
d) Current arriving at catcher cavity gap -
Io
i2(to ) =
1  X cos(to  g / 2)
Using Fourier Series Expansion, we get -

i2 = ao +  a
n 1
n cos (nt 2 )  bn sin(nt 2 ) 
According to Bessel’s relations,

an = 2Io Jn (nX) cos (ng + no)
and, bn = 2Io Jn (nX) sin (ng + no)

 i2 = Io   2Io Jn (n x) cos n(t 2    To )
n 1
Reem
current
x=1
x = 1.5
x=0
.COM
– 0 +
Catcher cavity arrival angle
The fundamental component of current at catcher cavity is -

If = 2Io J1(X)
The fundamental component has a maximum value when,
X = 1.841
and, J1(X) = 0.582
The optimum distance which gives the maximum fundamental component of the current is
6
3.682vo Vo
Loptimum =
i V1
III) Output Power :
a) Fundamental component of induced current in the walls of catcher cavity
i2ind = oi2
= o2Io J1(X) cos (t2 –  – To)]
 o = Beam coupling co-efficient of
catcher cavity.
If cavities are indentical,
then, o =  i
Amplitude of fundamental induced current is -
I2ind = o 2Io J1(x)
I2ind, max = o × 2Io × 0.58 = o I2,
where I2 = 2Io J1(x)
b) Output equivalent circuit -

o I2
Rsho RB RL  Rsh =RL | |RB| |Rsho
Here,
Rsh0 =Wall resistance of catcher cavity
RB =Beam loading resistance
RL =External loading resistance
Rsh =Effective shunt resistance
c) Output Power (Pout)
(o I2 )2
= R sh
2
=
o I2 V2
2
.COM ( V2 = oI2Rsh)
V2 = Fundamental of catcher gap voltage
o 2IoJ1 (X)V2
Pout =
2
V2 = o I2 Rsh
= o 2I0 J1(X)Rsh
d) Klystron Efficiency ()
Pout o I2 V2
 = =
Pin 2Io Vo
7
o ·2Io J1 (X)V2 o ·J1 (X)V2

= =
2 Io Vo Vo
At maximum Fundamental of current, J1(x) = 0.58
o V2
 = 0.58
Vo
Note : max = 0.58
Practical Efficiency is 15 to 30%.
e) Mutual conductance of Klystron Amplifier

I2ind 2o Io J1 (X)
|Gm| = =
V1 V1
f) Voltage Gain ( Av)
| V2 | I2ind R sh 2o Io J1 (X)Rsh
AV = = =
| V1 | V1 V1
i V1
But, X = o
2Vo
2Vo X
 V1 =
i o
2o Io J1 (X)Rsh
 AV = ·i o
2Vo X
 i = o
oi J1 (X)Rsh o V
= , Ro o
2R o X Io .COM
AV = Gm Rsh
Note :
1 1 1 1
=  
QL Qo Q Qext
QL = Q-factor of loaded catcher cavity.
Qo = Q-factor of catcher wall.
Qb = Q-factor of beam loading.
Qext = Q-factor of external load.
8
Applegate Diagram
Output
voltage
Output
voltage
Acc. voltage
Catcher
gap
Lop.
L
Buncher gap
Input
voltage
input gap voltage

AC voltage
t
Example-1 :
The parameters of a two cavity klystron are as follows :–
Beam voltage = 1000 V
Beam current = 30 mA
Frequency = 9GHz
Cavity Gap = 1 mm
Spacing between cavities = 4 cm
Effective shunt resistance = 40 k
Determine
i) Electron velocity
ii) d.c. elctron transit time
iii) The input voltage for maximum voltage .COM
iv) Voltage gain in dB.
Solution :
i) Electron Velocity :
2eVo 2  1.6  1019  1000
vo = =
m 9.1  1031
= 0.593  106 1000
= 18.75 × 106 m/sec.
ii) d.c. transit time :
a) Cavity transit time
9
d 1 103
=
vo 18.75  106
= 0.53 × 10–10 sec.
b) In Different space
L 4  102
To = =
vo 18.75  106
= 2.1 × 10–9 sec.
iii) Output voltage
2Vo X
V1 =
o
d.c. transit angle :
9 4  102
o = To  9  2  10 
18.75  106
= 13.40 × 9 = 120.58 rad
Gap transit angle :
d 1  103
g =  = 2  9  109 
vo 18.75  106
= 3.0144 rad.
Beam coupling co-efficient.
sin g / 2 sin 2.99 / 2
i = =
g / 2 2.99 / 2
= 0.67
Maximum output voltage :
At maximum output voltage, X = 1.841
2Vo X 2 1000 1.841
V1max = 
i o 0.67 120.63
iii) Voltage Gain :

= 46.27 V .COM
2oi Io J1 (X)o
AV =  R sh
2Vo X
2  (0.67)2  30  103  0.582  120.63

=  40  103
2  1000  1.841
AV = 0.513 × 10–3 × 40 × 103
= 19.92
In DB
AV, dB = 20 log10 AV = 20 log10 20.54
= 25.9875dB.
10
Example-2 :
A two cavity klystron amplifier has the following parameter. (1995)
D.C. voltage = 1000 V
Frequency = 3GHz
Grid
spacing of cavities = 1mm
Spacing between cavities = 4 cm.
Find :
a) Gap transit angle.
b) Beam coupling co-efficient.
c) Input gap voltage to give maximum output voltage.
d) Bunching parameter.
Solution :
Velocity of electron beam -
2eVo
vo =
m
= 0.593  106 1000
= 18.75 × 106 m/sec.
d.c. transit-time,
d 1 103
 = =
vo 18.75  106
= 0.53 × 10–10 sec
i) Gap transit angle,
g =  = 2 × 3 × 109 × 0.53 × 10–10
= 0.99 rad.
ii) Beam coupling co-efficient
sin g / 2 sin 0.99 / 2
i = =
g / 2 0.99 / 2 .COM
= 0.959
iii) Input gap voltage for maximum output voltage D. C. Transit angle for drift space
L
o = o =  v
o
4  102
= 2  3  109 
18.75  106
= 40.21 rad.
11
2Vo X 2  1000  1.841
V1,max = =
i o 0.959  40.21
V1,max = 95.48 V
Example-3 :
A two cavity klystron amplifier has the following parameter
Vo = 1000 V, Io = 25 mA
f = 3 GHz
Gap spacing of either cavity, d = 1 mm
Spacing between cavities, L = 4 cm.
Effective shunt impedance, Rsh = 30 k
Find :
i) Input gap voltage to give maximum voltage V2
ii) Voltage gain
iii) Efficiency of the amplifier
Also derived the formula of efficiency.
Solution :
Velocity of electron beam :-
eVo 1.6  1019  1000

Vo = =
m 9.1 1031
vo = 18.75 × 106 m/sec.
Gap transit-time,
d 1 103
 = =
vo 18.75  106
= 0.53 × 10–10 sec
Gap transit angle,
g =  = 2 × 3 × 109 × 0.53 × 10–10
= 0.99 rad
Coupling co-efficient ,
.COM
sin g / 2 sin 0.99 / 2
i = =
g / 2 0.99 / 2
= 0.959
 d.c. Transit time,
L 4  102
To = =
vo 18.75  106
= 2.1 × 10–9 sec.
d.c. transit angle for drift space :
12
4  102
9
 o = To = 2 × 3 × 10 ×
18.75  106
= 40.21 rad.
i) Input voltage for maximum output voltage:
2Vo X
V1,max =
i o
2  1000  1.841
=
0.959  40.21
V1,max = 95.48 V
ii) Voltage gain:
2(i )2 Io J1 (X)R sh o
AV =
2Vo X
(0.959)2  25  10–3  0.582  30  103  40.21

=
1000  1.841
AV = 9.14
iii) Efficiency () of amplifier :
Pout
 =
Pin
Output power
Po = (If)2 Rsh
If = rms value of fundamental of output current
[2Io J1 (X)]2
= R sh
2
Input power
Pin = Io Vo
[2Io J1 (X)]2 R sh
  =
2Io Vo
.COM
[2  25  103  0.582  0.959]2  30  103
 =
2  25  103  1000
 = 0.467
1.1.2 Multi-Cavity Klystron Amplifier
A) Construction :
The typical gain provided by a two-cavity klystron is about 30 dB. In order to achieve
higher overall gain, several two-cavity tubes are connected in cascade, feeding output of
each of the tubes to the input of the following tubes as shown in the figure below -
13
RF output
RF Input
Intermediate cavities Cooler

Heater
Gap
Drift
tube
Input Output
Cathode Anodecavity cavity
RF Interaction region
Cathode Collector
Electron
beam
Magnet coils
Fig.1.2-1: A Four-Cavity Klystron

B) Operation :
In a multicavity klystron, each of the intermediate cavities, placed at a distance of the bunching
parameter (X) of 1.841 away from the previous cavity, acts as a buncher with passing electron
beam inducing a more enhanced RF voltage than previous cavity, which in turn sets-up an
increased velocity modulation.
With four cavities, gain can be increased upto 50 dB. All cavities can be tuned to same
frequency for narrow-band operations. Bandwidth can be increased by stagger tuning of
cavities upto about 80 MHz with a reduction in gain. The stagger turning is employed in
UHF klystron for TV transmitter output tubes and in satellite earth station transmitters as
power amplifier at 6 GHz.
C) Mathematical Analysis :
Charge densities & velocity perturbations for simple sinusoidal variations are given by.
(charge density)  = B cos eZ cos (q t + )
(velocity perturbation) v = – C sin eZ sin (q t + )
Where,
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B is constant of charge density perturbation
C is constant of velocity perturbation
i) d.c phase constant of electron beam (e)

e =
Vo
ii) Plasma frequency (p) :- It is a function of the electron beam density and is given by
eo
p =
m o
14
iii) Perturbation frequencies or reduced plasma frequency (q) :- It is given by
q = Rp
Where,
R = space charge reduction factor
iv) Space-charge reduction factor (R) :
It is a function of the beam radius and ratio of the tunnel radius to the beam radius
q
R =
p
= Space charge reduction factor.
Note : Space-charge reduction factor (R) varies from 0 to 1.
Total electron current beam density is given by
Jtotal = –Jo + J
Where,
Jo = d.c. current density
and J = Instantaneous RF current beam perturbation.
v) d.c. current density (Jo) :
It is given by
Jo = ovo
vi) Instantaneous current density (J) :
J = vo – ov
vii) Instantaneous convection beam current density (J) :
J = –Jo + J
Example-1:
A four cavity klystron has following parameter.
Beam voltage, Vo = 14.5 KV
Beam current, Io = 1.4 A
Operating frequency, f = 10 GHz
D.C. electron charge density, o = 10–6 C/m3
R.F. charge density,  = 10–8 C/m3
Velocity perturbation, v = 105 m/s
Compute
i) D.C. electron velocity
.COM
ii) D.C. phase constant
iii) The plasma frequency
iv) The instantaneous beam current density
v) The dc beam current density
(IES-2000)
Solution :
i) The d.c. electron beam velocity :
2eVo
vo =
m
15
= 0.593  106 Vo
6 6
= 0.593  10 14.5  10
= 0.714 × 108 m/s
ii) D.C. phase constant :
 2  10  109
e = =
Vo 714  108
= 8.80 × 102 rad/sec.
iii) The plasma frequency :
eo
p =
m o
1/ 2
 1.6  1019  106 
=  31 12 
 9.1 10  8.85  10 
p = 1.41 × 108 rad/sec
Reduced plasma frequency f or R = 0.4
q = R × p
= 0.4 × 1.41 × 108
= 0.564 × 108 rad/sec.
iv) Instantaneous beam current density :
J = vo  o v
= 10–8 × 0.714 × 108 – 10–6 × 105
J = 0.614 A/m2
v) D.C. beam current density
Jo = o vo = 10–6 × 0.714 × 108
= 71.4 A/m2
1.1.3 Two-Cavity Klystron Oscillator :
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A klystron amplifier can be converted into an oscillator by feeding back a part of the catcher
output power into the buncher, in proper phase so as to satisfy the Barkhausen’s criterion.
Schematic of klystron oscillator is same as of klystron amplifier except that the feedback
loop needs to be added. The feedback must be suitable so as to give correct polarity and
amplitude which basically depends on the cavity tuning and various d.c. voltages.
Note : The loop gain should be unity and total phase should be a multiple of 2.
1.1.4 Reflex Klystron
A) Construction :
The detailed diagram of reflex klystron is as shown below
16
–
anode e
electron RF output
gun Coaxial loop
Repeller
space Repeller electrode
– +
VA
anode cavity
+ –
VR
Fig.1.2-1: A Reflex Klystron

It consists of an electron gun, a filament surrounded by cathode and a focussing electrode
at cathode potential, and a repeller electrode. The repeller electrode is kept at a negative
potential.
B) Operation :
The electrons emitted from cathode are accelerated towards anode cavity, which is at a high
positive potential. This electron beam injected from cathode is first velocity modulated by
the cavity-gap voltage. The electrons entering into the gap during positive half of the cavity
voltage are accelerated by the accelerating field, and thus enter the repeller space at higher
speed. These electrons are called early electrons.
The electrons entering the gap when the cavity-gap voltage is zero, moves with the velocity
same as imparted by the d.c field. There are reference electrons. The electrons entering into
the cavity gap when the gap voltage is negative, are deaccelerated and enter the repeller
space with a lower speed into the repeller region. There electrons are called as late electrons.
Thus, the cavity (gap) voltage gives rise to the velocity modulation of electrons.
All electrons entering the repeller space are repelled back by the repeller electrode. These
.COM
electrons form bunches due to their different speeds and return back to the cavity gap in the
form of bunches. One bunch is formed during every cycle of gap voltage. On their return
journey the bunched electrons pass through the gap during retarding phase of alternating
field and give up their kinetic energy to the electromagnetic energy of the field in the cavity.
The oscillator energy is then taken from the cavity. The electrons are finally collected by
the walls of the cavity or other grounded metal parts of the tube.
The RF voltage induced across the gap further causes velocity modulation of the electrons.
The concept of velocity modulation is shown with Applegate diagram as shown below.
17
Repeller space
Repeller space eR  reference electron
el  late electron
ee  early electron
cavity gap
e e e R el
3/4 mode
3
1 mode
4 3
2 mode
4
For sustained oscillations, the time taken by electrons to travel in the repeller space and
back to the gap (called transit time) should have an optimum value. This factor is not
important for a two-cavity klystron. The energy transferred to the gap should be maximum
for sustained oscillations and this is possible only when the bunched electrons return to the
gap when retarding voltage is maximum. This occurs when the gap voltage has a positive
peak.
3 3
This condition (or requirement) is satisfied or is achived if electrons return after 1 , 2 cycles
4 4
etc, thus in general at 90° to the sine wave of gap voltage.
Thus, the general value of optimum transit time is
 3
T = n  
 4
Where, n is an integer value. .COM
Note : For maximum energy transfer, the round-trip transit angle referring to the centre of bunch
is given by-
o = To
 1 
=  n   2  N  2  2n 
 4 2
Where, n is any positive integer for a cycle no.
1
and, N = n
= Number of modes.
4
This is maximum during transit and 3/4 cycles apart
18
Here,
To = Round-trip transit time.
To = Round-trip transit angle.
C) Operating Characteristics :
i) Voltage Characteristics -
Oscillations can be obtained only for specific combinations of anode and repeller voltages
that give a favourable transit time
 3
i.e.  T  n  
 4
This can be represented in the diagram given below.
3
T=1
Repeller T=2
3 4
voltage 4
3
VR T=3
4
3
T= 4
4
VA anode voltage
The shaded areas show the possible oscillation combinations. Each value of n = 1, 2, 3 is
said to correspond to a different mode for the reflex klystron oscillator. The earlier the
mode, the larger the output power. But voltages required are also higher, leading to insulation
problems and lower efficiency.
ii) Power output & frequency characteristics -
1007
f(GHz)
996
.COM
Power output
in microwave
100 300 800

Repeller voltage (volts)
Note : Performance characteristics of a reflex klystron are as given below -

i) Frequency range – 1 to 25 GHz
19
ii) Power – 10 to 500 mW
iii)Efficiency – 20% to 30%.
D) Applications :
i) In microwave measurements.
ii) In radar receivers.
iii)As local oscillators in microwave receivers in military, commercial and air borne Doppler
radar and missiles.
iv) As signal source or microwave generator of variable frequency.
v) In portable microwave devices.
vi) As a pump oscillator in parametric amplifiers .
E) Mathematical Analysis :
The reflex klystron can be analysed on the same principle as that of a two-cavity klystron.
i) Velocity Modulation :
repeller
cathode cavity gap electrode
dt L
Z
t = 0 t = t1
– t2
The electrons entering the cavity gap from cathode at z = 0 and time to is assume to have a
velocity of
2eVo
vo =
m
= 0.593  106 Vo
This is same as the velocity of electrons before entering into the cavity gap.
Let cavity gap voltage, Vs = V1 sin t .COM
Vr = repeller voltage.
Vo = Accelerating anode voltage
The same electron leaves the cavity gap at z = d at time t = t1. Its velocity can be given on the
same principle as of a two-cavity klystron.
 i V1  g  
 V(t1 ) = vo 1  sin  t1   
 2Vo  2 
When electron is forced back to the gap at z = d at time t2 by the retarding field, given by-
Vr  Vo  V1 sin t
E =
L
20
ii) Round-trip d.c transit time at the center of bunch of electrons in repeller space
2mLvo
To =
e(Vr  Vo )
iii) Total round-trip transit time in repeller space
2mLv (t1 )
T = t2 – t1 =
e(Vr  Vo )
2mLvo  i V1  g 
= 1  sin  t1  
e(Vr  Vo )  2Vo  2 
 V  g 
= To 1  i 1 sin  t1  
 2Vo  2 
iv) Round-trip d.c transit angle
o = To
2mLvo
o =
e(Vr  Vo )
Note : For maximum energy transfer,
 1
o = To  2  n  
 4

= 2n  = 2N
2
Where, n is a positive integer for a cycle no.
1
N = n = number of modes
4
v) Bunching Parameter :
i V1
X =
2Vo
o .COM
2Vo X
 V1 =
i o
ii) Power Output and Efficiency :
Beam current of a reflex klystron is -

i2 = Io –  2Io Jn (nX) cos[n (t2 – o – g)]
n 1
Fundamental component of current induced in the cavity by modulated electron beam is -

i2 = – i I2 = 2Io i J1(X) cos (t2 – o)
21
Since, o >> g.g is neglected here
So, the magnitude of fundamental component is
I2 = 2Io i J1(X)
d.c power supplied by the beam voltage Vo is
Pdc = VoIo
a.c. power delivered to load is -
V1I2
Pac = = V1 Io i J1(X)
2
Now, we have
V1 2X
=
Vo i (2n   / 2)
2Vo Io  J1 (X)
 Pac =
2n   / 2
Efficiency () is given by -
Pac 2X J1 (X)
 = =
Pdc 2n   / 2
As n increases,  decreases.
Note : Practically, the mode no. n = 2 has the maximum power output. So for n = 2, there is
maximum efficiency.
max = 22.7% at n = 2
Maximum theoretical efficiency (theoritical) has a range of 20 to 30%.
C) Relation between Repeller voltage & mode number :
For a beam voltage Vo, we have
Vo (2n   / 2)2 e
= ·
(Vr  Vo )2 8(L)2 m
So, the power output (Pac) can be given in terms of repeller voltage Vr as
Pac = VoIo
J (X)·(Vr  Vo ) e
.COM
= 1 ·
L 8mVo
D) Electronic Admittance :
It is the ratio of I2 to V2 and is given by-
Io i2 o 2J1 (X) j(  / 2 o )
Ye = · e
Vo 2X
Io i2 o J1 (X)e j(  / 2 o )

=
Vo X
22
Equivalent circuit of reflex klystron :
–Bi I2
+
L C Gc Gb Ge V2
–
Here,
L & C = Energy storing elements of cavity.
Gc = Cu losses of cavity.
Gb = Beam loading conductance.
G = Load conductance.
1
G = Gc  Gb  G 
Rsh
Rsh = Effective shunt resistance.
The above equation can also be written in rectangular form as
Ye = G + jBe
As per the rectangular plot of electronic admittance
(Ye) is spiral as shown below
jBc
N=3
oscillatory N=3
region Non oscillatory
N=1
region
3
N=2 3 N=0
4 N=
–Ge 4 1 +Ge
N= 4
3
N=1
4 1
N=2
2
1
– G –jB N=2
4
E) Performance characteristics of reflex klystron : .COM

Example 1 :
A reflex klystron operation under the following condition
Vo = 600 V, L = 1 mm, fr = 9 GHz
e
Rsh = 15 k, = 1.759 × 10111 MKS
m
3
The tube is oscillating at the peak of the n = 2 mode or 1
. Assume that the transit time
4
through the gap and beam loading can be neglected. Find (i) Vr (ii) I0 at V1 = 200v
(iii) Efficiency
Solution :
23
Vo e (2n   / 2)2
2 = 
 Vr Vo  m 82 L2
2
 
Vo  2  2  2 
 2 = 1.759  1011   
 Vr Vo  8(2  9  109 )2 (103 )2
= 0.832 × 10–3
 600 
 (Vr + Vo)2 =  3 
 0.832  10 
= 0.721 × 106
Vr = 250 V
b) Assume, o = 1
 V2 = I2 Rsh = 2 Io J1 (X) Rsh
V2
Io =
2J1 (X)R sh
200
=
2  0.582  15  103
= 11.45 mA
c) Efficiency,
2  J1 (X)
=
2n   / 2
2  1.841 0.582
=
2 2   / 2
 = 0.1949
Example :
In an experiment for measurement of reflex klystron mode characteristics following data is
obtained.
Vo = 300 V, .COM
VR1 = –143 V,
VR2 = –105 V
and VR3 = –65 V
The frequency of operation at the three reflector voltage given above was the same. Evaluate
the actual operating mode number.
Solution :
1.2 Travelling Wave Tubes (TWT)/helix
A) Construction :
24
input output
Anode collector
Cathode
>
Helix
– +
Fig. TWT electrode arrangement
It consists of an electron gun, which is used to produce a narrow beam of electrons with a
constants velocity. The electron beam passes through centre of a long loosely wound thin
conducting coaxial helix (which acts as a slow wave structure). Magnetic focussing is
provided to prevent the spreading of electron beam and to guide it through the centre of
helix. Thus, it is termed as O-type TWT. The applied signal travels around the turns of the
helix and produces an electric field at centre of the helix.
B) Operation :
The electron beam emitted from the cathode moves along the axis of the helix. The beam is
provided magnetic focussing in order to prevent spreading of the beam.
The signal to be applied to the and of helix adjacent to the electron gun is applied. This
applied signal moves along the turns of helix and produces an electric field at the centre of
the helix , directed along the axis of helix. The axial electric field progresses with a velocity
that is very close to the velocity of light multiplied by the ratio of helix pitch to the helix
circumference.
When the electrons enters the helix tube, an interaction takes place between the moving
axial electric field and the moving electrons.
The electrons which enter the helix when electric field is zero, move ahead with an unchanged
velocity.
The electrons which enters the helix when the electric field along the axis is positive (or
.COM
accelerating) are accelerated, and electrons which enter the helix when electric field is
negative (or retarding) are decelerated. As these electrons move further along the helix,
they form bunches at the collector end. The bunching occurs at phase shifts of /2. This
results in velocity modulation.
Each electron in the bunch encounters a strong retarding field. Thus, the microwave energy
of electrons is delivered by the electron bunch to the wave travelling along the axis of the
helix.
This interaction causes the signal wave on helix to become stronger.
Thus during this interaction, the amplification of the signal is accomplished.
C) Characteristics of TWT :
Frequency = 3 GHz or more
BW= 0.8 GHz (approx.)
25
Efficiency = 20 to 40%
Pout = 4 to 10 KW
Power Gain = upto 60 dB.
RF t
Field
Electron
Beam
Bunches
Note : Large amplification occurs at the end of helix because of the large bunching effect of electrons
at the end.
Slow-Wave Structures
Slow-wave structures are normally used to reduce phase velocity of a signal wave, so that
the electron beam and the applied signal can interact.
To prolong the interaction between an electron beam and RF field, it is necessary to assure
that they are both travelling in the same direction with nearly the same velocity.
The commonly used slow-wave structure is a helical coil with a concentric conducting
cylinder as shown below -
p p
dd  2
p +(d)
2
d  diameter of coil
p pitch of helix
 pitch angle
The ratio of phase velocity along the pitch with phase velocity along the coil can be given as
- .COM
vp P
= = sin 
C P  (d)2
2
If helix is within a dielectric filled cylinder, the phase velocity in axial direction is given by-
P
vP =
 P2  (d)2
If dielectric constant is too large, the slow wave structure may introduce a considerable loss
to microwave devices.
26
for small pitching angle that is
p < < (d),
we have,
pC  pC
vp   
d  2r
Where, r is the radius of helix & d is the diameter of the helix.
The diagram below provides a useful tool in designing a helix slow wave structure.
It is called as -(or brillouin) diagram as shown below-

 =C

pc 
vp = d =

Fig. 1.5-4:  –  diagram of helix

Group velocity : It is given by the slope of the – diagram of the helix

vgr = = slope of – diagram

Phase velocity of nth harmonics :-
 
vpn = 
n o  2n / L
and group velocity,
1
  d(o  2n / L)  
Vgr =   =
  d  o
which is independant of n.
.COM
Note : The phase velocity Vpn in axial direction decreases for higher values of n and o.
Thus, the amplification of the signal is possible to achieve by the interaction of RF field and
electron beam by using a suitable value of n.
B) Amplification process :
i) Phase shift of fundamental wave
For every period of the fundamental wave
1 =  o L

where, o = is the phase constant for average beam velocity and L is the period or pitch.
vo
ii) d.c Transit Time:
It is given by
27
L
To =
vo
iii) Phase constant for nth space harmonics :-
 1  2n 2n
n = = = o 
vo vo To L
C) Convection Current :
It is the current induced in electron beam due to axial electric field. The convection current
is given by
e Io
i = j E1
2Vo ( je  )2
where,

e = = phase constant of the velocity modulated electron-beam
vo
2evo
vo = = beam velocity
m
 = e + je = propagation constant of axial waves.
E1 = magnitude of axial field in the direction of electron beam motion.
If t = to at z = 0, the electric field is assumed to be maximum.
Above equation is called electronic equation. This equation gives how the convection current
is produced by the axial electric field.
D) Axial Electric field :
Equivalent circuit of slow wave helix :-
For simplicity, the slow wave helix is represented as a distributed lossless transmission line
as shown below -
electron beam
i
L L L L .COM
C C C C C
Axial electric field :-

It is given by
2 o Zo
E1 = 2 2 i
  o
28
Where,
 = j LC = Propagation constant of line.
L
Zo = = characteristic impedance of line.
C
The above equation is called Circuit Equation.
It gives how the axial field is affected by electron beam current.
E) Wave Modes :
Using electronic & circuit equation, we have
2  2o e Io
 = j
2 o Zo 2Vo ( je   )2
2 o Zoe Io
 ( je –  )2 ( 2  o2 ) =  j
2Vo
The above equation is fourth order in  and thus gives four roots for  Every value of 
gives one mode. This means that the travelling wave in a helical TWT may have four
different modes.
The approximate solutions of the above equation by taking o = je are given as
3  C
1 = e C  je  1  
2  2
3  C
2 = e C  je  1  
2  2
3 = je (1 – C)
 C3 
4 =  je 1  
 4 
‘C’ is the travelling wave tube gain parameter and is given by -
1/ 3
I Z 
C   o o .COM
 4Vo 
The following points are important and related to the four modes of waves -
i) The wave corresponding to 1 is a forward wave with its amplitude growing exponentially.
ii) The wave corresponding to 2 is also a forward but its amplitude decays exponentially
with distance. The decaying wave moves with the same velocity as the growing, but
energy flows from the wave to the electron beam.
iii) The wave corresponding to 3 is also a forward wave but its amplitude remains constant
and its phase velocity is alightly higher than the electron beam velocity, but no net
exchange of energy between the wave and the electron beam.
29
iv) The wave corresponding to 4 is a backward wave and the amplitude remains constant
and the phase velocity is higher than the electron beam velocity.
F) Gain of TWT :
For gain consideration, it is assumed that the structure is perfectly match so that there is no
backward travelling wave.
The output power in decibels is defined as -
2
V()
AP = 10log dB
V(0)
or, AP = – 9.54 + 47.3NC dB
Here, NC is a numerical number so that,

N = = circuit-length of the slow-wave structure in terms of wavelength of the
e
wave.
 = length of the slow wave structure
e = wavelength of the wave
2
also, e = 2N; e =
e
1/ 3
 Io Zo 
C =   = Gain parameter of TWT
 4Vo 
The equation for Ap indicates that the initial loss at the circuit in input is 9.54 dB. This
results from the fact that the input voltage is split into three waves of equal magnitude and
growing wave is only one third of the total input voltage.
V() 1 3NC
i.e. = e
V(0) 3
Note: Gain is maximum, when the beam velocity is in synchronism with the axial velocity.
Wave Equations :
2 3 .COM
V = V1e  z  V2e  z  V3 e  z  V4 e  z
1 4
G) Attenuation :
There is always a possibility of output feedback to the input and also spurious signal may be
generated in TWT. These may cause parasitic oscillations in the TWT. These are suppressed
by cooling inside glass wall with aquadag which act as attenautor. Generally the attenuator
is kept at the input side so that attenuation of the forward wave is minimum. It attenuates
the reflected waves.
Note : High frequency limit of TWT can be increased by decreasing the diameter of the tube and at
low frequencies, the gain is limited by the helix length.
H) Applications of TWT :.
i) Low noise RF amplifiers in broadband microwave receivers.
30
ii) Repeater amplifiers in wideband communication links and co-axial cables (long distance
telephony).
iii) Due to its long life, it is used in communication satellites.
iv) High power TWT are used in tropo-scatter links.
v) Air-borne and ship-borne pulsed high-power radars use TWT.
I) Comparison between Klystron & TWT :
i) Interaction in klystron is only cavity gap but in TWT it is continuous over length of
helix
ii) In TWT signal wave is propagating wave where as it is stationary in klystron
iii) In coupled cavity TWT there is coupling in cavity but in klystron cavities operate
independently.
Example :
A TWT operator on a beam current of 50 mA, beam voltage = 2.89 kV,
characteristic impedance, zo = 6, circuit length = 40 and frequency = 9GHz. Determine.
i) Gain parameter
ii) Output gain in dB.
iii) Four propagation constants
iv) The wave equations in all four mode in exponential.
[2005]
Solution :
i) Gain parameter
1/ 3
 Io Zo 
C =  
 4Vo 
1/ 3
 50  103  6 
=  3 
 4  2.89  10 
= 0.0296
ii) Output power gain
AP = – 9.54 + 47.3 NC
= – 9.54 + 47.3 × 40 × 0.0296
iii) Propagation constants

= 46.46 dB
.COM
 2  9  109
e = 
vo 0.593  106 2890
= 1.773 × 103 rad/m
3  C
1 = e C  je 1  
2  2
3  j1.773  103 1  0.0296 

= 1.773  10  0.0296   
2  2 
31
= – 45.45 + j 1799.24
3  C
2 = e C  je 1  
2  2
= 45.45 + j 1799.24
3 = j e (1 – C) = j 1.773 × 103
(1 – 0.0296)
= j 1720.519
 C3 
4 = je 1  
 4 
= j 1772.99
iv) Wave equations
1z
v1(t) = Ve
1
v2(t) = V2 e 2 z
v3(t) = V3 e3z
v4(t) = V4 e 4 z
Example :
In a TWT,
Anode voltage, Vo =1600V
Beam current, Io = 20 mA
Characteristic Impedance, zo = 300
Length, l = 4
losser = 3 dB
Find gain & output (1979)
Solution :
Gain parameter
1/ 3 1/ 3
I Z   20  103  300 
C =  o o  
 4Vo   4  1600  .COM
= 0.097
Length of helical structure
4
N = 4

 Gain,
Ap = –9.54 + 47.3 NC dB
= –9354 + 47.3 × 4 × 0.097
= 8.8124 dB
Input power = Vo Io = 1600 × 20 × 10–3
= 32 W
32
Pout
10log = 8.8124
Pin
8.8124
Pout = Pin 10 10
= 1600 × 20 × 10–3 × 100.88124
Pout = 243.43 W
Example :
The helix of a particular travelling wave tube has 10 turns permm and mean diameter of
2.5 mm.Determine approximate value of anode voltage that is required.
(1988)
Solution :
103
Pitch of coil, P = = 10–4 m
10
Phase velocity of wave,
CP CP
vP = 
2
P  ( d) 2 d
3  108  104
vP =
(10–4 )2  (   2.5  103 )2
= 3.81 × 106 m/s
Velocity of e beam, vo = vp = 3.81 × 106 m/s
6 2eVo
vp = 3.81 10 
m
= 0.593  106 Vo
2
 3.81 
 Vo =  
 0.593 
Vo = 41.28 V
1.3 Backward Wave Oscillator (BWO) .COM
Backward wave oscillator (BWO) is a microwave continuous oscillator with excellent tuning
capability and frequency coverage range. BWO is similar to TWT with helix, in construction.
It works on same principle of interaction between electron beam & RF field.
A) Operation:
The electron beam from electron gun is focussed by an axial magnetic field. RF oscillators
initiated by transients travel through the helix and interact with the electron beam.
During the interaction there is bunching of electrons and energy flows from the electron
beam to RF field. BWO does not have attenuator so there are oscillations due to reflection
from an imperfectly terminated collector end of the helix. The reflected wave result in
backward wave.
33
The interaction between RF wave and electron beam is different in BWO. The growing RF
wave travels in backward direction in BWO, that is opposite to the direction of motion of
the electron beam.
ve

wa
ard
B
Backward
w
for
wave
O C 
Fig.1.3-1:  –  curve of BWO.

The growing wave has a group velocity in the backward direction. In direction OB, the

phase velocity (vp) = is positive and group velocity d/d is also positive. (Which is in

the case of TWT).
d
In part BC, phase velocity / is positive, but group velocity is negative. The interaction
d
takes place during the backlash region BC.
In fact, BWO can be thought of as a feedback loop akin (similar) to a low frequency circuit.
Backward wave along helix

Output
   
.COM
The BWO can be imagined to have above equivalent circuit having several regenerative
loops that function as amplifier with feedback factor . Each regenerative loop function as
an amplifier and is designed in such a way that the total phase shift in loop is 2 rad. The
forward circuit is a helix along which the wave moves. The feedback circuit is  circuit in
a feedback amplifier.
The RF field velocity modulation the electron beam which moves along axis of helix
towards collector and forms bunches of electrons. This bunches provide energy to helix RF
wave in backward direction. This looping continues until there is sufficient energy in RF
wave.
The frequency of BWO can be controlled by controlling beam velocity and amplitude by
controlling the electron beam current
34
C) Performance characteristics of BWO
i) Frequency range – 1 GH to 1000 GHz
ii) Output power – 10mW to 150 mW
iii)Tunning range – up to 40 GHz
D) Applications of BWO :
BWO can be used as
i) A signal source in transmitter and instruments.
ii) A broadband noise source (for confusion of enemy radars)
iii) A noiseless oscillator with good bandwidth.
Note : Klystron, TWT & BWO are linear beam tubes generally called as O-type tubes.
1.4 Magnetrons
Magnetrons are cross-field tubes in which the electric and magnetic fields are perpendicular
to each other. Magnetrons are also called as M-type tube. Magnetrons provide oscillations
at very high peak power. In magnetron, interaction between field and electrons is continuous
like TWT.
Types of magnetron :
i) Negative resistance type
ii) Cyclotron frequency type
iii) Travelling wave or cavity type.
i) Negative resistance type -
It makes use of negative resistance between two anode segments but have low efficiency
and are useful only at low frequency. (< 500 MHz)
ii) Cyclotron frequency magnetron -
It depends on synchronism between an alternative component periodic oscillation of
electron in direction parallel to this field. (useful for f > 100 MHz)
iii) Cavity Magnetrons -
It depends on the interaction between electrons and rotating electromagnetic field of
constant angular velocity.
These provide oscillations of very high peak power and are useful in radar applications.
Note : In linear electron tubes both electric field (E) & magnetic field (B) are in parallel directions.
The magnetic field (B) is used only for focussing and does not play any role in interactions
between electron beam and RF wave. But it plays an active role in crossfield tubes.
I) Cavity Magnetron .COM
A) Construction :
It is a diode usually of cylindrical configuration with a thick cylindrical cathode at the
centre and a coaxial cylindrical block of copper as anode. In the anode block, a number of
holes and slots are formed which act as resonant cavities. The space between anode and
cathode is interactions space and to one of the cavities a waveguide or a coaxial line is
connected for extracting the output. The electric field is in radial direction, whereas the
magnetic field produced by a permanent magnet is in the axial direction. The permanent
magnet is placed in such a way that the magnetic lines are parallel to the vertical cathode
and perpendicular to the electric field between anode and cathode.
35
cu anode block held at potential Vo
interaction space
coaxialline
output
b
a
RF out
cathode
anode cavity
Note : Slow wave structure is small to the helix. The interaction between the electron beam and
the electromagnetic wave is continuous like a TWT.
B) Operation :
In a cross-field tube, the electrons emitted from cathode follow a path which depends on
relative strength of the electric and magnetic fields.
In the absence of magnetic field, the electrons travel along a straight line in the radial
direction from the cathode to anode due to radial electric field acting on it.
It follows a trajectory path as shown in the figure.
c b Anode
d a block
Interaction
space
Cathode
.COM
If the strength of magnetic field is increased the path of electrons bend slightly due to a
tangential force exerted by the magnetic field. The radius of trajectory decreases with an
increase in the strength of magnetic field.
If the magnetic field is made strong enough such that electrons fall back on the cathode just
grazing the anode, then the field is called as critical magnetic field (or cut-off magnetic
field).
When B > Bc, then all electrons fall back on the cathode and thus cause the heating of
cathode. These electrons are called as unfavorable electrons.
Now, If the RF field is applied to the anode circuit, then the electrons entering into the
circuit during the retarding field are deccelerated and therefore give up a part of some of
36
their energy to the RF field. Consequently, their velocity is decreased and these slower
electrons will then travel through the d.c electric field far enough to regain the energy
essentially same as before. Because of cross-field interaction, only those electrons that
have given up sufficient energy to the RF field can travel all the way to the anode. This
makes M-type tube more efficient. Those electrons entering into circuit during the
accelerating field are accelerated by the means of receiving enough energy from the RF
field and are returned back to the cathode. This back bombardment of electrons on the
cathode produces heat & reduces efficiency. Thus, the electrons which impart their energy
to RF field during this interaction are called as favoured electrons and those which take
energy from the RF field and fall back on cathode are called unfavoured electrons. The
favoured electrons participate in the bunching phenomenon. This phenomenon of bunching
is called phase focussing effect. The phase focussing effect imparts energy to RF field
which is responsible for sustained oscillations.
Note : Magnetron is based on the principle of interaction between electron beam and the travelling
electromagnetic RF waves.
I) Electron motion
i) Critical (or Hull Cut-off) magnetic field -
1/ 2
 m
 8Vo 
 e
Bc =
 a2 
b 1  2 
 b 
Since, b > > a a2/b2 can be neglected.
1 8Vo m
 Bc 
b e
ii) Cut-off anode voltage “Hull Cut-off voltage -
2
e 2 2  a2 
Vc = Bo b  1  2 
8m  b 
iii) Cut-off angular frequency - .COM
eBo
C =
m
ii) Cyclotron Angular frequency - Since the outward centrifugal force must be equal to
the magnetic force on the electron.
Therefore,
mv2
= evB
r
v eB
or, C = 
e m
37
Period of one revolution (T) is -
2 2m
T = 
 eB
The slow-wave structure in magnetron is closed. So, the sustained oscillations are positive
only if the total phase shift around the structure is an integral multiple of 2.
Thus if ‘N’ be the number of resonent cavities, then the phase is -
2n
n =
N
Where, n is an integer number which indicates the nth mode of oscillation.
In order to get sustained oscillations, the anode voltage should be adjusted such that the
average rotational velocity of the electrons correspond to the phase velocity of the field in
slow-wave structure.
Note : Magnetron oscillators generally have -modes i.e. n =  ( – mode).
Phase constant for N-cavities is given by-
2n
o =
NL
Where, L= Average distance between the cavities.
II) Power Output & Efficiency-
Equivalent circuit of magnetron is as shown below-
A B
+
Ye V C L Gr Ge
–
A´ B´
Beam Resonators Load
Fig.1.5-2: Equivalent circuit for one resonator of magnetron
Here, .COM
Ye = Electronic admittance.
C = Capacitance at the vane tips.
V = RF voltage across vane tips.
L = Inductance of the resonator.
Gr = Conductance of the resonator.
Ge = Load conductance per resonator.
Unloaded Q-factor : It is given by -
o C
Qun =
Gr
External Q-factor of the circuit load is -
38
o C
Qex =
G
Q-factor of loaded resonator circuit is given by -
o C
Ql =
Gr  G
The circuitefficiency is -
G G
C =  
G  G r Gex
Qun 1
= =
Qun  Qex  Qex 
1  
 Q un 
Note : The maximum efficiency is obtained when the magnetron is heavily loaded.
i.e. for G > > Gr.
Electronic efficiency is defined as :
Pgen Vo Io  Plost
e = 
Pdc Vo Io
Where,
Pgen = RF power induced into the anode circuit
Pdc = VoIo = power obtained from dc power supply.
Vo = anode voltage
Io = anode current
Plost = power lost in the anode circuit
II) Mode Jumping Magnetrons:
The resonant modes of magnetron are very close to each other and there is always a possibility
of mode jumping. The weaker modes have a very little difference from the dominant mode
and purity of vibration may be lost. Therefore, mode jumping must be avoided.
Remedies : There are different methods to avoid mode jumping as given below.
a) Strapping - .COM
Strapping means to connect the anode plates with two conducting rings of heavy gauge
touching the anode poles at the dots.
shape
+
– –
+ +
– –
+
39
This is done in order to make the 2 anode poles together. Strapping helps in achieving only
the dominant mode in magnetron.
Disadvantages of Strapping-
i) Power losses in conducting strips.
ii) At higher frequencies, strapping introduces stray effects and alter the RF field in the
interaction space.
b) Rising Sun Magnetron -
(c)
c) Frequency Pushing & Pulling :
i) Frequency pushing -
Change of frequency of oscillator by changing anode voltage is called frequency pushing.
It is avoided by using a regulated power supply.
ii) Frequency pulling -
Change in frequency due to change in the load impedance in called frequency pulling.
It can be avoided by using a circulator, which does not allow the backward flow of
electromagnetic energy.
D) Applications :
i) Pulsed Radar
ii) Sweep oscillator in lelemetry & missile.
iii) Industrial heating & microwave ovens.
.COM

Chapter 2
Microwave Semiconductor Devices

2.1 Microwave Transistors
A Microwave transistor is a non-linear device and its principle of operation is similar to
that of a low frequency device. In microwave applications, silicon (Si) transistors are normally
used for frequency range from UHF to S-band (upto 3 GHz).
A) Construction :
Majority of the bipolar transistors are fabricated from Si, although GaAs is also used for
improved performances in devices.
The silicon bipolar transistor is inexpensive durable, and provides higher gain than the
availiable field-effect devices.
Silicon planar transistors offer the best bipolar microwave performances. Therefore, almost
all microwave transistors are now fabricated in planar forms. Few structures of silicon
bipolar transistors with different geometries are shown below-
Fig.2.1-1: Surface geometries of an n-p-n microwave transistor

B) Operation :
The microwave signal applied between the emitter and base will forward bias the junction
during the positive portion of signal.
Emitter Base Collector
E
N I
n
17
IP
P
11
N
14
.COM C
nn = 1.7 × 10 np = 1.7 × 10 nn = 1.7 × 10

9 15 12
Pn = 1.7 × 10 Pp = 3.7 × 10 Pn = 1.7 × 10
RS – + – +
B
VEB VCB
Fig. 2.1-2: Carrier densities of a n-p-n transistor
41
If a n-p-n transistor is consider the electrons in the n-region will diffuse and drift through the
thin base region to the collector and accelerate to the negative terminal of the bias voltage
between the collector and base terminals.
A pulse of current flows through the load connected in the collector circuit.
C) Performance Parameters :
There are different parameters of a microwave power transistor as given below -
i) Cut-off frequency (fT) -
The high frequency behaviour or characteristics of a microwave power transistor is given
by the cut-off frequency (fT), which is given as -
1
fT = ........(i)
2ec
Where, ecis the emitter to collector delay time and is given by -
ec = e + b + d + C
e = Emitter-base junction charging time.
b = Base transit time.
d = Collector depletion layer transit time
c = Collector depletion layer charging time.
Note: Alternatively, fT can be defined as the current gain-bandwidth frequency, which is the
frequency at which it falls unity i.e. the highest frequency at which current gain may be
obtained.
ii) Maximum frequency of oscillations (fmax) -
It is given by -
fT
fmax = ........ (ii)
8rbCc
Where,
fT = Cut-off frequency.
rb = Base resistance.
Cc = Collector frequency capacitance.
D) Power frequency limitations :
.COM
Microwave power transistors have limitations on their frequency and output power.
The basic ideas were given by Johnson who developed the concept of power-frequency
limitations based on these three assumptions which are given below-
i) There is maximum possible velocity of charge carriers (i.e. saturated drift velocity) in
a semiconductor of the order of 6 × 106 m/s for electrons & holes in Silicon &
Germanium.
ii) There is a maximum field that can be sustained in a semiconductor without dielectric
breakdown.
i.e.
Emax = 2 × 105 V/cm .......... (for Si)
= 105 V/cm .......... (for Ge)
42
iii) Maximum current that a microwave power transistor can carry is limited by the base
width. With the above four assumptions, Johnson derived four equations as given below-
i) Voltage-frequency limitations -
Em vs  2  1011 V / sec (for Si)
VmfT =   11 ........(iii)
2 10 V / sec (for Ge)
Where, fT is the charge carrier transit time cut-off frequency and is given by-
1
fT =
2
where, is the average time to traverse the emitter to collector distance (L) and is given by-
L
 =
v
Also,
Vm = Em Lmin = Maximum allowable applied voltage.
Where,
Em = Maximum electric field.
vs = Maximum possible saturated drift velocity.
Note : Practically, the cut-off frequency (fT)that can be obtained is usually less than the maximum
possible frequency as given by the equation (iii), because the saturated velocity (vs) and the
electric field intensity will not be uniform.
ii) Current-frequency limitations -
Since, Vm = Im XC
From equation (iii), we have
Em vs
(Im XC) · fT = .........(iv)
2
Where, Im= Maximum current of device.
1 1
Xc =  is the reactive impedance.
T Co 2fT Co
Where, Co= Collector-base junction capacitance.
.COM
Note : In practice, no maximum current exists because the area of the device can not be increased
with out bound. If the impedance level is zero, the maximum current through a velocity
saturated sample might be infinite. But the limited impedance will limit the maximum current.
iii) Power-frequency limitations -
By multiplying equation (iii) and (iv), and replacing Vm Im by Pm, we have
Em vs
(Pm Xc)1/2fT =
2
Where,
Pm = Vm Im is the maximum power capacity that the device can handle.
Note : For a given device impedance, the power capacity of the device must decrease as the device
cut-off frequency is increased.
43
iv) Power gain-frequency limitations -
Em vs
(GmVth Vm)1/2f =
2
Where,
Gm = Maximum available power gain.
& Vth = KT/e is the thermal voltage.
Here,
T is the absolute temperature (in °K).
& K is the boltzmann’s constant.
Its value is,
K = 1.38 = 10–23 J/°K
Maximum available power gain (Gm) of a microwave power transistor is given by -
2
f  Z
Gm =  T  · out
 f  Zin
Zout  Cin 
and, =  
Zin  Cout 
Where,
Zin and Zout are the input and output impedances.
& Cin and Cout are the input and output capacitances.
Qin Im b
also, Cin  Cd = 
Vth Vth
Where,
b = Carrier base transit time
Cd = Emitter diffusion capacitance
Qm = Total charge carriers moving across the common base junction in transit time
b).
The output capacitance of a microwave power transistor is given by -
Cout =
Im o
Vm
.COM
Where,o is the effective minority carrier lifetime in the depletion layer.
E) Performance Characteristics:
i) Frequency of operation = 3 GHz.
ii) Gain = 5 dB.
iii) Power = 5 Watts.
iv) Noise figure = 10 – 20 dB.
F) Applications :
As active components in monolithic integrated circuits (IC’s) for high power applications
(e.g. space and military communications).
44
For high frequency applications, n-p-n structure is preferred because of the high electron
mobility.
Hetro-Junction Bipolar Transistor (HBTs)
Transistors can be formed as hetro-junction or homo-junction transistor.
When a transistor junction is formed with two dissimilar metals such as Ge & Ga As, the
junction is called as hetro-junction; whereas when the transistor junction is formed between
two similar metals, such as silicon to silicon or germanium to germanium, it is called as
homo-junction.
2.2 Microwave Field-Effect Transistors (FET’s)
I) Metal-Semiconductor FET (MESFET)
A field-effect transistor constructed with a metal-semiconductor schottky-barrier diodes is
called as Metal-Semiconductor Field-Effect Transistor (MESFET).
The semiconductor used for construction of MESFET is silicon (Si) or gallium arsenide
(GaAs) and the channel may be either n or p channel.
A) Construction :
A unipolar GaAs MESFET can be fabricated by using either the epitaxial process or ion
implantation method.
A schematic diagram of a planar MESFET is shown below -
Source Gate Drain
Z
Contact
metal
Ls L Ld
n-type a
epitaxial Vp
Buffer GaAs
layer
Depletion
Semi-insulating
region in
GaAs substrate
saturation
Fig. 2.2-1 : A GaAs MESFET. .COM

In GaAs MESFET, the substrate is doped with chromium (Cr), which has an energy level
near the centre of the GaAs bandgap.
The substrate thickness is about 100  m.
A high restivity of the order of 108  -cm is obtained with this semi-insulating GaAs substrate.
A thin layer of lightly doped n-type GaAs is grown exponentially to form the channel region
of the MESFET. The n-channel layer is doped with sulphur or tin with a doping concentration
between 8 × 1016 /cm3 and 2 × 1017 /cm3.
A buffer layer of about 3  m with a doping concentration of 10 15 to 1017 /cm3 is often
fabricated between the n-channel and the substrate. Contact metallization pattern of of gold
is developed using the photolithographic process to bring the contacts over the substrate.
45
B) Operation :
A voltage is applied in the direction to reverse-bias the p-n junction between the source and
the gate, while the source and the drain electrodes are forward-biased.
Ls Ld
Source Gate Drain
L
Z Rg
G
S D
Rs Ri Cgs
Cgd
Gd
a
n-type
channel gmVgs
Cds
Intrinsic
Gate G transistor D Drain
Rg C Cgd
gs
Cp Gd
Ri gmV gs
~ Vgs Cds Z
Rp
Rs
Source S Source
Fig.2.2-2 : Cross-section and equivalent circuit of a MESFET.

.COM
The current in the channel causes a voltage drop along the length of the source to drain.
As a result, a charge depletion region is set up in the channel and gradually pinches off the
channel against the substate towards the drain end.
As the reverse-bias between the source to gate increases, the height of the charge depletion
layer also increases.
Due to this, the drain current (Id) is modulated by the gate voltage (Vg). For a fixed drain-to-
source voltage (Vds), the drain current Id is a function of the reverse bias gate voltage Vgs.
At pinch of the drain current Id is almost constant even though the drain to source voltage is
increased.
Advantages of GaAs -
A gallium arsenide (GaAs) MESFET in comparison to a silicon MESFET has -
46
i) Higher electron mobility.
ii) Higher electric field.
iii) Higher electron saturation drift velocity.
iv) Higher output power.
v) Lower noise figure.
Due to these advantages, the GaAs MESFET is preferred more than the Si MESFET for
high power microwave applications.
C) Performance Characteristics of MESFET :
i) Cut-off frequency (fco) -
gm v
fco =  s Hz
2Cgs 4L
Where,
dIds
gm = Transconductance = mhos
dVgs Vgs  constant
dQ
Cg = Gate to source capacitance =
dVgs Vgd  constant
L = Gate length
vs = Saturation drift velocity
ii) Maximum frequency of oscillations (fmax) -
The maximum frequency of oscillations depend on the device trans-conductance and the
drain resistance in a distributed circuit.
It is given by -
fco
fmax = (gm Rd )1/ 2
2
The highest frequency of oscillations for maximum power gain with the input and output
networks matched is given by - .COM
1/ 2
f  Rd 
fmax = co  

2  Rs  Rg  Ri 
Where,
Rd = Drain resistance.
Rs = Source resistance.
Rg = Gate metallization resistance.
Ri = Input resistance.
47
D) Advantages MESFET over BJT’s:
i) Have voltage gain in addition to current gain
ii) Efficiency is higher (upto X-band).
iii) Noise figure is lower.
iv) Operating frequency is higher.
v) Input resistance is very high.
E) Applications of MESFET :
i) Front-end low noise amplifiers of microwave receivers in both Radars &
communications.
ii) As power amplifiers at output stages in microwave links.
iii) As driver amplifiers for high power transmitters.
iv) As output amplifiers in narrow-band troposcatter links or in broadband generators.
v) As power oscillators.
vi) Dual gate MESFET’s are used for harmonic frequency multiplication upto k-band.
II) High Electron Mobility Transistor (HEMT’s)
A) Construction : It is a hetro-junction structure with high mobility and electron
concentration.
It is fabricated by modulation-doping technique.
An undoped GaAs layer and an Si doped n-type AlGaAs layer are successively grown on a
semi-insulating GaAs substrate as shown in the figure below -
Gate SiN
Source Drain
AuGe/Ni
n-AlGaAs
Undoped AlGaAs
2 DEG
Undoped GaAs
GaAs S.I.
S.I. buffer .COM
Fig. 2.2-II : A cross-section of a HEMT
It has a single GaAs– AlGaAs hetro-junction.

A buffer layer is sandwiched between undoped GaAs layer and semi-insulator substrate.
It is fabricated as an integrated circuit with enhancement as well as depletion mode.
Improvements over MESFET’s
i) Shorter gate length.
ii) Reduced gate & source contact resistances.
48
iii) Optimized doping profiles.
iv) Higher speed (upto 3 times of MESFET’s).
C) Performance Characteristics :
i) Operating frequency = 40 to 70 GHz.
ii) Noise figure 6dB.
iii) Bandwidth = 4 to 5 dB.
D) Advantages of HEMTs :
i) Higher operating frequency (upto 70 GHz) .
ii) Lower noise figure.
iii) Higher gain.
iv) Faster speed of operation.
Due to these features, HEMT’s are suitable for high-speed VLSI devices with low
power dissipation.
E) Applications :
i) Very high-speed supercomputers.
ii) Star wars.
iii) Space communications.
iv) Static RAM’s
2.3 Varactor Diodes
It is a semiconductor diode in which junction capacitance can be varied as a function of the
reverse-bias voltage of the diode.
i.e. C j  Vr  n
Where,
Cj = Junction capacitance.
Vr = Reverse bias voltage.
& n = Grading index parameter.
Case I : For abrupt junction, n = 1/2
For linearly-graded junction, n = 1/3
For hyper-abrupt junction, n = 2
Case II : For hyper-abrupt junction, n > 1/2
In general -
1
C j  Vr

m 2
.COM
Here, m = 0 ; ........ (for abrupt junction)
= 1; ........ (for linearly graded junction)
= –3/2 for abrupt junction
 C j  Vr 2
 n = 2 for hyper abrupt junction.
A) Symbol : A varactor diode can be represented by any one of the symbols given below -
Fig. 2.2-II : Symbols of varactor diodes
49
When such capacitance is used with inductor (L) in a resonant circuit, the resonant frequency
varies linearly with the voltage applied to the varactor.
1 1
r = =
LC LC j
1
or, r 
Vr  n
 r  Vrn / 2
for, n = 2; r  Vr
C) Semiconductor Used :
Silicon (Si) is used up to 25 GHz
Galium Arsenide (GaAs) is used over 90 GHz
D) Equivalent Circuit :
The varactor diode may be represented with an equivalent electrical circuit in terms of
electrical parameters as shown below
Cj Rj
Rs
Fig.2.3-1: Electrical equivalent of varactor diode.

Here,
Cj = Junction capacitance and is a function of applied bias.
Rj = Junction resistance & is a function of applied bias.
Rs = Series resistance including load, wafer and ohmic resistance of the contact leads. It
is also a function of the applied bias.
Note : At microwave frequencies, Rj is of the order of 10 M & may be neglected as compared to
the capacitive reactance (Cj).
.COM
Final Equivalent Circuit : Along with a variation in the junction capacitance, there are also
parasitic resistance and capacitance associated with the diode.
So, the final equivalent circuit can be redrawn as follows-
LS
CC
Cf Rs wafer
Cj
Fig.2.3-2 : Final equivalent circuit of varactor diode.
50
Here,
Cc = Capacitance of ceramic case.
Ls = Lead inductance.
Cj = Junction capacitance.
Rs = Series Resistance.
Rj = M (neglected).
Note: For the efficient use of the varactor diode, its parasitic resistance and capacitance should
be minimized and kept as low as possible.
E) Figure of Merit:
1. Static figure of merit :
i) Cut-off frequency -
1
fcv =
2R s C jv
Where,
Cjv = Junction capacitance at voltage V
Rs = Series resistance of the diode
Note: For practical purposes,
fc (practical) = fc/10.
fcv for Si is 250 GHz and for Ga As is 900 GHz.
ii) Quality factor -
f cv
Qv =
f
Where,
Q = Q-factor at voltage ‘V’.
fcv = Cut-off frequency at a bias voltage ‘V’.
f = Any frequency at which Qv is measured.
2) Dynamic figure of merit :
i) Dynamic cut off frequency - It is given by -
 1 1  1
fc =   
 C jmin C jo  2R S .COM
Where,
Cj min = Junction capacitance near the reverse break-down voltage.
Cjo = Junction capacitance corresponding to zero- bias.
ii) Dynamic Q-factor - It is given by -
S1
Q =
R s
Here,
1
S1 = First Fourier component of elastance (reciprocal of capacitance) =  
C
51
f cv
Q = ·
f
1 
& S1 = 
C1 C jv
Note:  varies from 0.17 to 0.25 for most of the varactor diodes.
In general,
 = 0.17...... (for graded junction)
= 0.25 ..... (for step junction)
F) Applications of Varactor Diodes:
i) Harmonic generation.
ii) Microwave frequency multiplication.
iii) Low noise amplification (in parameteric amplifiers).
iv) Pulse generation & pulse shaping.
v) Tuning stages of a radio receiver.
vi) Active filters.
vii) Switching circuits & modulation of microwave signals.
2.4. Parametric Amplifiers
A parametric amplifier is an amplifier which uses a non-linear (or a time-varying) reactance
for its amplification. Parametric amplifiers are low-noise amplifiers as there are no resistance
involved in the amplification process.
Amplification is obtained if reactance of active element is varied at some frequency higher
than the frequency of the signal to be amplified.
Varactor diodes are most commonly used active elements in parametric amplifiers.
A) Manley-Rowe Relations:
It gives relation between power flowing into and out of an ideal non-linear reactance.
These relations are helpful in predicting whether power gain is possible in a parametric
amplifier.
They are also useful in understanding of the principles of varactor diodes and their
applications & also for determining the maximum gain conversion.
Equivalent Circuit:
.COM
~
fs fp fp + f s fp – f s mfp ± nfs
R R C(t)
R R R
~ vs ~ vp
~
Fig.2.4-1: Equivalent circuit for Manley-Rowe derivation.

The mixing effect occurs when voltages at two or more different frequencies are impressed
on the non-linear reactance C(t).
52
So, signal frequencies fs and fp from signal generator and pump generator respectively are
applied to a non-linear reactance C(t) associated with series resistance and bandpass filters.
The resonating circuits are assumed to be ideal and the filters are designed to reject all the
frequencies other than the respective signal frequencies.
An infinite number of resonant frequencies of mfp ± nfs are generated where m and n are
any integers between 0 to 
The power entering the non-linear capacitor at the pump frequency is equal to the power
leaving the capacitor at the other frequencies through nonlinear interaction.
i) Power gain of a modulator (Up-Convertor):
Power gain is defined as the ratio of power delivered by the capacitor at a frequency fp + fs
to that absorbed by the capacitor at a frequency of fs. It is given by -
fp  fs fo
Power gain = 
fs fs
Where,
fp = Pumping frequency.
fs = Signal frequency.
and, fp + fs = fo and fs + fp > fp > fs
ii) Power gain of a demodulator (Down- Converter)
fs
Power gain =
fp  fs
fs = fp + fo,
fo = fs – fp
The power gain of a such an amplifier is actually a loss.
B) Amplification by Parametric Amplifiers:
In a parametric amplifier, the pump generator acts as a local oscillator which may be a
reflex klystron and varactor diode as a mixer.
The equivalent circuit is as shown below -
Signal circuit Idler circuit
Rs Ls Cs Ci Li
C(t)
+ .COM
Vs Is Cp Io R
Lp Vo
Rd
Rp –
Ip
it
ircu
VP c
p
m
Pu
Fig. 2.4-2 : Equivalent circuit of a parametric amplifier.
53
Its operation is similar to a super-heterodyne receiver in which an RF signal is mixed a signal
from local oscillator in a non-linear device to produce the sum and difference frequencies.
The signal frequency and pump frequency can be mixed in a non-linear capacitor Ct.
Accordingly, the voltage of the fundamental frequency fs and fp as well as sum and difference
frequencies mfp ± nfs.
The output circuit which does not require an external excitation is called as an Idler circuit.
The output of the idler circuit is expressed as sum and difference frequency of the signal
frequency (fs) and pump frequency (fp).
i.e. fo = mfp ± nfs
Where, m and n are positive integer from ‘0’ to .
If fP is pumping frequency, fs is signal frequency and Ct is non-linear capacitance,
then, fo = mfp ± nfs
m & n are positive integers frequency from ‘0’ to 
If fo > fs ; the circuit is called Up-Converter.
If fo > fs ; the circuit is called Down-Converter.
C) Parameter Up-Converter :
Properties of Up-Converter
i) fo > (fs + fp)
ii) There is no power flow in device at frequency other than signal frequency (fs), pump
frequency (fp) & output frequency (fo) .
a) Power gain - The power gain for a parametric Up-Converter is given by-
fo x
Gain = 2
fs 1  1  x
 
Where,
fo = fp + fs
fs
& x = ( Q) 2
fo
1
Q =
2fs CR d
Where, .COM
Rd = Series resistance of p-n junction diode
Q = figure of merit for nonlinear capacitor
x
the quantity 2 is called as the gain-degradation factor of the varactor diode.

1 1 x 
Note : As Rd approches to zero, the figure of merit (Q) tends to infinity and the gain-degradation
factor becomes equal to unity.
Thus, the power gain of the Parametric Up-Converter (PUC) for a lossless diode becomes
equal to fo / fs (as predicted by the Manley-Rowe relations).
54
In a typical microwave diode, Q is equal to 10.
If fo / fs = 15, the maximum gain is equal to 7.3 dB.
b) Noise figure - The noise figure of a Parametric Up-Converter is given by -
2Td  1 1 
F = 1   2 
To  Q  Q  
Where,
Td = Diode temperature (in °K),
To = 300 °K (Room temperature or ambient temperature)
Q = Figure of merit of the non-linear capacitor.
The parametric amplifier has a lower noise figure than transistor amplifier, because a pure
reactance does not contribute any thermal noise to the circuit.
Note : In a typical microwave diode,  could be equal to 10.
If fo / fs = 10 & Td = 300 °K, then the noise figure is 0.30 dB.
C) Bandwidth -
The bandwidth of a parametric Up-Converter is given by -
fo
BW = 2
fs
Note : If fo / fs = 10,  = 0.2, then the bandwidth is equal to 1.264.
D) Parametric Down-Converter :
For a parametric Down-Converter (PDC), the input power is fed to idler circuit and the
output power must move out from the signal circuit.
The Down-Conversion gain (which is Actually a loss) is given by-
fs x
Gain = · 2
fo 1  1  x
 
E) Negative Resistance Parameteric Amplifier :
If a significant portion of power flows only at signal frequency (fs), Pump frequency (fp) &
idler frequency (fi), a regenerative condition with a possibility of oscillations at both the
signal frequency as well as idler frequency will occur.
.COM
The idler frequency (fi) is defined as difference of pump and signal frequency
i.e. fi = fp – fs.
When the mode operates below the oscillations threshold, the device behaves as a bilateral
negative-resistance parametric amplifier.
Negative resistance amplifier
When the mode oscillates below the oscillation threshold then the device behaves as a
bilateral negative resistance parametric amplifier.
a) Power gain - The conversion gain for fs to fi in a negative-resistance parametric amplifier
is given by -
4f i R g R i a
Gain = · ·
f s R Ts R Ti (1  a) 2
55
fs = Signal frequency.
fp = Pump frequency.
fi = Idler frequency = fp – fs.
Rg = output resistance of signal generator.
Ri = output resistance of idler generator.
RTs = Total series resistance at fs .
RTi = Total series resistance at fi .
a = R/RTs
2
R =  /siC2RT Ti) is the equivalent negative resistance.
b) Noise figure -
c) Bandwidth -
The bandwidth of a negative resistance parametric amplifier is given by -
 fi
BW =
2 f s ·(gain)
Note :- If gain = 20 dB fi = 4fs &  = 0.30
then, maximum bandwidth is possible.
F) Degnerate Parametric Amplifier or Oscillator:
It is a negative-resistance amplifier with the signal frequency equal to the idler frequency.
Since, the idler frequency fi is the difference between the pump frequency (fp) and signal
frequency (fs), the signal frequency is just one-half of the pump frequency (fp).
fs = fi
 fp = fs + fi = 2fs
a) Power Gain & Bandwidth -
Since fs = fi & fp = 2fs, the power transferred from pump to the signal frequency is equal to
power transfered from the pump to idler frequency.
At high gain, the total power at signal frequency is almost equal to the total power at idler
frequency. Therefore, total power will have 3dB more gain in the pass-band.
b) Noise Figure - For a single side band and double side band degenerate parametric
amplifier
2T d R d
.COM
FSSB = 2
To R g
Td R d
FDSB = 1 
To R g
Where,
T d = Average diode temperature in °K
To = 300 °K (ambient noise temperature)
Rd = diode series resistance (in )
Rg = external resistance of signal generator (in ).
56
Note : The noise figure for the double side band (SSB) operation is 3-dB less then for the single
side band (DSB) operation.
G) Applications of Parametric Amplifier :
Up-Converter is a unilateral, stable device with wide bandwidth & low gain.
The negative-resistance amplifier is inherently bilateral and unstable device with narrow
bandwidth and high gain.
The degenerate parametric amplifier does not require a separate signal & idler circuit & is
the least complex of all parametric amplifiers.
Advantages of Up-Converter over negative resistance amplifier :
i) A Positive input impedance.
ii) Unconditionally stable & unilateral.
iii) Power gain is independent of changes in its source impedance.
iv) No circulator is required.
v) The bandwidth is of the order of 5%.
At higher frequencies, negative resistance parametric amplifier with circulator is preferred.
Degenerate parametric amplifier is used when low noise figure is needed by the system
since its double sideband noise figure is less than the noise figure of up-converter.
In radar systems, the negative-resistance parametric amplifier is preferred.
2.5 PIN Diode (P-Intrinsic-n)
Semiconductor material used for fabrication is silicon (Si) because of its high power handling
capacity & high resistance in the Intrinsic layer and easy fabrication.
In PIN diode, the semiconductor wafer has a heavily doped narrow layer of p-type material
separated from an equally doped narrow layer of n-type material by a thicker layer of high
resistivity material that is intrinsic (or very lightly doped material) as shown in figure below
-
P I N
(P-type Si) (Intrinsic Si) (N-type Si)
.COM
Metallic contacts
Fig 2.5-1: PIN diode.
Its operation is similar to an ordinary diode upto 100 MHz. Beyond 100 MHz, it acts as a
variable resistance. It acts as a rectifier at low frequencies, but at higher frequency,
rectification ceases due to carrier storage at the junction and the transit time across the large
intrinsic region.
Under zero & reverse bias conditions, it offers a very high impedance & very small resistance
to the forward bias current.
The microwave resistance changes from 510 k under negative bias to around 5 
under positive bias. Hence, it can be used as a microwave switch.
57
A) Construction:
Metallic end cap.
Si
chip Ceramic
Wire housing
contact
Fig. 2.5-2 : Construction of PIN diode.

B) Equivalent circuit : The equivalent circuit of a PIN diode can be represented as given
below-
Rd Cj
Rd
10 k
Ir
V
Fig. 2.5-3 : Equivalent Circuit
C) Operation : The operation can be shown by the diagram given below-
P I N
.COM
Inquiry + Under
cone – zero
bias
Electric
field
x
Space
charge +
density
–
Fig. 2.5-4 : Operation of PIN diode.
58
i) Zero bias -Under zero bias, the diffusion of charge carriers across the junction causes
space charge (density) region of thickness inversely proportional to impurity
concentrations.
ii) Reverse bias - In reverse bias, the space charge reforms in the p & n layers will
become thicker. The revers bias resistance is very high and almost constant.
iii) Forward bias - With forward bias, carriers will be injected into the intrinsic layers and
the space charge region will become thinner i.e. electrons and holes are injected into
the Intrisic layer from the p & n layers respectively. Thus, the resistivity reduces as the
forward bias is increased.
Applications:
i) PIN diode as a switch -
Switch may be connected in either series or shunt with the load.
PIN diode L
Input O
Bias
A
Control
D
Fig. 2.5-5 : PIN diode as a switch.

In reverse bias, it is off or open and is closed in forward bias.
ii) PIN diode as an Amplitude Modulator -
.COM
PIN diode
Carrier Bias AM
input output
Low frequency
modulating
signal
Fig. 2.5-6 : Amplitude modulator using PIN diode .
59
iii) PIN diode as a phase shifter -
RL
L Q
Circulator
l
S Short
~
Fig. 2.5-7 : Phase shifter using PIN diode.
2.6 Schottky Barrier Diode
It is a metal-semiconductor junction diode. Current flows because of majority carriers only.
These diodes have a very small reverse recovery time and almost nil storage capacitance.
Si is most commonly used. GaAs can also be used at high frequency.
It is mainly used in microwave detection and mixing.
Metal contact
Ceremic
Gold plated housing
tungsten
whisker Silicon pellet
Metal contact
(Anode)
Fig. 2.6-1 : Schottky Barrier Diode.

.COM
Operating characteristics:
Frequency range – up to 100 GH
Noise Figure – 4 dB to 15 dB
At 1000 GH to 2000 GHz, point contact diodes are preferred.
They can be used as varactors and transistors over white frequency range with low cost,
simplicity and reliability with a noise figure of 4 to 5 dB.
Applications :
i) Low noise mixers.
ii) Balanced mixers in CW radars.
iii) Microwave detectors.
60
2.7 Tunnel Diode (Esaki diode)
Tunnel diode is a special kind of diode which exhibits a negative resistance over a part of
the forward bias characteristics. It has heavily doped p & n-side. The tunneling effect is
majority carrier effect.
This diode is used for microwave oscillations or amplification purposes. Because of the
thin junction and short transit-time, it is used for microwave frequency switching.
A) V-I Characteristic :
I
2 1
a –r = slope c
Ip
e li n g
tu nn ent
1 3 curr
injection
current
Iv b 4
O Vp VV V
Fig. 2.7-1 : V-I Characteristic of tunnel diode .

B) Symbol :
The tunneling effect controls the current at very low values of forward bias where the
normal (or injection) current is very small. Tshe barrier is very small due to heavy doping &
electrons always have some probability of crossing the junction.
Fermi-level on n-side is in the conduction band and in the valence band on p-side.
Note : i) Tunnel diodes work as an amplifier in forward biased mode & as a good conductor in
reverse-bias.
ii) Ge, GaAs and GaSn are used. It is difficult to achieve high Ip/Iv with Silicon (Si).
C) Equivalent Circuit : The equivalent circuits of a tunnel diode is as shown in the figure
below. .COM
Tunnel diode
Rs Ls
Zin C –Rn
Fig. 2.7-3 : Equivalent circuit of tunnel diode.

Here,
Rs= Resistance of the packing circuit.
Ls= Inductance of the packing circuit.
61
C = Junction capacitance.
Rn= Magnitude of negative resistance of the diode.
D) Operation :
The operation of a tunnel diode can be explained from the analysis of its energy band
diagram as shown below.
Case I : Energy band under no-bias or zero-bias condition
P N
Energy Depletion
P layer N
Forbidden E
C
band
Eg Conduction
EV Band Vo
EF Empty state Filled state
EF
EC
Valence Eg
Band
EV
Distance
Fig. 2.7-4 : Tunnel diode under no-bias condition.
In p-n junction diode, the fermi-level is in valence band on p-side & in conduction band on
n-side due to a high level of doping.
Under un-biased condition the fermi-levels on p & n-sides are at same energy level.
Case II : Forward-bias condition.
P N
Depletion
Forbidden E
P layer N .COM
C
band Conduction
Eg Barrier
EV Band height
Vo
EF Tunneling EF
EC
Valence Eg
Band
EV
(a) 0 < V < Vp
62
Forbidden E P N
C
band Conduction
Eg
EV Band E F
Tunneling
EF EC
Eg
Valence
Band EV
(b) V = Vp
Forbidden E P N
C
band Conduction
Eg
Band
EF
EV
Tunneling
EF EC
Valence Eg
Band
EV
(c) Vp < V < Vv
Forbidden E P N
C
band Conduction
Eg Band EF
EV EC
EF
Valence
Eg .COM
Band EV
(c) Vv < V < 

Case A : 0 < V < Vp
Fermi-level on n-side shifts upward & fermi-level on p-side shifts down and a difference in
fermi-levels is created. Since, there are filled state on n-side in common base at some energy
level as allowed in empty states on p-side. The electrons tunnel through the barrier from n-
side to p-side giving rise to a forward tunneling current corresponding to section OC of the
curve of V-I characteristics.
63
Case B : V = Vp
As biasing voltage is increased to Vp, the picture of energy band is as shown in the figure. A
maximum number of electrons can tunnel through the barrier from filled states in n-type to
energy states in p-types giving rise to peak current Ip.
Case C : Vp < V < Vv
When the biasing voltage is further increased, such that Vp < V < Vv. The tunneling current
decreases with a increase in voltage. This region of characteristics is called a negative
resistance. In this region, the diode can work as microwave amplifier or oscillator.
Case D : Vv  V  
Finally, when the voltage is further incresed beyond the valley voltage Vv, there are no
empty energy states on p-side at same energy level of filled energy states on n-side. So, no
electron can tunnel through the barrier and tunneling current drops to zero and ordinary
current called injection current I starts flowing through the junction. The injection current
increases exponentially. The total current through junction is the sum of tunneling current
and the injection current.
Ip
Note : = 50 to 100
Iv
E) Microwave Characteristics of Tunnel diodes:
load line
I
a & c  stable points
b  unstable point
Ip
a
b
c load line
Iv
Vp V b VV Vc V .COM
Fig. 2.7-9 : V-I Characteristic of tunnel diode load line .
Since, the tunnel diode has two stable points for the load line a-b-c, so the circuit is called
bistable. And circuit can be used as binary device in switching circuits.
Another load line intersects the characteristic curve at point ‘b’. In this region, the diode
can be used as an amplifier or oscillator. This negative resistance region is called astable.
Another load line intersects the characteristic curve only at point ‘a’ in the positive resistance
region. This indicates a monostable circuit.
The negative conductance of diode is given by -
64
a
i 1
–g = =
v vb R n
Where, Rn =magnitude of negative resistance.
For small variation of voltage (forward voltage Vb), the negative resistance is constant and
the diode circuit behaviour is stable.
F) Equivalent circuit & Resonant frequency:
Rs Ls
Zin C –Rn
Tunnel diode
Fig. 2.7-10 : Equivalent circuit of tunnel diode.
Here,
Rs = Resistance of the packing circuit.
Ls = Inductance of the packing circuit.
C = Junction point measured at valley-point.
Rn = Negative resistance.
1
( R n )·
jC
Zin = R s  j L s 
1
R n 
j C
j
Rn ·
= R s  jLs  C
j
Rn 
C
.COM
jR n R C  j
= R s  jLs   n
R n C  j R n C  j
Rn  (R n 2 C) 
= Rs   j   L s  
1  (R n C) 2  1  (R n C) 2 
Case I : Resistive Cut-off frequency -
Re { Zin} = 0
Rn
 Rs  = 0
1  (R n C) 2
65
1 R
fc = · n 1
2R n C R s
Case II : Self-Resonance frequency -
Im {Zin} = 0
R 2n C
Ls  = 0
1  (R n C) 2
1 R 2n C
fs = 1
2 R n C L s
G) Tunnel diode as an amplifier -
Tunnel diode may be connected either in parallel or in series with the load.
a) Parallel loading-
+
Rs C
–Rn V R (load)
Vs
–
Tunnel diode
Fig. 2.7-11 : Parallel loading.
V2
Pout =
R
Let ‘A’ be the amplifier gain, then Pout power has two parts one supplied from input via
tunnel diode
V2
which is, Pin =
AR 
another part is by negative resistance
.COM
V2
i.e. Pn = 
Rn
 Pin = Pout + Pn
V2 V 2 V2
 = 
AR in R Rn
V2 V2 V2
 = 
R AR  R n
66
Rn
 A =
Rn  R
As Rn  R A  & diode goes into oscillations.
Note: Positive resistance absorb the power so its passive component & negative resistance
generates power, so it is an active component.
b) Series loading :
R (load)
+
Rg
C V –Rn
Vg
–
Tunnel diode
Fig. 2.7-12 : Series loading.
R
A =
R  Rn
The device remains stable in negative resistance region without switching if R < Rn.
Example :
A tunnel diode has – Rn = –30, junction capacitance Cj = 4nF series resistance, Rs = 1 ,
then calculate.
i) Resistive cut off frequency
ii) Gain of ampere when diode is conected in parallel is a load of 28 .
2003)
Solution :
Resistance cut-off frequency.
1 Rn
fc =  1
2R n C Rs
=
1
9

30
1 .COM
2 30  4  10 1
= 7.1 MHz
ii) Gain
Rn 30
A =  = 15
R n  R  30  28
In dB, A|dB = 10 log10 15
= 11.76 dB
H) Tunnel diode connected to a microwave circulator :–
A tunnel diode can be connected to a microwave circulator to make a negative resistance
amplifier.
67
ad Port-3
–Rn
Circulator C
Port-2
Tunnel diode
Port-1
Put
Fig. 2.7-13 : Tunnel diode connected to circulator.
Let, characteristic impedance of a circulator = Rv
An amplifier can be made with infinite gain by selecting tunnel diode with negative resistance
equal to – Ro.
In general, reflection co-efficient from circulator to tunnel diode is given by-
R n R o
F =
R n  R o
Ro = Characteristic impedance of circulator.
Note : Tunnel diode are immune to ambient radiations encountered in inter-planetary space. So,
they are practicable for space works.
H) Applications :
i) Amplification.
ii) Self-excited mixer.
iii) High-speed switching & logic operations, as flip-flops & gates.
iv) They are used as low power oscillators up to 100 GHz, because of their simplicity
frequency stability & immunity to radiation.
2.8 Transferred-Electron Devices (TED’s)
Differences between Transistors & TED’s -
i) TED’s have no p-n junction like transistors.
ii) Transistors are fabricated from Ge or Si, where TED’s are fabricated from compound
semiconductors such as GaAs, In P or CaTe.
.COM
iii) Transistor operate with warm electrons, whereas TED’s operates with hot electrons
whose energy is much more than the thermal energy at room temperature.
Note : Microwave amplification & oscillations are derived from the bulk negative-resistance
property of uniform semiconductors rather than from the junction negative-resistance
property between two different semiconductors as in tunnel diode.
2.8.1 Gunn Effect :
(Observed in n-type GaAs & n-type InP). According to this effect, above some critical

voltage, corresponding to electric field (E) of (2000 – 4000) V/cm, the current in the
specimen becomes fluctuating function of time. In GaAs, it takes the form of oscillations
super-imposed upon the pulse current. The frequency of oscillations is a property of the
specimen and is independent of external circuit. The period of oscillations is usually inversely
68
proportional to the specimen length and closely equal to the transit-time of electrons between
the electrodes, calculated at their estimated velocity of slightly over 107 cm/sec.
As per the effect, the carrier drift velocity linearly increases from zero to maximum when
electric field is varied from zero to threshold value.
V
The threshold value is approximately (Eth) = 2810 V/cm. (=3000 V/cm), E th  , when the
L
electric field is beyond the threshold value of 3000 V/cm. For n-type GaAs, the drift velocity
decreases and diode exhibits a negative resistance.
7
2 × 10
Drift velocity
(cm/sec)
7
10
1 2 3 4 5 10 15
Field (kV/cm)
Fig. 2.8-1: Drift velocity of Vs electric field in a n-type GaAs sample.

The waveform of current for a standard voltage pulse applied across a specimen of standard
length is as shown below.
I
Fig . 2.8-2: Current waveform of n-type GaAs.

.COM
The frequency of oscillation  4.5GHz
The period of oscillation is equal to the transit-time of electrons through the specimen
calculated from threshold current.
A) Ridley-Watkins-Hilsum (RWH) Theory -
A) Differential Negative Resistance –
According to RWH theory, a negative differential resistance is developed in a bulk of solid
state (III-V) semi-conductor compound, when either voltage (or electric field) or a current
is applied to the terminals of the sample.
There are two modes of negative-resistance devices.
Voltage controlled mode - In this mode, the current density can be multi-valued.
69
J
E
O Voltage-controlled mode
Fig.2.8-3: Negative resistance voltage controlled mode.
The major effect of appearance of differential negative resistance region in the current
density field curve is to render the sample electrically unstable. As a result, the initially
homogeneuos sample becomes electrically heterogeneous in an attempt to reach stability.
In the voltage-controlled negative-resistance mode, high-field domains are formed separating
two low-field regions. The interfaces separating low and high-field domains lie along
equipotentials. Thus, they are in plane perpendicular to the current direction.
High field
Low field
Fig. 2.8-4 : High-field domains.
Current-Controlled mode - In the current-controlled mode, splitting the sample results in

high-current filaments running along the field direction.
High current
.COM
Low current
Fig. 2.8-6 : High-current filament.
E
O Current-controlled mode
Fig. 2.8-5 : Negative resistance current-controlled mode.
70
The negative-resistance of a sample a particular region is -
dI dJ
= = negative-resistance.
dV dE
B) Two valley model Theory -
According to this theory, the origin is of negative differential mobility is RWH’s mechanism
of electron transfer into satellite valleys that occurs in the conduction band of both n-type
GaAs & n- type In P.
According to the energy-band theory of n-type GaAs, a high mobility lower valley is
separated by an energy of 0.36 eV from the low-mobility upper valley.
Upper valley
meu = 1.2
2
Lower valley u = 180 cm /V-sec.
me = 0.068
2
= 8000 cm /V-sec. Conduction
E = 0.36 eV band
Eg = 1.43 eV Forbidden
band
Valence
band
Fig. 2.8-7 : Two-valley model of electron energy Vs. Wave number for n-type GaAs.
Two valley model of n-type GaAs is shown above electron density in lower and upper
valley remain same under an equilibrium conditions. When applied electric field is lower
than the electric field of lower valley (E < E), no electrons will transfer from lower to upper
valley. .COM
When E < E < Eu, electrons will begin to transfer from lower to upper valley and when E >
Eu, all electron are transferred from lower to upper valley.
E E E
0 K 0
E < E E  < E < Eu K 0
E > Eu K
Fig. 2.8-8 : Transfer of electron densities.
71
The conductivity of n-type GaAs is given by-
 = e(n + unu)
Where,
e = electron charge
 = electron mobility
n = n + nu = Total electron density.
Condition of Negative-resistance :–
d / dE
 1
/ E
In order to exhibit negative resistance, the band structure of semiconductor must satisfy the
following conditions :–
i) Separation energy between bottom of lower valley & bottom of upper valley should be
several times greater than thermal energy at room temperature (i.e. 0.026 eV)
 E  0.026 eV..
ii) E  E g , otherwise the semiconductor will breakdown before electrons starts transferring
from lower to upper valley.
iii) The electrons in lower valley must have smaller effective mass, higher mobility &
lower density of states or dE/dK must be larger in the lower valley.
Note : Ge and Si do not meet all these criteria.
GaAs, InP and CdTe satisfy and InAs, GaP & InSb do not satisfy.
Current verses field characteristics of two-valley semiconductor.
J Bulk resistance
Negative
Jth resistance
Jv Ultimate bulk
resistance
0 E Eth Ev Eu E
.COM
Fig. 2.8-9 : Current Vs field characteristics of two-valley semiconductor.
J = qnv
where,
q = electric charge.
v = drift velocity.
n = electron density.
dJ dv
= qn
dE dE
For negative differential mobility/conductor
72
dv
< 0
dE
or v = nE
dv
= n < 0
dE
n = negative mobility.
Example :
Find conductivity of n-type GaAs Gunn diode given data is
Electron density n = 1018 cm–3,
Electron density in lower valley, ne = 1018 cm–3
Electron density in upper valley, nu = 108 cm–3
Temperature, T = 300°k, e = 8000 cm2/V.sec.
u = 1800 m2/V sec
Solution :
 = e(ene + n nn)
= 16 × 10–16 (8000 × 10–4 × 1016 + 180 × 10–4 × 1014)
= 1.28 m mho
Example :
A typical n-type GaAs Gunn diode has following parameter.
Threshold field, Eth = 2800 V/cm.
Applied field, E = 3200 V/cm.
Device length, L = 10 m
Doping concentration, no = 2 × 1014 cm–3 Operating frequency, f = 10 GHz
a) Compute the electron drift velocity
b) Calculate the current density
c) Estimate the negative electron mobility.
Solution :
a) vd = f L
= 10 × 109 × 10 × 10–6
= 105 m/sec
b) J = qnv = 1.6 × 10–19 × 2 × 1020 × 105
= 3.2 × 106 A/m2 = 320 A/cm2 .COM
vd 107
c) n =  = 
E 3200
= –3100 cm2/V.sec.
C) High-field Domain :
According to this theory, the decrease in velocity with increase in electric field leads to
formation of a high-field domain for microwave generation and amplification.
When applied voltage is above a threshold value which is measured at about 3000 V/cm
times the thickness of Ga As diode, a high-field domain is formed near the cathode that
reduces the electric field in the rest of the material and causes the current to drop to about 2/
3rd of its maximum value.
73
Thus, for a constant voltage an increase in the electric field in one part of diode must lead to
decrease in field in rest of the diode. The high-field domain, then drifts with the carriers
stream across the electrodes and disappears at the anode contact when electric field increases,
the drift velocity decreases and diode exhibits a negative-resistance.
When high-field domain disappears at the anode, a new dipole field starts forming at the
cathode and the process is repeated.
The high-field domain has the following properties-
i) A domain will start to form whenever the electric field in a region of the sample increases
above the threshold electric field and will drift with the carrier stream through the
device.
ii) If additional voltage is applied to a device containing a domain, the domain will increase
in size and absorb more voltage than was added and the current will decrease.
iii) A domain will not disappear before reaching the anode unless the voltage is dropped
appreciably below the sustaining field.
iv) The formation of a new domain can be prevented by decreasing the voltage slightly
below sustaining field.
v) A domain will modulate current through a device as the domain passes through regions
of different dopings and cross-sectional area.
vi) Domain passing through a point can be detected by a capacity contact, since the voltage
changes suddenly as the domain passes.
vii) Domain length is inversely proportional to the doping.
2.8.2 Modes of Operation of Gunn-diode:
1) Gunn-Oscillation Mode : (fL  107 cm/ s to1012 / cm2  no L  1014 / cm2 )
Frequency of oscillations is given by-
vdom
f =
Leff .
vdom = Domain velocity.
Leff = Effective length that domains travel from the moment it is formed to the moment next
domain starts forming.
In Gunn-oscillation mode, electric field is greater than the threshold field (E > Eth).
The high-field domain drifts along the specimen until it reaches the anode or the low-field
value drops below the sustaining field Es required to maintain Vs = 107 cm/sec
.COM
Depending on the sustaining velocity (Vs), there are three possible domain modes for Gunn-
oscillation mode.
a) Transit-time domain mode : (fL  107 cm/sec).
When the electron drift velocity is equal to the sustaining velocity (Vs), the high-field domain
is stable. In other words, the drift velocity is :
V d = Vs = fL  107 cm/sec.
The oscillation period is equal to the transit-time,
i.e. o = t.
The efficiency of this mode is below 10%.
b) Delayed domain mode: (106 cm/s < fL < 107 cm/s).
When the transit time is chosen. Such that the domain is collected while E < Eth, a new
74
domain can not be formed until field rises above threshold again. In this case period of
oscillation is more than transit time efficiency of this mode is about 20%.
c) Quenched domain mode : (fL > 2 × 107 cm/s).
If the bias field drops below the sustaining field Es, during negative half-cycle, the domain
collapses before it reaches the anode. When bias field swings above Eth, a new domain is
formed & the process repeats. Therefore, oscillations occur at a frequency equal to resonant
frequency rather than at transit-time frequency. Efficiency of this mode is 13%.
v
DC bias
Eth
Es
0 t
t
a) Transit-time mode 0 = t)
v
DC bias
Eth
Es
0 t
t
b) Delayed domain mode 0 t)
v
d.c. bias
Eth
Es
0 t
t .COM
c) Quenched domain mode 0 <t)
v
d.c. bias
Eth
Es
0 t t
d) LSA mode 0 <t , 0 =d)
Fig. 2.8-10 : Gunn domain modes.
75
2) Limited space-charge accumulation (LSA) mode: (fL > 2 × 107 cm/sec), noL  1012
/cm2.
When the frequency is very high, the domains do not have sufficient time to form while the
field is above threshold. As a result, most of the domains are maintained in the negative
conductance state during a large fraction of the voltage cycle. Any accumulation of electrons
near the cathode has time to collapse while the signal below threshold. Thus, LSA mode is
the simplest mode with uniformly-doped semiconductor without any internal space charges.
Internal field is proportional to the applied voltage. The current in device is proportional to
the drift velocity.
The efficiency is about 20%.
Lower frequency limit :
v = fL = 5 × 106 cm/sec.
no
& = 2 × 105
L
Upper frequency limit :
vu = fL = 5 × 107 cm/sec.
no
& = 2 × 104
f
3) Stable Amplification Mode: (noL < 1012/cm2)
When no L < 1012, the device exhibits amplification rather than spontaneous oscillations. In
this mode, the negative conductance is utilised without domain formation. The amplification
can be accomplished near the transit-time frequency.
Time Doping Nature

Mode
relationship level of circuit
Stable amplifier o  t n o L  1012 Noneresonant
Gunn domain g   t n o L  1012 Noneresonant;
g   t n o L  1012 constant voltage
12
Quenched domain g  t n o L  10 Resonant;
o  t
12
.COM
finiteimpedance
Delayed domain g t n o L  10 Resonant
o  t finiteimpedance
n 
LSA o  g 2  104   o   2  105 Multiple resonances;
 f 
o  d high impedance;
high dc bias
2.8.3 LSA diodes

In LSA mode, if (no L > 1012/cm2) and no/f is within 2 × 105 to 2 × 104 s/cm3, the high-field
domains and space charge layers do not have sufficient time to build up. The magnitude of
76
RF voltage is large enough to drive the diode below threshold during each cycle in order to
dissipate space charge. Also portion of RF in each cycle above threshold must be short
enough to prevent the domain formation and the space charge accumulation only primary
accumulation layer forms near cathode rest of sample remains fairly homogeneous. Thus
with limited space charge formation, the remainder of sample appears as a series negative-
resistance that increases the frequency of oscillations in the resonant circuit,
1
fo =
o
As RF voltage swings beyond the threshold, the space charge starts building up at the cathode.
Since oscillation period o of RF signal is less than the domain. Growth time constant g, the
total voltages swings below the threshold before the domain the domain can form.
Furthermore, since o is much more than dielectric relaxation time d , the accumulated
space charge is drained in a very small fraction of RF cycle.
Therefore, device spends most of the time in negative resistance region and space charge is
not allowed to form. The frequency of oscillations in LSA mode is independent of the
transit-time and solely depends on the external circuit elements.
Limitations of LSA mode :
i) Sensitive load conditions, temperature and doping fluctuation.
2.8.4 In P diodes
Upper
valley
Middle
valley
Conduction
Lower E= 0.8 eV
band
valley E= 0.6 eV
Eg = 1.33 eV Forbidden
Gap
.COM
Valence
band
Fig. 2.8-11 : Gunn domain modes.
2.8.5 Gunn-Diode for Microwave Generation

If E < Eth specimen is stable & if E > Eth sample is unstable and divide up into two domains
of different conductivity and different electric field but same drift velocity.
77
V
Stable Unstable
region region
Drift velocity (v)
O E1 Eth E2 Ev E
Electric field (E)
Fig. 2.8-12 : Electric field versus drift velocity.

At the initial formation of the accumlation layer, the field behind the layer decreases and
the field in front of it increases. This process continues as layer travels from cathode to
anode. As the layer approaches the anode, the field behind it begins to increase again; and
after the layer is collected by the anode.
As the layer approaches the anode, the field in the whole sample is higher than the threshold.
When the high-field domain disappears at the anode, a new dipole field starts forming again
at the cathode and the process repeats.
Since,current density is proportional to the drift velocity of electrons, a pulsed current output
is obtained.
The oscillation frequency of the pulsed current is given by -
Vd
f =
Leff
Here,
Vd = velocity of domain = drift velocity of electron
Leff = effective length which domain travels.
Disadvantages of solid-state generator over microwave tube.
i) Low efficiency (at frequency above 10 GHz). .COM
ii) Small tuning range.
iii) Large dependence of frequency on temperature.
iv) High noise.
2.8.6 Microwave Amplification
When RF signal is applied to Gunn oscillator amplification of the signal occurs, provided
signal frequency is low enough to allow the space charge in the domain to adjust itself.
There is critical value of fL above which device will not amplify. Below this frequency
limit, sample presents an impedance with a negative real part that can be utilized for
amplification.
78
If noL becomes smaller than 1012/cm2, domain formation is inhibited and device exhibits a
non-uniform field distribution that is stable with respect to time and space. Such a diode
can amplify the signals in the vicinity of the transit-time frequency and its harmonics without
oscillations.
If this device is used in a circuit with enough positive feedback, it will oscillate. The
oscillation diode can be used simultaneously as an amplifier and a local oscillator. The
output power of this stable amplifier is quite low due to limitation by noL.
In contrast to stable amplifier, Gunn-effect diode must oscillate at transit-time while it is
amplifying at other frequency. The noL must be more than 1012/cm2 in order to establish
travelling domains oscillation. Hence, substantially large powers can be obtained.
Such amplifier is called as travelling domain amplifier (TDA).
2.9 Avalanche Transit Time Devices
The avalanche diode oscillator uses carrier impact ionization and drift in the high-field
region of a semiconductor junction to produce a negative resistance at microwave frequency.
2.9.1 Read Diode
A) Construction :
Read diode is a n+ – p – i – p+ structure, where the subscript plus (+) sign denotes the very
high doping and ‘I’ or ‘V’ refers to intrinsic material. The device consists of essentially two
regions.
Space-charge
Avalanche region Inactive
region Drift region
region
+ –
n+ p i (or v) p+
L
Vdc
.COM
(a) Silicon structure
E(x)
Electric field
+ – –
+ – –
+ – –
Distance x
(b) Field distribution
79
conc. (cm )
–3
20
10
5 × 1016
1013
0 1 2 3 m
(c) Doping profile

Fig. 2.9-1: Read diode.
One region is the p-region at which avalanche multiplication occurs. This region is also
called the high-field region or the avalanche region.
The another regions is ‘V’ or ‘I’ region through which the generated holes must drift in
moving to the p+ contact. This region is also called the intrinsic region or the drift region.
The p-region is very thin. The space between n+–p junction and i–p+ junction is called the
space charge region.
Similar devices can also be p+– n–i– n+ structure. The read diode oscillator consists of an
n+– p– i– p+ diode biased in reverse and mounted in microwave cavity. The impedance of
the cavity is mainly inductive and is matched to the capacitive impedance of the diode to
form a resonant circuit.
The device can produce a negative a.c. resistance that in turn delivers the power from d.c.
bias to oscillations.
B) Avalanche Multiplication :
When reverse-bias voltage is well above the breakdown voltage, the space charge region
extends from the n+ – p junction through the ‘p’ and ‘n’ regions to the i – p+ junction.
The field at n+ – p junction is very high (about several hundred kV/cm) and carriers (holes)
moving from n+ to p in high-field near n+ – p junction acquires sufficient energy to knock
the valence electrons into the conduction band producing electron-hole pairs.
This avalanche multiplication is a non-linear function of field. By proper doping profile the
field can be given relatively sharp peak so as to confine the avalanche multiplication to a
narrow region at n+ – p junction. .COM
The electrons move into n+ region & holes drift through space charge region to p+ with a
constant velocity (vd) equal to 107 cm/s (for Si).
The field in space charge region is constant. The transit-time of holes to drift through i-
region of length (L) is given by -
L
 =
vd
Avalanche multiplication factor -
80
1
M = 2
1   V / Vb 
Where,
V = Applied voltage.
Vb = Avalanche breakdown voltage.
n = 3 to 6 for Si (factor depending on doping profile of the junction).
C) Carrier current Io (t) and External current Ie (t):
Read diode is mounted in a microwave resonant circuit. An a.c. voltage can be maintained
at a given frequency in the circuit, and total field across diodes is sum of the dc and ac
fields. This total field causes breakdown at the n+ – p junction during positive half of the
a.c. voltage cycle if the field is above the breakdown voltage and the carrier current Io (t)
generated at the n+ – p junction by avalanche multiplication grows exponentially with time
while field is above critical value.
During the negative half-cycle, when field is below the breakdown voltage, the carrier
current Io(t) decays exponentially to a small steady-state value. The carrier current Io(t) is a
current at the junction only and is in the form of a pulse of very short duration as shown.
Therefore, carrier current Io(t) reaches its maximum in middle of the a.c. voltage cycle.
Ie (t) Vdc Vac
Space charge
region
+
n
+
p Io(t) p
+ –
L
a) Read diode structure
.COM
Va
0   3 t
2 
2
b) field distribution (c) Applied a.c. voltage
81
Io(t)
Ie(t)
Id
0   2 t
2 2
(d) Io (t) & Ie (t)

Fig.2.9-2 : Field voltage & currents in read diode
Induced current in external circuit :–

Since, the drift velocity in the space charge region is constant, the induce current Ie(t) in the
external circuit is given by-
Q vd Q
Ie (t) = 
 L
Io(t) = hole current
Io (t) = lags Vac by 90°
Ie (t) = lags Io (t) by 90°
Ie (t) = lags Vac by 180°
1 Vd
f = 
2 2L
Because of 180° phase difference between Vac and the induced current Ie(t), negative
conductance occurs and this makes read diode suitable for microwave oscillations and
amplification.
Output power and Q -factor :-
If Va is the amplitude of a.c. voltage, the a.c. power delivered is given by-
P = 0.707 VaId (Watts/Unit area)
Va = amplitude of a.c. voltage .COM
Id = d.c. current supplied by d.c. bias voltage.
Q-factor is given by-
maximumstored energy
Q = 
Averagedissipated power
Note : Read diode supplies a.c. energy. So, it has a negative Q-factor.
Note : All the semiconducting devices having negative conductance have dynamic negative
resistance i.e. current is decreased with increase in voltage & vice versa. No device has a
static negative resistance i.e. current flowing in reverse direction to the polarity of applied
voltage. If an alternating voltage is applied to such devices, current will rise when voltage
falls, at an a.c. rate.
82
We may again redefine negative resistance as the property of a device which causes the
current through it to be 180° out of phase of voltage across it.
2.9.2 IMPATT (IMPACT Ionization Avalanche and Transit-Time) diode
A device has dynamic negative resistance if the current through it lags by 180° to the
voltage across it. The IMPATT diode exhibits such type of negative resistance.
A combination of delay involved in generating avalanche current multiplication together
with delay due to transit-time through a drift space, provides necessary 180° phase difference
between applied voltage and the resulting current in an IMPATT diode.
m
m
Anode 10m Cathode
+ + + + + + + +
+ + + + + + + +
+ + + + + + + +
+ + + + + + + +
+ +
p n n
Junction Drift
(avalanche region) region
– +
Fig. 2.9-3 : IMPATT diode structure.
Rd
IMPATT
diode Cd
External circuit
Fig.2.9-4 : Equivalent circuit of IMPATT diode.
.COM
This is also called as Read IMPATT or R-IMPATT diode.
Three structures of IMPATT diodes :
i) P+ – n – n+ (Abrupt p–n junction)
ii) P+ – p – n – n+ (linearly graded p-n junction)
iii) P – i – n
A extremely high voltage gradient of the order of 400 kV/ cm is applied across the diode.
With such a high gradient, back biasing the diode causes the flow of the reverse current of
minority carriers through the junction. If we assume that oscillations exist, then an a.c.
voltage swing is also super-imposed on the d.c. biasing voltage.
During the positive half of a.c. voltage, the velocity of electron & hole becomes so high that
these carriers knock down the additional electron-hole pairs from the crystal structure by so
83
called impact ionization and the process becomes cumulative at the junction, resulting in
avalanche multiplication.
If d.c. applied voltage is such that this process of multiplication is just at threshold of
situation to develop, then during the positive half-cycle, it crosses this threshold level and
avalanche current multiplication continues all the time. So avalanche is a multiplication
process & not instantaneous.
During this process, the current pulse maxima at the junction occurs at an instant when the
RF voltage across it is zero & going negative. A 90° phase difference between V & I is
obtained at the junction.
V
d.c. applied voltage
d.c. voltage
+ RF voltage
(avalanche threshold)
t
I Current Pulse
Current pulse
maximum
at V= 0
i.e at junction
t
I
Current pulse
Fig.2.9-5 : IMPATT diode behaviour and resulting current pulse and its drift across diode.
This current pulse is at junction. It moves with a drift velocity towards the cathode through
the drift space due to applied d.c. biasing voltage. The width of drift space is kept in such a
way that the transit-time through drift space is equal to quarter of the period of the wave
which corresponds to 90° phase difference. Therefore, when current pulse arrives at the
cathode, the a.c. voltage has a negative maxima. Hence, voltage and current in IMPATT
.COM
diode has a phase difference of 180° and a dynamic resistance is proved to exist.
Such a negative resistance leads to applications such as oscillator or amplifiers. Because of
short transit-time the applications are at microwave frequencies. Thus, thickness of drift
space determines the transit-time which in turn determines the frequency of operation.
Note : Unlike Gunn-diode, IMPATT diode is a narrow-band device.
Mathematical Analysis :
i) Transit time :
L
 =
vd
84
Where,
L is the length of the drift space.
ii) Transit angle:-
Since, 2f = /
Therefore,
L
 = = ·
vd
1 vd
f = 
2 2L
Power output & efficiency:-
Note : Maximum power that can be given to a smobile carrier decreases as 1/f2 :
1
i.e. Pm 
f2
For Si, fmax = 100 GHz
Pac  Va Ia 
 =  
Pdc  Vd Id 
Therefore,
1
max, theoretical = 30 % =

& max, practical  30 %
Note : IMPATT diodes are most powerful CW solid-state microwave power sources.
B) Materials used :
i) Si (better)
ii) GaAs - lower noise, higher efficiency, higher maximum operating frequency.
iii) InP
C) Performance & Applications of IMPATT diode:
i) Range of frequency – 4 to 200 GHz
1

ii) Efficiency – 10 to 20%    
 f
.COM
Note : R-IMPATT with double drift space have highest frequency & power.
Note : Biggest problem with IMPATT diode is shot noise. So, when it is used as an oscillator, it is
not as good oscillator as Klystron or Gunn-diodes for spurious AM or FM noise.
Note : Its noise figure is higher than TWT or Gunn-diode, when it is used as an amplifier.
1) IMPATT as an oscillator :
i) Frequency Tuning “frequency tuning range” is less than Gunn-diode amplifier.
ii) Frequency modulation.
E) IMPATT as an amplifier :
i) They require an oscillator like Gunn-diode for amplification.
85
Applications :
i) Microwave generators.
ii) Modulated output oscillators.
iii) local oscillators in Receiver.
iv) Parameter amplifier pumps.
v) High-Q IMPATT’s are used in Instruction Alarms, police radars & low power microwave
transmitters.
vi) Low-Q IMPATT’s are used in FM transmitters and CW doppler radar transmitters.
2.9.3 TRAPATT Diodes
A) Physical Structure
TRAPATT stands for “trapped plasma avalanche triggered transit mode”. It is a high
efficiency microwave generator capable of operating in wide range of frequencies upto
several hundred GHz. Operation of oscillator is based as a semiconductor p-n junction
reverse biased to current densities well in excess of those encountered in normal avalanche
operation.
High peak power diodes are Silicon n+ – p – p+ (or p+ – n – n+) structure with the n-type
depletion region. The doping of depletion region is generally such that the diodes are well
“punched through” at the breakdown. That is electric field in depletion region just prior to
breakdown is well above the saturated drift velocity level.
B) Operation
The high-field avalanche zone propagation through the diode and fills the depletion layer
with a dense plasma of electron & holes that become trapped in low-field region behind the
zone. A typical voltage waveform for TRAPATT mode of an avalanche p+– n – n+ diode
operating with an assumed square-wave current drive is shown in figure below-
P
+
n n+
Fig. 2.9-6 : TRAPATT diode structure.
.COM
B
Voltage & Current
A C G Voltage
A
F
D E Current
0
/2  t
Fig. 2.9-7 : Voltage and current waveforms for a TRAPATT diode.
86
AB  Charging.
BC  Plasma formation.
CD  Plasma trapping.
DE  Plasma extraction.
EF  Residual extraction.
FG  Charging.
A point ‘A’ the electric field is uniform throughout the sample and its magnitude is large but
less than the value required for avalanche breakdown. the current density is
dE
J = s
dt
At the instant of time at point ‘A’, the diode current is turned on. Since, at this instant
charges present are those which are generated by thermal agitation, the diode initially charges
up like a linear capacitor driving the magnitude of electric field above the breakdown voltage.
When sufficient charges are generated, the particle current exceeds the external current and
electric field is depressed throughout the depletion region, causing the voltage to decrease.
This is shown by part BC of curve. During this period the electric field is sufficiently large
for the avalanche to continue and a dense plasma of electrons and holes is created. As some
of electrons and holes drift out of the ends of depletion layer, the field is further depressed
and “traps” the remaining plasma. The voltage decreases to point D. A long time is required
to remove the plasma because total plasma charge is large as compared to charge flowing
per unit time is external circuit. A point ‘E’ plasma is removed but a residual charge of
electrons remain in one end of depletion layer and a residual charge of holes on the other
end. As residual charge is removed, the voltage increases from point E to point F. At point
F, all the charge that was generated internally is removed. This charge must be greater than
or equal to that supplied by external current otherwise voltage will exceed that at point ‘A’.
From point F to G, the diode charges up again like a fixed capacitor. At point “G’ the diode
current goes to zero for half a period and voltage remains constant at Vn untill the current is
applied on it and the cycle repeats.
C) Characteristics :
Note : Frequency of TRAPATT diode is limited by the rate of discharge of plasma. So, it can operate
.COM
comparatively at lower frequency. The rate of discharge of plasma is more than the transit-
time.
D) Power & Efficiency :
EfficiencyTh = 75%,
Efficiencyprac = 15 to 40 % (higher than IMPATT)
Note : Higher noise figure than IMPATT.
Frequency range is 3 to 50 GHz.
Note : Output TRAPATT & IMPATT is rich of harmonics. So, amplifier & oscillators can be designed
to tune to their harmonics & can operate above the X-band.
E) Applications :
Pulsed radar in Airborne & marine radar.
87
2.9.4 BARITT Diodes
A) Description :–
BARITT means Barrier Injected Transit-Time diode. They have a drift region similar to the
IMPATT diodes. The carriers traversing the drift regions of BARITT diodes; however, are
generated by the minority carriers injected from the forward-biased junction instead of
being extracted from the plasma of the avalanche region.
Several structures for the BARITT diodes are:-
p – n – p,
p – n – v – p,
p – n-metal
& metal – n – metal.
For p-n & n-p forward p-n junction emits holes into the v-region. These holes drift with
saturation velocity through v-region and are collected at the p-contact.
The diode exhibits a negative resistance for transit angles between & 2. The optimum
transit angle is 1.6.
Such diodes are must less noisy than IMPATT diode. Noise figure is also low (15 dB) with
Silicon BARITT amplifier.
Their disadvantage is that they have narrow bandwidth and a small power output.
B) Operation :
Vdc
– +
Drift region
– n
+
Metal Metal
a) BARITT diode
n1 n2
p2
.COM
b) Energy bands in thermal equilibrium
Electrons
Holes
c) Energy band diagram under baised condition.
Fig. 2.9-8 : Behaviour of BARITT diode.
88
Note : Frequency = 4 – 10 GHz,
Efficiency = 1.8%,
Noise F = 15 dB.
2.10 Stimulated Emission
Maser (Microwave Amplification by Stimulated Emission of Radiation) is a very low noise
microwave amplifier.
Laser (Light Activated Stimulated Emission of Radiation) is used for generation of
amplification of co-herent light.
Coherent means single frequency in phase, polarized and direct channel.
A) MASER (Microwave Amplification by Stimulated emission of Radiations) :
Some ferrite materials have atomic systems which can be made to resonate magnetically at
frequencies dependent on the atomic structure of the material and the strength of the applied
magnetic field. When such resonance is stimulated by application of signal at that frequency,
absorption takes place, as in resonant-absorption isolator. Alternatively emission will occur
if material is suitably excited, or pumped from another source. It is the principle on which
the MASER is based upon.
The material may be gaseous as ammonia or solid state as ruby. Ammonia is used in atomic
clock standards. The oscillator gives extremely stable oscillations.
Ammonia has a very narrow bandwidth.

.COM
Chapter 3
Radiation and Propagation of Waves

3.1 Electromagnetic Radiations
1. Waves in free space :
Electric field intensity at a distance ‘r’ from an istropic radiator -
Isotropic
radiator
Fig.3.1-1 : Spherical wavefronts of EM waves.

Power density at distance ‘r’ from an isotropic radiator is given by-
Pt
 =
4r 2
Where,
Pt = Transmitted power
 = Power density
Electric field intensity in free space in terms of magnetic field intensity is given as -
E = H
Where,
 = Intrinsic impedence of the medium.
o
Here,  = = 120 
o .COM
Power density at any point in free space is –
E2
 =
o
 E2 = 120  (o = 120)
90
Pt 30 Pt
E = 120 · =
4r 2 r2
30Pt
or, E =
r
2. Polarization
Polarization refers to orientation of the radiated waves in space. Waves are said to be polarized
if they all are aligned in the same direction in the space.
Most of the antennas radiate linearty polarized waves. A vertical antenna radiates waves
whose electric vector will be vertical everywhere in the free space and such waves are
called Vertically polarized waves.
The polarization of wave is generally named after polarization of electric field vector.
Similarly, horizontal antenna radiates waves whose electric field is always pointed in
horizontal direction and thus, such waves are called Horizontal polarized waves.
The antennas can radiate circularly & elliptically polarized waves as well.
3) Attenuation & Absorption
a) Attenuation : Attenuation of power density in dB
2
 P2   Pt / 4r2 
p = 10log   =  2 
 P1   Pt / 4r1 
 r1 
or,  p = 20log  
 r2 
Attenuation of field :
 30Pt 
 
 E2   r2 
E = 20log   = 20log 
 E1  30Pt 
 
 r1  .COM
r1
or, E = 20log
r2
b) Absorption :
In free space, no absorption occurs but waves are absorbed in atmosphere which are
transferred to atoms & molecules in atmosphere. This cause vibration in atoms & molecules
and results in reductions in energy of radiation.
Atmospheric absorption is negligible upto 10 GHz but, increases exponentially beyond it
(above 10 GHz). Absorption by O2 & water molecules become significant.
91
Water vapour
Absorption (dB/km)
Oxygen (O2)
12 23 30 40 60 80 100 150 200 f

(GHz)
Fig.3.1-2 : Atmospheric absorption of EM waves.

Absorption peaks :
60 & 120 GHz (for O2)
and, 23, 180 GHz (for water vapour)
Least Absorption:
33 GHz (for water vapour)
and, 100 GHz (for O2)
4. Environmental Effects :
i) Reflection of Waves :
Waves are reflected by conducting mediums.
Normal
Incident rays Reflected rays
1 2
.COM
Conducting surface
Image of
the source
Fig.3.1-3 : Image formation by reflection of waves.

ii) Refraction :
Waves are transmitted to another medium of different properties, but velocity of waves and
direction of propagation changes.
92
Normal
Incident
wave 1
1
(1 < 2)
Refracted
or
2 2 transmitted
wave
Fig.3.1-4 : Refraction of waves at a boundary.
Snell’s Law:
sin 1 v1 r2 2
=  
sin 2 v2 r1 1
Where,
is the in refractive index of the medium.
iii) Interference :
It is the overlap of two waves coming from the same source through different paths.
If phase difference is /2 :
Cancellation occurs (dense)
If phase different is  :
Rein-forcement occurs (bright)
Interference is observed in high frequency sky waves. At large wavelength of VHF, the
interference is insignificant; but in UHF range, interference plays increasing role in between
of waves & must be taken into account. .COM
It is particularly of great significance in radars & other microwave systems.
iv) Diffraction of waves :
Bending of waves about a sharp edge.
3.2 Propagation of waves
1) Electromagnetic Spectrum :
93
Wavelength frequency
1
10
10
2
Sonar, servomechanism
1 Mm
3
10 1 K
VLF 10
4
LF 10
5
1km
MF 10 1 M
6
HF 10
7
Radio waves
VHF 10
8
1m
UHF 10 1 G
9
10
SHF1cm 10
EHF 10
11
1mm Infrared
1012
13
10
1014
1m Light
15
10
10
16 UV rays
17
10
1nm 18 x-Rays
10
1019
r-Rays
10
20
.COM
21
10
cosmic rays
Fig.3.2-1 : Electromagnetic spectrum.

The frequency below HF range travel around the curvature of earth, sometimes even around
the globe. This happens due to the differention in atmosphere & waveguide effect of the
atmospheric surfaces.The lower ionosphere behave as walls of the waveguide.
94
3.3 Ground or Surface Waves Propagation - Upto 2 MHz,
Ground waves are the waves that are guided along the surface of the earth just as an
electromagnetic wave is guided by a waveguides.
Surface waves propagate around the earth’s curvature. The ground waves are transmitted
using a vertical antenna and are therefore, vertically polarized waves. A horizontal component
of electric field is short-circuited by the earth surface and therefore disappears. The ground
wave propagation induces charges on the earth surface which travel alongwith the wave,
thus ground waves constitute a surface current. While carrying the induced current, the
ground behaves as a leaky capacitor.
When surface waves glide over the surface, some of the energy is lost due to surface resistance
of the earth by absorption. Ground waves suffer varying amount of attenuation while
propagating along the curvature of the earth depending upon frequency, surface irregularity,
permitivity & conductivity.
Earth attenuation increases as frequency increases. Thus, ground wave propagation is suitable
for low & medium frequencies i.e. upto 2 MHz.
At higher frequencies, the surface attenuation is much higher.
Ground waves proagation is invariafly used for local broad casting.
Note : Attenuation due to surface resistance of ground waves is compensated by differential wave
from upper portion of the wavefronts.
Diffraction and Tilting :
There is another phenomenon due to which ground waves are attenuated, i.e. tilting of
waves due to diffraction.
As the wave travels over the surface of the earth, the wavefronts get gradually tilted more
and more. This increase in tilt causes more short-circuiting of the electric-field component
of the wave, hence the field strength reduces.
Direction of
Successive propagation
wavefronts

Earth surface .COM
Fig.3.2-2 : Ground-wave propagation.
After some distance from the transmitting antenna, the wave lies down and dies away. It
may be noted that the maximum range of surface wave propagation depends not only on the
frequency, but power as well and it can be increased by increasing the power level of the
transmitter in VLF band, but this is not effective in the MF-band where tilting is more
effective. Thus, tilting effect is more pronounced in MF waves (medium waves).
The field strength at a distance ‘d’ from the transmitting antenna due to ground waves is
given by the electric field :
95
120h t I h t I
E = =
d d
Where,
 = intrinsic impedance.
I = antenna current.
 = wavelength of the wave.
ht = height of the antenna.
If receiving antenna is placed at any point at a distance ‘d’ from the transmitting antenna,
then the voltage induced in receiving antenna will be –
V 120h t I
E = =
hr d
120h t h r I
 V =
d
Where, hr= height of the receiving antenna.
3.4 Sky Waves : (HF waves)
3.4.1 Structure of Atmosphere
Outer Atmosphere
G-region
F2-layer
F1-layer
2 50 - 4
e
her
E-layer 00 m
k
Ion
200 km
osp
osp
Ion
D-layer
her
e
Stratosphere
0 km
5 0-9 Troposphere
m
15
k
.COM
Earth
Fig.3.2-3 : Atmospheric layers.
Ionosphere and Its Effects :

The ionosphere is the upper portion of the atmosphere which absorbs large quantity of
radiant energy from the sun and the gets heated and ionized. The ionosphere is stratified
due to variation is density of ions. It is divided in four main layers– D, E, F1 & F2 in ascending
order. The D & E layers disapper at night. F1 and F2 layers merge together and form a single
layer ‘F’ in the night.
96
i) D-layer - It is the lowest layer of ionosphere existing at an average height of 70 kms
with an average thickness of 10 kms. The degree of ionization depends on the altitude of
sun above the horizon. It disappears at night. It reflects VLF & LF and absorbs MF &
HF upto a certain extent. It is least important from HF-propagation point of view.
ii) E-layer - This is the second layer of ionosphere from the surface of earth at about 100
kms with a thickness of 25 kms. It also disappears at night. The reason for this
disappearance is the recombination of ions into molecules in the absence of sunlight.
The E-layer is responsible for MF surface wave propagation and to reflect HF waves in
the daytime.
Es Layer - This is a very thin layer of very high ionization density. It is also called as
sporadic E-layer. When it occurs, it often persists during the night also. It does not have
any importance in the long distance propagation.
iii) F1-layer - This layer exists at a height of 180 kms in the daytime and combines with F2-
layer in the night. Its daytime thickness is 20 kms. Although, some HF waves are reflected
from it, most pass through it and are reflected by F2-layer. Thus, main effect of F1-layer
is to provide more absorption for HF waves. HF waves are absorbed on both the ways
while going up as well as while coming down.
Hence, the absorptions effect of the layers is doubled.
iv) F2-layer -F2-layer is the most important layer from sky wave propagation point of view.
It reflects the HF waves.
Its approximate thickness is 200 kms and its height ranges from 250 kms to 400 kms in
the daytime. At night, its height falls to 300 kms and it combines with F1-layer. Its
height & ionization density varies tremendously. They depend on the time of the day,
ambient temperature & the sunspot cycle. The F-layer persists even at night because of
its high ionization density.
3.4.2 Propagation of Sky Waves : (2 to 30 MHz) ---- (HF waves)
These are waves just above & below HF range and are reflected from the ionosphere. Typical
range of these waves is 2 to 30 MHz. This mode is also called as Short-Wave Propagation
or Ionospheric Propagation or Point-to-Point Propagation. Extremely long distance, i.e.
round the globe, communication is possible with multiple reflection of waves as shown in the
figure below-
.COM
Earth
Ionosphere
Fig.3.2-4 : Sky-Wave propagation.
97
With a single reflection from ionosphere, the radio waves cover a distance of 4000 km. The
signals received due to sky-wave propagation are prone to fading in which signal strength
varies with time. It is because, at the receiving point a large number of waves follow a
different number of paths.
Mechanism of Reflection :
Referactive index of F2-layer decreases with height gradually in ionosphere. So, as the
wave propagates upward into the F2-layer, the wavefront goes on bending away from the
normal and a stage is arrived when the wave propagates in a horizontal direction and then
turns downward.
N Increasing Rarer medium

4
3
2
1 Denser Decreasing
P i Q
medium
=1 (1< 2 < 3 < 4)
Tx. Rx.
Earth
Fig.3.2-5 : Reflection of waves by ionosphere.
3.4.3 Terms and Definitions Related to Sky Waves

i) Expression for Refective index of Ionosphere:
Let the wave has a sinusoidal time-varying component of electric field. Then the electron
cloud in ionosphere will oscillate alongwith the field and constitute a conduction current.
Since, the field is time-varying, therefore there is another component of current called as
displacement current.
Conduction Current Component -
It is given as below-
The force experienced by electrons is -
dv
F = –eE = m
dt
Where, .COM
v is the velocity of electrons.
eE
 dv =  dt
m
Let, E = Em sint
e  E m sint 
 dv = – ·dt
m
Integrating on both sides, we get
e Em eE
 dv =   sint dt =  m sint dt

m m
98
e E m cos t e E m cost
=  · = 
m  m
The current due to moving electrons is,
dq
ic = = –N e v
dt
Where, N is the density of electrons.
Ne 2 ·E m
ic = – cos t ........ (i)
m
The displacement current component is given as below-
dD d
id =
dt
=
dt

o E 
d
= ( o E m sin t)
dt
or, id = o Em  cos t ........ (ii)
Thus, total current wave in ionosphere is -
i = ic + id
Putting the values of ic & id from (i) & (ii), we have
Ne 2 E m cost
i = – + o E m  cos t
m
 Ne2 
=  E m cos t o – 
 m 2 
 Ne2 
i = m o E m cos t 1 – 2 
 m  o 
or, i = m r o Em cos t
Where,
 Ne 2 
.COM
 r = 1 – 
 m 2 o 
Where,
r relative dielectric constant of the
ionosphere.
But, refractive index as per Maxwell’s relation is -
 Ne 2 
 = r =  1 – 
 m 2 o 
Where,
99
e = 1.6 × 10–19 C
m = 9.1 × 10–31 kg
o = 8.85 × 10–12 F/m
 = 2 f
Since,
N(1.6  1019 ) 2
 = 1 
9.1  10 37  8.85  10 12  (2) 2 f 2
80.5N 81N
or,  = 1– 2
 1– 2
f f
Referactive Index of Ionosphere :-
81N
 = 1
f2
Where,
N is density of ions.
f is the frequency of wave.
ii) Critical frequency :
It is the highest frequency which can be reflected by a particular layer at the vertical incidence.
This is different for different layers.
The critical frequency for a regular layer is proportional to the square root of the maximum
electron density.
at f = fc,  = 0,N = Nmax,i = 0°
sin 0º 81N max.
  = = 1– =0
sinr fc
 fc = 9 N max.
Nmax. = maximum electron density.
Note : Angle of incidence for finding out critical frequency must be 90º.
Note : Critical frequency (fc) for F2-layer is 5 to 12 MHz.
iii) Maximum Usable Frequency (MUF) : .COM
MUF is also a limiting frequency, but at MUF the angle of incidence is less than 90º.
fc
or, MUF = = fc seci
cosi
Where,
i = Angle of incidence.
Above equation is also called as Secant Law.
Thus, MUF is the highest frequency that can be used for sky-wave communication between
two given points on the earth.
Normally, it varies from 8 to 35 MHz.
100
Expression of MUF in term of fc :
For sky waves to return to earth, the angle of reflection is
Angle of refracting  r = 90º, f = fMUF and N = Nmax.
Fig.3.2-6
sin θi
  =
sin 90º
81N max.
 sin i = 1– 2
f (MUF)
f c2
 sin i = 1– 2
f (MUF)
Because, fc2 = 81 Nmax.
f c2
 2 = 1 – sin2 i = cos2 i
f (MUF)
fc
f(MUF) = = fc sec i
cosi
Expression of MUF in terms of propagation Distance :
Considering flat earth surface, the reflection of sky waves can be shown as below-
Ionosphere
.COM
2
D 2
i
  h r
2
h
D Earth
2
D
Fig.3.2-7 : Reflection of sky-waves.
101
Here, D = Propagation distance.

sin i 81N max.
 = = 1–
sin r f2
at r = 90º, N = Nmax., f = fMUF
81N max.
 sin i = 1– 2
f (MUF)
f c2
 sin i = 1– 2 (fc = 81 Nmax.)
f (MUF)
fc h
 = cos i =
f MUF D2
+ h2
4
D2
 fMUF = f c 1 +
4h 2
(iv) Skip-Distance : Skip-distance is the shortest distance on the earth surface measured
from the transmitter at which a sky wave of fixed frequency will return to the earth.
The frequency corresponding to skip-distance is the maximum usable frequency (MUF) for
these pair of points.
Expression of skip-distance for flat earth surface
At f = fMUF, r = 90º & N = Nmax.
Ionosphere
2
 D 2
i
   h r
 2 h .COM
D Earth
2
D
Skip distance
Fig.3.2-8 : Skip-Distance.
 Refractive index of ionosphere is given by-
102
sin i 81N max

 = = 1– 2
sin 90º f MUF
f c2
 sin i = 1– 2
f (MUF)
fc2 = 81 Nmax. = critical frequency
f c2
 2 = 1 – sin2 i = cos2 i
f (MUF)
fc h
 = cos i =
f (MUF) D2
+ h2
4
f (MUF) D2
 = +1
fc 4h 2
2 2
D f (MUF)
   = –1
 2h  f c2
2
f (MUF)
 D = 2h –1
f c2
Example :
Calculate the skip distance for a wave of frequency 20.0 MHz when the maximum ionization
in the region has a value of 4 × 1012 electron/m3 at a height of 105 kms.
Solution :
Critical frequency
f c = 9 N m = 18 MHz
.COM
(20  106 )2
 D = 2  105  103  1 = 69.3 Kms.
18  106
(v) Transmission Path :
Transmission path of sky waves is limited by skip-distance on lower end and earth curvature
on the upper end. The longest single hop distance is obtained when the wave is transmitted
tangential to the earth surface. For F2-layer maximum practical distance is 4000 kms. Since,
circumference of earth is about 20,000 kms to multiple hops are required for complete
coverage. No usual problem arises in multiple hopping in North-South directions.
103
Two-hop
propagation
Tx. Maximum single-hop Rx.
distance
Earth surface
Fig.3.2-9: Long distance sky-waves transmission path.
However, case must be taken when planning the long east-west path of wave because on the
other side of earth surface, there is night and F2-layer is lower in the night. Thus, range will
be affected.
A path to be covered on the earth surface should be calculated by taking lowered F-layer on
the part where there is night. Otherwise, ray will miss the receiver if path is calculated with
a fixed height of F2-layer.
Day
Night
Combined
F2 layer F-layer
Ray misses receiver

Tx. Rx.
if different height of
layer is not taken
into account .COM
Fig.3.2-10 :Long distance transmission through hopping.
(vi) The Virtual-height :

It is the height to which a short pulse of energy sent vertically upwards and travelling with
the speed of light would reach taking the same two ways travel time as does the actual pulse
reflected from the layer.
104
D
C
h Horized
layer
Actual height Virtual
height
T O R
Fig.3.2-11 : Virtual-height.
It is given by-
CT
h =
2
Where,
T = Time required for round trip of the short energy pulse.
C = velocity of the light.
It is the height from which a ray following the same path would have been reflected to reach
the same destination point when transmitted from same transmitting point on the earth
surface as a sky wave.
Note : The virtual height is greater than the actual height.
viii) Fading :
Fading is the fluctuation in signal strength at a receiver and may be rapid or slow, general or
frequency selective. In each case it is due to interference between two signals which left the
same source but arrived at destination through different paths.
Because the signal received at any instant is the vector sum of all the waves received,
alternate cancellation and re-inforcement will result, if there is a length variation as large as
half wavelength between the two paths. It follows that such fluctuations are more likely
with smaller wavelengths i.e. at higher frequencies. .COM
Fading can occur because of interference between the lower and upper rays of the sky
wave, between sky waves arriving by a different number of hops or different paths or even
between ground waves and sky waves especially at the lower end of the HF band. It may
also occur if a sky wave is being received, because of fluctuation of height or density in the
layer reflecting the wave. One of the successful ways of combating fading is the use of
space or frequency diversity.
105
Ionosphere
Beam
angle
Tx. Rx.
Earth surface Two-path
reception
Fig.3.2-12 : Multipath sky-wave propagation.
Since, fading is frequency selective, so it is quite possible for adjacent portions of a signal to
fade independently even though the frequency separation between two parts of a signal may
be few Hz. It can play havoc in AM reception which is seriously distorted by such frequency
selective fading.
SSB suffers lesser from this fading.
viii) Ionospheric disturbances :
i) Solar Sunspots with Period 11 year - Sun has an 11 year cycle over which the output
varies tremendously. The solar output of Ultraviolet rays, coronae, flares and particle
radiation and sunspots may vary over fifty folds over this period. The extent of solar
disturbances is measured by a method of sunspot counting.
ii) Sudden Ionospheric Disturbance (SID) - SID is caused by solar flares which are gigantic
emissions of hydrogen (H2) from sun. These are sudden, unpredictable and more likely
to occur during peak solar activity. This increases ionization density tremendously down
to the D-layer. The D-layer absorbs signals that normally go through it and are reflected
from the F-layer under such conditions, consequently, long-distance communication
disappear completely for a period of 1 hour at a time.
iii) Ionosphere Storm - These are caused by emission of  and  particles from the sun.
.COM
These take 36 hours to reach the earth, so early warning can be given when a large
sunspot or solar flare is noticed. Signal strength drops and fluctuate and the ionosphere
behaves erracticaly during a storm.
iv) Sporadic E-layer -It prevents long distance HF-communication and permits over the
horizon VHF communications. The actual and vertical height appear to be the same.
3.5 Space Waves/Line of sight propagation (Above 30 MHz)
The space waves are of practical importance at VHF bands (30 MHz to 300 MHz), UHF
and microwave communications like TV, radar, FM etc. In this mode of propagation, FM
waves reach the receiving antenna either directly or after reflections from ground in earth’s
troposphere region extending from surface of earth to height to 16 kms. Space waves
essentially consist of two components that are direct or indirect.
106
Indirect waves are reflected by the ground and direct waves reach directly from the transmitting
antenna to receiving antenna. Ground reflections cause 180º phase change in the indirect
wave. At receiving antenna, the resultant wave is the vector sum of direct and indirect
wave. Thus, the resultant wave may be weaker or stronger depending on the relative phases
of the two waves.
Space wave propagation is also called as tropospheric propagation because it occurs in the
troposphere.
Space wave propagation occurs at frequency i.e. VHF or higher because at such frequencies
sky and ground wave propagation fails. At frequency above 30 MHz, sky wave fails because
ionospheric reflections cease to exist (or no reflections occur at ionosphere) and ground
wave propagation fails due to high attenuation and tilting phenomenon.
The distance of space waves is limited by the line-of-sight and earth’s curvature. Practically,
waves travel slightly more than the line of sight due to refraction in the atmosphere.
Transmitting and receiving antennas can see each other. Thus, range of space waves can be
increased by increasing the height of transmitting and receiving antennas.
1. Range of space-wave propagation or line-of-sight distance or Radio horizon :
d
A B C
ht hr
d1 d2
T R
r r r
O
Fig.3.2-13 : Radio horizon for space waves.
Here,
‘d’ is the line-of-sight distance or the radio horizon.
r = radius of earth = 637 kms.
ht = height of the transmitting antenna.
hr = height of the receiving antenna.
d = d1 + d2 .COM
From the figure, we have
d1 = (r  ht ) 2  r 2 = ht2  2r ht
Since, ht < < r.
Therefore, 2 r ht  ht2  2 r ht
 d1 = 2r ht
Also,
d2 = ( r  hr ) 2  r 2 = hr  2 r hr
107
d2  2 r hr
 d = 2 r ht  2 r hr
 d = 2 r [ ht  hr ]
 d = 2  6370  103 [ ht  hr ]
= 2  6.370 [ ht  hr ]km
d = 3.57 [ ht  hr ]
d  4 [ ht  hr ]
Note : If effect of earth radius is also taken into account:
d = 4.12 [ h t + h r ] kms
d = 2 [ ht  hr ] miles=1.4142  ht  hr  kms
2. Field strength of space waves :
T
d1
R
ht d2 hr
d
Fig.3.2-14 : Direct and Indirect waves.
Let Q be the phase difference between the direct and indirect waves, then
ER = E12 + E 22 + 2E1E 2 cos 
E1 = E2 = E
.COM

 ER = 2 E 1  cos  = 2 E 2sin 2
2
    
 ER = 2 E sin = 2E     sin  
2 2  2 2
1  2 hh 
= 2E ×  ×2 r t 
2 d 
Thus, field strength at the receiver is -
88 P . h t h r
ER =
 d2
108
1 E2
Since, P =
2 
 E = 2 o  P
3. Obstacles in path of space waves
Large objects in the path of space waves obstruct the waves because waves travel close to
the ground. This results in diffraction and shadow zones. So, areas receiving the reflected
waves which result in ghosts on TV screen which is caused by the path difference between
direct and indirect rays.
4. Duct-Propagation or Microwave Space-wave propagation
In troposphere, air density decreases and refractive index decreases with increase in the
height above the ground. But under certain conditions, layer of warm air may be trapped
over cool air, often over the surface of water. The result is that referactive index will decrease
more rapidly than usual. This happens near the ground, often within 30 m of it. The rapid
reduction in refractive index will do to microwaves, what ionized layer does to the HF
waves. Thus, complete bending of microwaves takes place. Microwaves are continuously
refracted in the duct and reflected by the ground, so that they are propagated around the
curvature of earth for distances which sometimes exceed even 1000 kms.
The main requirement for the formation of atmospheric ducts is the so called temperature
inversion. This is an increase in temperature with height, instead of usual decrease in
temperature of 6.5°C/km in the standard atmosphere.
This phenomenon of ducting is also known as Super-refraction. Super-refraction is more
likely to occur in sub-tropical than in the temperate zones.
Maximum wavelength for duct propagation:
3
 = 0.084 d 2 where, ‘d’ is the duct height.
Top of
atmospheric Trappedd wave
duct in the duct
.COM
T
Atmospheric
duct Ground
surface
Fig.3.2-15 : Duct propagation.

5. Path difference between Direct and Indirect waves in troposphere:
109
T´
d1
R´
M´
ht
d2 hr
T O R
d hr
B A
Fig.3.2-16 : Path difference between direct and indirect waves.
From the figure, we have

d1 = d 2  (ht  hr )2
and, d2 = (ht  hr ) 2  d 2
1
  h  h 2  2
t r
 d
d1 = 1    
  d  
By using Binomial expansion,
 2
1  ht  hr  
d1  d 1     ........(i)
 2 d  
 2
1  ht  hr  
and, d2  d 1     ........(ii)
 2 d   .COM
Total Phase difference is-
 = + 
Path difference is-
2ht hr
d2 – d1 =
d
Phase difference is,
2
 = (Path difference)

110
2 2h t h r
= × radians
 d
3.6 Tropospheric-Scatter Propagation
Tropospheric or forward scatter propagation is a means of beyond-the-horizon propagation
for UHF signals. It uses certain properties of the tropspheres (the nearest portion of the
atmosphere within 15 kms of the ground).
In tropo-scatter mode of propagation, two antennas are pointed so that their beams intersect
midway between them above the horizon, as shown in the figure -
Lost No scattering
scatter
Scatter volume
Longest path Forward
Shortest path scatter
Tx. Back Rx.

scatter
Fig.3.2-17 : Tropospheric scatter propagation.
If one the these is transmitting antenna and the another is UHF receiving antenna, then
sufficient energy will be directed towards the receiving antenna to establish a communication
link.
The reason for scattering is not clearly known.
.COM
There are two theories which explain this phenomenon. One theory suggests that reflections
from ‘blobs’ in the atmosphere similar to scattering of searchlight beam by dust particles
and another postulates reflection from atmospheric layers.
Tropo-scatter propagation is of practical importance for VHF, UHF and microwave
frequencies. The best frequency which are most often used are centred on 900, 2000 and
5000 MHz.
This propagation requires high transmitting power for obvious reasons.
Although, forward scatter is subject to fading with little signal scattered forward, it never
forms a very reliable method of over-the-horizon communication. Accordingly, this method
of propagation is often used to provide long distance telephone and other communication
links as an alternative to microwave links or co-axial cables over rough or inaccesible terrains.
Path links are typically 300 to 500 kms long.
111
Tropospheric propagation is subjected to two types of fading. The first is Rayleigh fading
caused by multipath propagation. This form of fading is very fast and can occur several
times in a minute. Second type of fading is comparatively much slow and is caused by
atmospheric variations along the path.
It has been observed that the best results are obtained from tropo-scatter propagation, if the
antennas are elevated and directed down towards the horizon.
Also because of fading problems diversity systems are employed with space diversity more
common than frequency diversity.
3.7 Extra-terrestrial Communication
Extra-terrestrial communication involves the use of satellites and communication with extra-
terrestrial interplanetary probes. The satellite communication can be tracking of fast moving
satellites, in close orbits, typically of communication with a geo-stationary satellite.
The time period of geo-stationary satellite is the same as the period of rotation of earth
about its axis.
Thus, the geo-stationary satellites appears stationary when seen from the earth. Their orbit
lies just above the equator at a distance of 36,000 kms.
Trans-Ionospheric Space wave propagation :
For an extra-terrestrial propagation, the frequency of wave should be more than the maximum
or critical frequency reflected by the ionosphere. Further, the frequency should be kept
much higher than the critical frequency so that the atmospheric absorption is kept at minimum.
Another problem encountered in extra-terrestrial propagation is faraday’s rotation of wave
while passing to ionosphere due to its interaction with ions. Thus, the linearly polarized
transmitted wave and received waves will not be having the same direction of polarization.
To overcome this problem, the transmitting antenna and receiving antennas should permit
the transmission and reception of circularly polarized wave.
Thus, helical antennas are used to overcome the problem of faraday’s rotation. At present,
frequency range used for extra-terrestrial communication is 1GHz to 14 GHz.
Satellite and Probe-tracking :
The tracking and communication with satellites in close orbits involve the use of fast rotating
circularly polarized antennas, together with fairly low-noise receivers and medium power
transmitters.
For tracking interplanetary probes, huge directional antennas with extremely low noise
.COM
receiver are required. Antennas used are generally parabolic reflectors or horns with diameter
in excess of 60 m. Since, relative motion of probe is very low, therefore earth rotation has to
be taken into account.
The antennas for interplanetary probes are located near equator with their direction pointed
towards some points in the sky.

Chapter 4
Microwave Ferrite Device

4.1 S-parameters and S-matrix
• In microwave frequency region, we define travelling waves with associated powers
instead of voltages and currents with the help of parameters known as S-parameters.
• Scattering matrix is a square matrix which gives all the combinations of power
relationship between the various input and output ports of a microwave junction. The
elements of S-matrix are called scattering coefficients or scattering parameters.
In matrix form,
 b1   s11 s12 ............ s1n   a1 

b    a 
 2 s 21 s 22 ............ s2 n 
 2
. . .  . 
.  = . . . 
.
   . 
.  . . .  . 
 bn  s
 n1 s n 2 ............ s na   a n 
Properties of (S) matrix :

1. [s] is always a square matrix of order (n × n).
2. [s] is a symmetric matrix.
i.e. Sij = Sji.
3. [s] is a unitary matrix.
i.e. [s] [s]* = [I].]
4. The sum of the products of each term of any row (or column) multiplied by the complex
conjugate of the corresponding terms of any other row (or column) is zero.
n
i.e. S ik S*ij  0 for k  j
i 1
.COM
5. If any of the terminal or reference plane (say the kth port) are moved away from the
junction by an electric distance Fklk, each of the coefficient Sij involving k will be
multiplied by the factor e–jklk.
4.2 Ferrite Devices
Ferrites are non-metallic materials, a mixture of metallic oxide and ferric oxide having
general composition of the form Meo. Fe2O3 where Meo represents any divalent metallic
oxide such as MnO, ZnO, CdO, NiO etc.
113
They have following properties :-
i) Resistivity = 104 times greater than metals.
ii) Relative permeabilities of the order of 1000.
iii) Dielectric constant (r) = 10 to 15.
iv) They have atoms with large number of spinning electrons result in strong magnetic
properties.
v) They have peculiar property called non-reciprocal property.
Non-reciprocal property : when two circularly polarised waves one rotating clockwise
and other anticlockwise are made to propagate through ferrite, the material reacts differently
to the two rotating fields, thereby presenting different effective permeabilities to both the
wave is r , Hr , P1 for left circularly polarized wave and r , Hr , P2 , for the right circularly
1 1 2 2
polarised wave.
Faraday Rotation : Assume a state field Bo is applied along the z-direction. A plane TEM
wave that is linearly polarised along the x- axis at t = 0 is made to propagate through the
ferrite in the z-direction. The plane of polarisation of this wave will rotate with distance.
This phenomenon is known as faraday Rotation.
x^
E0 E0 ^z
2
E0
E0/2 1
E0/2
y^
3=0
Faraday Rotation effect :-

.COM
Explanation of faraday rotation : As we know that any linearly polarised wave can be
Eo
regarded as the vector sum of two counter rotating circularly polarised waves ( vector
2
shown in figure).The ferrite material offers different characteristics to these wave, with the
result that the phase change for one wave in larger than the other wave resulting in rotation
‘’ of the linearly polarized wave at z = l .
Mathematically angle of rotation ‘’ is given as
l
 = (  –  ).
2
114
l = length of ferrite rode.
 + = phase shift for right circularly polarised wave.
 – = phase shift for left circularly polarised wave.
Also, the most important point to be noted is that the direction of rotation of linearly polarised
wave is independant of the direction of propagation of the curve.
Port 1 Port 2
Microwave devices based on Faraday Rotation :-

Following devices are used at microwave frequency that follow the principle of Faraday
Rotation.
(a) Gyrator
(b) Isolator
(c) Circulator
4.3 Gyrator
A two port device that has a relative phase difference of 180° for transmission from (Port 1)
to (Port 2) and no phase shift (0° phase shift) for transmission from (Port 2) to (Port 1).
This is shown below;
Port 1  Port 2
radian
Gyrator
Construction : It consists of a piece of circular waveguide carrying the dominant TE11

mode with transitions to a standard rectangular waveguide with dominant mode (TE10) at
both ends.
.COM
A thin circular ferrite rod tapered at both ends is located inside the circular waveguide.
The waveguide is surrounded by a parmanent magnet which generators dc magnetic field.
To the input end a 90° twisted rectangular waveguide is connected.
The ferrite rod is tapered at both ends to reduce the alternation and also for smooth rotation
of the polarized wave.
115
TE11
Ferrite Transition
Transition rod 2
WG TE10
90°turn
1 90°
N
Ferrite
Foam
.COM
Permanent
magnet
Operation : When a wave en ters (Port 1) its plane of polarization rotates by 90° be cause
of the twist in the waveguide.
Again it undergoes faraday rotation through 90° in the same anticlockwise direction.
But when the wave is fed from (Port 2), it is first rotated 90° anti clockwise due to faraday
rotation and but 90° clockwise due to twist in waveguide. Thus the wave does not change its
phase at port 1.
116
4.4 Isolator
An isolator is a (2) Port device which provides very small amount of attenuation for
transmission from Port (1) to Port (2) but provides maximum attenuation for transmission
from Port (2) to Port (1)
Application :
Used for matching source with variable load.
MICROWAVE
1 ISOLATOR 2 LOAD
SOURCE
=0
Construction : An isolator consists of 45° limited rectangular waveguide, 45° faraday
rotation ferrite rod, and a resistive card placed along the larger dimension of the rectangular
waveguide.
The function of resistive card is to absorb any wave whose plane of polarisation is parallel
to the plane of resistive card.
Resistive Twist TE10

card Port 2
5°
Q=4
2
TE10Port 1 Po
45° 2
45° Pi
1 Pi 2
Po =0
1
.COM
Operation :- A TE10 wave passing from Port(1) through the resistive card and is not
attenuated.
After coming out of the card, the wave gets shifted by 45° because of the twist in anticlockwise
direction and then another by 45° in clockwise direction because of the ferrite rod and
hence cames out of Port (2) with same polarzation as Port (1) without any attenuation.
But a TE10 wave fed from Port (2) gets a pass from the resistive card placed near Port (2)
because the plane of polarization of the wave is perpendicular to the plane of card.
Then the wave gets rotated by 45° due to faraday rotation is clockwise direction and further
get rotated by 45° in clockwise direction due to the twist in the waveguide.
Since now the plane of polarization of the wave is parallel with that of resistive card. Hence
the wave will be completely absorbed by card and output at Port (1) will be zero.
117
4.5 Circulator
Circulator is a four Port microwave device which has a peculiar property that each terminal
is connected only to the next clockwise terminal i.e.,Port (1) is connected to Port (2) only,not
to Port (3) and (4).
The s-matrix for circulator is ,
0 0 0 1
1 0 0 0
S = 
0 1 0 0
 
 0 0 1 0
Application :
They are widely used in parametric amplifiers, tunnel diode,amplifiers and duplexer in
Radar.
1
4 2
3
Construction :
45°
3
45°
4 .COM
2
45 °
TE11
TE10
1
Four Port circulator

i) The power entering Port (1) is TE10 mode and is converted to TE11 mode because of
gradual rectangular to circular transition. This power passes Port (3) unaffected and is
rotated through 45° due to ferrite, passes Port (4) unaffected.
118
ii) Power from Port (2) will have plane of polarization already titted by 45° with respect to
Port (1). This power passes Port (4) unaffected because again the electric field is not
significantly ckt.
iii) This wave gets rotated by another 45° due to ferrite rod in clockwise direction. This
power whose plane of polarization is titted through 90° finds Port (3) suitably aligned
and emerger ckt of it.
iv) Similarly Port (3) is coupled only to Port (4) and Port (4) to Port (1).
Application in microwave :
i) A circulator is well suitable for duplexer for a radar antenna system.
Antenna
Radar Radar
Tx Rx
Matched Termination
Termination :-
Transmitter feeds the antenna while the received energy directed to the receiver. The powerful
radar transmitter is isolated from the sensitive receiver and also the same antenna can be
used for both transmission and reception.
Application of two three Port circulators can be used in tunnel diode or parametric amplifiers
as shown below.
Input
3 port circulators Match
load
Input .COM
signal
Tunnel
diode
Amplified signal
iii) Also circulators can be used as low power devices as they can handle low power only.

5
Microwave Measurements
5.1 Difference between low frequency measurment V/S microwave
measurments
At low frequency, it is convenient to measure voltage and current and use then to calculate
power. But at microwave frequencies, they are difficult to measure since they vary with
position in a transmission line. Therefore at microwave frequencies, it is more desirable to
measure power directly.
At low frequency, circuits use lumped elements which can be identified and measured. But
at microwave frequencies circuit elements are distributed.
Unlike low frequency measurments, many quantities measured at microwave frequencies
are relative and it is not necessary to know their absolute values.
For power measurement, it is sufficient to know the ratio of two powers (or their difference
in dBs) rather than exact input or output powers.
We will study about the measurement of following parameters.
i) Frequency
ii) Power
iii) Attenuation
iv) Voltage standing wave ratio (VSWR).
v) Phase
vi) Impedance
vii) Insertion loss.
viii) Dielectric constant
ix) Noise figure.
5.2 General measurement set up-using microwave bench
The measurement of any parameter in microwave is done by a microwave bench. Such a set
up is shown below.
Crystal
Frequency
meter
detector
probe
.COMSWR
meter
Termination
Variable flop Slotted
Signal attenuator line
generator
Variable
precision
attenuator
120
The signal generator is a microwave source whose output is of the order of milli watts. It
may be Gunn diode isolator, a backward wave ascillator or a reflex klystron tube. It can
provide either a continuous wave (CW) or square wave modulated at and audio rate which
is normally 1 KHz.
The precision attenuator can provide 0 to 50 dB attenuation above its insertion loss. The
variable flat attenuation can also be used in addition, whose calibration can be checked
against readings of precision attenuator.
A frequency meter is used for direct counting of frequency that consists of a single cylindrical
cavity
The crystal detector, inserted in the E probe of slotted line is contained in the crystal
detector mount at the end ofthe waveguide is used to detect the modulated signal.
The SWR (standing wave ratio) indicator is basically a sensitive tuned voltage that provides
direct reading of SWR.
Tunable detector :-
The tunable detector helps to detect the low frequency square wave modulated microwave
signal.
The detector diode can be point contect type or metal-semiconductor schettley barrier diode
(SBD).
A tunable stub is used to match the detector to the microwave transmission system. They
are of three different types.
i) Tunable waveguide detector.
ii) Tunable co-axial detector.
iii) Tunable probe detector.
VSWR meter :-
A VSWR meter basically consists of high gain, high Q, low noise voltage amplifier tuned at
fixed frequency.
The VSWR meter user the detected signal out of microwave detector as its input,amplifier
the same and provides the output on a calibrated voltmeter. The meter can be calibrated in
terms of VSWR.
.COM
Voltage scale
VSWR scale
Pointer
Important devices and instruments used in measurements :-

Slatted line carriage
Tunable detector
VSWR meter
Power meter
Wave meter
Spectrum Analyser, Network Analyser (scaler and vector) etc.
121
I. Slotted line
i) It consists of a slotted section of a transmission line (waveguide), a travelling probe
carriage and facility for attaching detecting instruments.
ii) The slot is made in the centre of the broad face of the waveguide parallel to the axis of
the waveguide. For the dominant mode travelling inside the waveguide, the slot does
not radiate any power.
iii) A small probe inserted through the slot senses the relative field strength of the standing
wave pattern inside the waveguide. This probe in on a carriage plate which moves on
the top surface of the waveguide.
iv) The probe is connected to a crystal detector so that the output from the detector is
proportional to the square of the input voltage at that position of the probe.
v) As the position of the probe is moved along the waveguide slot it gives an output
proportional to the standing wave pattern inside the waveguide.
vi) Since the crystal is a square law device, the square root of the ratio of maximum to
minimum output gives the VSWR.
II. Power meter
Microwave power meter consists of a power sensor that converts the microwave power into
heat energy.
The sensor used for power measurements are the schottkey barrier diode, bolometer and
thermocouple.
III. Wave meter
A wave meter is a cylindrical cavity resonator with a variable short circuit termination.
The shorting plunger is used to change the resonance frequency of the cavity by changing
cavity length.
Shorting
plunges
.COM
Coupling hole
Waveguide Circular cavity resonator
In wavemeter, dominant mode TM011 because of its higher Q and absence of axis current.
Any possible oscillation due to plunger can be avoided by placing a block of polytran an
122
absorbing material, at the back of the tuning plunger. The various plunger positions result in
different cavity resonant frequencies.
There are two type of cavities
i) Transmission cavities which pass ony the signal frequency to which they are tuned.
ii) Absorption cavities which attenuate the signal frequency to which they are tuned.
Advantages
Rugged,simple and highly accurate.
Accuracies upto 99.9%
High Q factor.
The resonant frequency in given by
2 2 2
c m n p
fo =   +  + 
2  a  a d
Pmax
Power
Pmin
fo freq.
Characteristic of absorption cavity
L
.COM
Analog
equivalent
123
IV. Spectrum Analyser
Spectrum Analyser is a frequency domain instrument which gives a display of the frequency
spectrum of the input signal.
It plots frequency v/s signal amplitude (amplitude of the Fourier transform of the input
signal.
Functions
i) Useful at RF and microwave frequencies for analysing the spectrum of signal source.
ii) Diagnostic toal for RFI/EMI (Radio frequency interference/electromagnetic interference)
requirments.
Mixer
Input Input RF
RF tracking amplifiers Detector
input attenuator
filter (narrow)
Swept local
case
dBm
Sweep voltage
generator
V. Network Analyser
A network analyser is a network system that measures both amplitude and phase of a
microwave signal over a wide frequency range in a reasonably small time.
This is a very good alternate option to slotted line because slotted line could measure the
amplitude and phase of a microwave signal at a single frequency.
In network analyser, the basic principle of measurement into generate an accurate reference
signal and compare this with respect to the test signal whose amplitude and phase are to be
measured.
Tx.
signal
Device under
.COM
Sweep Power test Harmonic
siganl
signal divider
generator frequency
Length converter
Reference equalizer
signal
Amplitude &
phase meter
Network Analyser
A Network analyser are of two types
i) Scaler
ii) Vector
124
Scaler
A scaler network analyser provides only magnitude characteristics of microwave devices
on a function of frequency.
Vector
A vector network analyser, on other hand, can measure complex reflection or transmission
characteristics of microwave devices.
5.3 Frequency Measurement
Microwave frequency can be measured by electronic or mechanical techniques but electronic
technique is more accurate.
But this is more expensive. Here, with the help of hetrodyne system, we compare the unknown
frequency with harmonics of a known lower frequency by using a low frequency generator,
a harmonic generator and a mixer.
nfc
Low
Sweep Sweep
Harmonic
siganl
Frequency siganl Mixer fi
generator
Generator Generator
generator
= nfc – fun
fun
fi = nfc – fun.
5.4 Measurement of Power
We divide the measurement of power
into three categories
Measurement of low Measurement of medium Measurement of

power (0.01mW–10mW) microwave power high microwave
by bolometer technique ( 10mW-1W) power (>10W)
a) Low power :-
Bolometers and thermocouples whose resistance changes with the applied power are used.
They are of two types, namely, Barretters and thermistors.
Barretters have positive temperature coefficient and their resistance increases with increase
in temperature.
.COM
It basically consists of short length of fine platinum wire mouted on a cartridge.
Thermistors :- are basically semiconductor materials.
They posses negative temperature coefficient of resistance only their resistance decreases
with increase in temperature.
Barretter
5/mw
125
R
istor
Therm/mw
60 
Bolometer is mounted inside the waveguide where it itself acts as a load, with the operation
resistance as R1 . Now the law microwave power which in to be measured is applied. So,
resistance is changed to R2 .This change in resistance (R1 – R2) is proportional to microwave
power which can be measured using bridge circuit.
R1
Low W Bolometer
power
R2
WG
b) Measurement of Medium power :

Medium power (10 mW to 10 W) is measured by calorimetric techniques. It is based
equation the principle that temperature rise of a special load is monitored is proportional to
power responsible for rise.
Inlet temp Outlet temp

Moniter Moniter
.COM
load
HW
power
Generally water is used as a special load due to high specific heat. By knowing mass,
specific heat and temperature rise at a fixed and known rate of fluid flow, the power can be
measured.
126
Following figure illustrate this technique.
Input Comparison
temperature temperature
~
guage 1200cps guage
Comparison
load
Input
load + Meter
Pump
c) High power
Any power between 10W to 50kW is considered high power meters. These meters can be
either dry type and flow type.
i) A dry type calorimeter normally consists of a coaxial cable which is filled by a dielectric
with a high hyteresis loss.
ii) The flow type uses circulating water, oil as any liquid which is a good absorber of
microwaves. The fluid after flowing through the load experiences a temperature rise
due to microwave energy.
Mathematically, The exact value of power is calculated as
RK (T2 – T1 )
P =
4.18
where,
P = Measured power in watts.
R = Rate of flow in cm3/sec.
K = Specific heat in cal/g.
 = Specific gravity in g/cm3.
and (T2 – T 1) is the temperature increase in °C.
.COM
5.5 Attenuation Measurement
By definition, attenuation is the ratio of input power to the output power and is normally
expressed in decibles.
Pin
Attenuation (in dBs) = 10 log
Pout
The amount of attenuation is measured by two methods.
(a) Power Ratio method.
(b) RF substitution method.
127
a) Power Ratio method
This method involves measurin the input power and output power with and without the
device whose attenuation is to be measured.
The powers are measured in each set up as P1 and P2.
P1
The ratio of powers expressed in decibels gives the attenuation.
P2
Crystal Thermister Power P1

detector mount meter watts
.W Pad Frequency Slotted Termination

source meter line
Fig. (a) Power P1 without device
Crystal r Power P2
detector Thermisto meter watts
Device
whose
.W Pad Frequency attenuation Slotted Termination
source meter to be line
measured
Fig. (b) power P2 with device

b) RF Substitution Method :
In set up 1, we measure the output power, say P by including the network whose attenuation
is to be measured as shown.
SET UP-1 :
Crystal Power P
detector meter
Network
whose
.W Pad Frequency attenuation Slotted Termination
source meter is to be line
measured .COM
In set up 2, this network is replaced by a precision calibrated attenuator which can be
adjusted to obtain the same power ‘P’ as measured in set up 1.
SET UP-2 :
Crystal Power
detector meter
Variable
.W Pad Frequency precision Slotted Termination
source meter attenuator line
128
Under this condition the attenuation read on the precision attenuator would give attenuation
of the network directly.
5.6 Measurement of phase shift
The phase shift introduce by a microwave network is measured by using following set up
Network whose
Pad attenuation is to
be measured
.W H-plane H-plane Slotted Termination

source T T line
Calibrated
Pad precision
phase meter Crystal
detector CRO
The output of microwave source is split up into two equal Ports using the H-plane T junction.
One is passed to the unknown network whose accurate phase shift is to be measured and
other to the comparison adjustable precisian phase shifter.
The standard phase shifter is now adjusted until two two waves or the CRO are in phase as
shown below.
The dial reading on the precisian phase shifter now given the phase shift offered by the
device.
Due to I Due to 2 path

path
1–1–1
Output of CRO
.COM
0°
90° 270°
180°
Calibrated dial
of standard
phase shifter
129
5.7 Measurement of voltage standing wave Ratio (VSWR)
As we know that any mismatched load leads to reflected waves resulting is standing waves
along the length of the line. The ratio of maximum to minimum voltage gives VSWR.
V m ax
V m ax
V min
Vmin
g g
4
g
2
Vmax 1 + 
S = =
Vmin 1 – 
i) Measurement of low VSWR (S < 10)
Values VSWR not exceeding 10 are very easily measured with the set up shown below.
Crystal D.C milli

detector voltmeter
W Pad Slotted Load

source line
The VSWR meter is itself calibrated in terms of VSWR. In this case, the probe carriage is
moved to give maximum defection on the VSWR meter. This full scale deflection (FSD)
corresponds to a VSWR of 1.
Consider the example, a FSD of 10mV corresponds to a VSWR of 1.
The travelling probe is adjusted to get minimum reading on meter.
.COM
If this corresponds to 5mV, then VSWR = 2.
If it is 3.3 mV, VSWR = 3, if it is 2.5 mV, then VSWR = 4.
If if is 1mV, VSWR = 10 etc.
For VSWR > 10, the meter will be congested and the measurement will not be accurate for
VSWR’s > 10. Thus this method is not used for VSWR’s > 10.
Measurement of High VSWR (S > 10)
For VSWR > 10, we use double minimum method.
In this method, the probe in inserted to a depth where the moved to a point where the power
is twice the minimum. Let this position be denoted by d1The probe is the moved to twice the
power point on the other side of the minimum (say d2).
130
Vm= 2Vmin Twice minimum

power points
V ma x
Vmin
d1 d2
Distance (cms)
For a waveguide, the wavelength is given by
0
g = 2
 
1  0 
 c 
By using emperical formula,
g
VSWR =
 ( d 2  d1 )
5.8 Measurement of Impedance
Impedance of microwave frequencies is measured by using any of the following techniques
i) By using magic tree.
Null
detector
1 1 – 1 1a
a
2 2 3 1 2 2 2 3 .COM
a3 a3
1 1 2
2 2
Z1 Z2 2
a3
a3
2
2
a3
W
source 3
131
The Net wave reaching the null detector.
1  1  1  1 
=  a 3 ρ1  –  a 3 ρ2 
2 2  2 2 
1
= a 3 (ρ1 – ρ 2 ).
2
For perfect balancing of the bridge (null detection),
1
a 3 (ρ1 – ρ2 ) = 0
2
 1 = 2
Z1  Z0 Z2  Z0
=
Z1  Z0 Z2  Z0
Z1 = Z2
R 1 + j X1 = R 2 + j X 2
or, R1 = R2 and X1 = X2.
Measurement of Impedance using slotted line

Incident and reflected waves will be present proportional to the mismatch of the load under
test (whose impedance to be measured) resulting in standing waves.
Using slotted waveguide and with the load ZL in the circuit , the position of Vmax and Vmin
can be accurately determined.
Crystal Power
detector meter
W Pad Slotted Unknown

source line Load
Now the load ZL is replaced by a short circuit and shift in minimum is measured.
(a) If the minimum is shifted to the left, than the impedance is inductive.
(b) If the minimum is shifted to the right, it is capacitive. .COM
Vmax
Setup 1
Vmin
Setup 2
Inductive
Setup 3
Capacitive
132
Measurement of Impedance using Reflectometer
The Reflectometer indicates magnitude of impedance but not the phase angle, wheras a
slotted line waveguide measurement given both.
A set up for Reflectometer is shown below.
Refl. Power Pr/100

Reflectometer  = inc power =
Pi/100
Forward Reverse
detector detector
W Forward Reverse D.C Load

Pad D.C 20dB ZL
source 20dB
Z – Zg
 =
Z + Zg
Where Zg is known wave impedance and z is unknown impedance.
5.9 Measurement of insertion loss
Insertion loss is the sum of power reflected by the device due to mismatch and the power
attenuated.
The power attenuated is measured using RF substitution method and the power reflected
using reflectometer technique.
Thus the insertion loss is calculated accurately.
5.10 Measurement of dielectric constant
Dielectric constant  is the measure of efficiency of transfer of electric force.
The complex dielectric constant has a real and imaginary Port as
 = 0(– j ).
where 0 = dielectric constant in free space (Vaccum)
 = ability of dielectric to store energy.
.COM
 = measure of dissipation of energy is medium

r = = – j= (1 – j tan )
0

where tan  =

where tan  is loss tangent which is equal to the ratio of power dissipated to power stored
per cycle.
There are several ways by which loss tangent is measured. But the Roberts and von Hippel
method is widely used.
The set up shown below. Here we measure the shift in the minima of standing wave produced
by short circuit when a sample of dielectric is placed in front of the short circuit. The
133
process of measurement is described below :
i) Initially the guide wavelength is measured using the frequency meter.
ii) The thickness of the dielectric (whose dielectric constant is to be measured) is measured
by means of a micrometer as accurately as possible.
iii) The micrometer of short circuit is then adjusted to read the same value as the thickness
of the dielectric
iv) The exact position of the first and second minima from the right hand side of the SWR
meter is noted down.
v) The short circuit is then removed, and dielectric sample is inserted into the aperture of
the short circuit.
vi) The shift in minima s, of the standing wave caused by the dielectric is determined.
vii) If the dielectric thickness is ‘d’, we calculate a quantity X given by :
λg  2π(Δs + d 
X = tan  
d  λg 
where g = guide wavelength
Robert and Von Hippel have developed a plot X v/s V, for calculating the dielectric constant
by relating X to another quantity V by relation :
tan(2 V)
X =
V
where V = number of wavelength of microwave radiation in distance ‘d’ of dielectric filled
guide.
1.0
+Ve values of
0.8 tan (2V)
V
–ve values of
0.6 tan (2V)
V
.COM
0.7 –ve values of
tan (2V)
V
0.2
+Ve values of
tan (2V)
V
0
0.01 0.1 1.0 10.0 100.0 1000.0
tan (2V)
V
134
tan(2V )
Plot of calculating of X = for calculating r.
V
For the measured X, the value of V are read from the plot and dielectric constant is measured
using the formula.
2 2
λ  λ V
r = 1 –  o  +  o 
 λg   d 
5.11 Measurement of Noise Figure
Nose factor is defined as the ratio of actual output noise power of the device to the noise
power that would be available if the device were perfect without itself contributing any
noise.
In decibels, Noise figure
 Input signal to noise ratio 
F = 10 log10  
 Output signal to noise ratio 
The noise figure can be measured by using Noise figure meters. The set up shown below :
Noise Device Power

source Pad under meter
test
i) A standard noise sources (argon discharge tube) having constant output and large
bandwidth is used in set up.
ii) Initially the noise output from the device under test is noted connecting its input to a
matched termination at room temperature.
iii) Then, the input of the device is connected to a standard noise source along with a pad
(variable attenuator).
The pad is adjusted until the noise output of the device is doubled.
iv) The noise factor of the device is then equal to that of noise output from the attenuator.
.COM


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S.No. Topic Page No.

2. ................. Microwave Semiconductor Devices ..................................... 40-89

Microwave Tubes and Circuits

Fig.1.1-1: Two cavity klystron amplifier.

Fig.1.1-2: Signal voltage in the buncher gap.

Fig. 1.1-3 : Bunching distance.

According to Bessel’s relations,

The fundamental component of current at catcher cavity is -

b) Output equivalent circuit -

Rsho RB RL  Rsh =RL | |RB| |Rsho

o ·2Io J1 (X)V2 o ·J1 (X)V2

e) Mutual conductance of Klystron Amplifier

input gap voltage

iii) Voltage Gain :

2  (0.67)2  30  103  0.582  120.63

eVo 1.6  1019  1000

(0.959)2  25  10–3  0.582  30  103  40.21

Intermediate cavities Cooler

Fig.1.2-1: A Four-Cavity Klystron

Fig.1.2-1: A Reflex Klystron

100 300 800

Note : Performance characteristics of a reflex klystron are as given below -

Fundamental component of current induced in the cavity by modulated electron beam is -

Io i2 o J1 (X)e j(  / 2 o )

E) Performance characteristics of reflex klystron : .COM

Fig. TWT electrode arrangement

Fig. 1.5-4:  –  diagram of helix

Axial electric field :-

iii) Propagation constants

3  j1.773  103 1  0.0296 

Fig.1.3-1:  –  curve of BWO.

Backward wave along helix

cu anode block held at potential Vo

Microwave Semiconductor Devices

Fig.2.1-1: Surface geometries of an n-p-n microwave transistor

nn = 1.7 × 10 np = 1.7 × 10 nn = 1.7 × 10

Fig. 2.1-2: Carrier densities of a n-p-n transistor

Fig. 2.2-1 : A GaAs MESFET. .COM

Fig.2.2-2 : Cross-section and equivalent circuit of a MESFET.

Fig. 2.2-II : A cross-section of a HEMT

It has a single GaAs– AlGaAs hetro-junction.

Fig. 2.2-II : Symbols of varactor diodes

Fig.2.3-1: Electrical equivalent of varactor diode.

Fig.2.3-2 : Final equivalent circuit of varactor diode.

Fig.2.4-1: Equivalent circuit for Manley-Rowe derivation.

Fig. 2.4-2 : Equivalent circuit of a parametric amplifier.

Fig. 2.5-2 : Construction of PIN diode.

Fig. 2.5-4 : Operation of PIN diode.

Fig. 2.5-5 : PIN diode as a switch.

Fig. 2.5-6 : Amplitude modulator using PIN diode .

Fig. 2.6-1 : Schottky Barrier Diode.

Fig. 2.7-1 : V-I Characteristic of tunnel diode .

Fig. 2.7-3 : Equivalent circuit of tunnel diode.

(a) 0 < V < Vp

(c) Vp < V < Vv