Syllabus

• Sand Moulding :
– Types of base sand, requirement of base sand, Types of sand
moulds.
• Sand moulds:
– Moulding sand mixture, ingredients (base sand, binder &
additives) for different sand mixtures, Method used for sand
moulding.
• Cores:
– Definition, Need, Types.
– Method of making cores, Binders used.
• Moulding machines :
– Jolt type, squeeze type, Jolt & Squeeze type and Sand Slinger.

Prof. J. V. Patel, UVPCE, Kherva 2

 Mold Materials
• A mold material is one, out of which the mold is made.
• A mold material should be such that the mold cavity retains its shape till
the molten metal has solidified.
• Castings can be made in:
– Permanent molds—made of ferrous metals and alloys (steel, Grey C.I.
etc.).
– Temporary refractory molds — made up of refractory sands and
resins.
• Permanent molds are normally employed for casting low melting point
materials. Permanent molds are too costly.
• For the above mentioned reasons, most of the foundry industry has its
castings produced using refractory mold materials like Refractory Sands.
• As compared to permanent molds, the refractory sand molds can cast
high melting point materials and bigger objects, whereas permanent
molds produce small castings of better quality and dimensional
accuracy.
Prof. J. V. Patel, UVPCE, Kherva 3
 Types of Base Sand
• The primary and basic material used for preparing moulds is sand,
due to its high refractoriness.

• Sand usually referred to as 'base sand’.

• Nearly 90 - 95 % of the total moulding sand is occupied by sand

and the remaining is binder and additives.

• Basic types of base sand are given below:

1) Silica Sand

2) Chromite sand

3) Zircon

4) Olivine sand Prof. J. V. Patel, UVPCE, Kherva 4

I. Silica Sand
• Silica sand is essentially silicon dioxide (Si02) found in nature on
the bottoms and banks of rivers, lakes and seashore.
• Silica deposits tend to have varying degree of organic and
contaminants like limestone, magnesia, soda and potash that
must be removed prior to its use, otherwise which affects castings
in numerous ways.
• Silica sand is available in plenty, less expensive and possess
favorable properties.
• Thermal expansion leads to certain casting defects; the reason for
which not being used in steel foundries.
• However, silica sand when mixed with certain additives like wood
flour, (corn flour), saw dust etc., defects can be eliminated.
• These additives burn by the heat of the molten metal thereby
creating voids that can accommodate the sand expansion.
Prof. J. V. Patel, UVPCE, Kherva 5
II. Olivine Sand
• Olivine sand is typically used in non-ferrous foundries.
• With its thermal expansion about half of that of silica sand, makes it
suitable for production steel castings .
• But the high cost restricts its wide use
III. Chromite Sand
• This is African sand with cost being much higher compared to other
sands.
• Due to its superior thermal characteristics, it is generally used in steel
foundries for both mould and core making.
IV. Zircon or Zirconium Silicate
• This sand possesses most stable thermal properties of all the above
sands.
• The choice for this type of sand arises when very high temperatures are
encountered and refractoriness becomes a consideration.
• But the major disadvantage is that, zircon has trace elements of Uranium
and Thorium which is hazardous in nature thereby restricting its use in
Prof. J. V. Patel, UVPCE, Kherva 6
foundries.
 Properties of Molding Sands
• The very important characteristic of a molding sand is that it should
produce sound castings.
• For doing so, the molding sand should possess certain desirable
properties and they are:

1) Flowability 7) Adhesiveness
2) Green Strength 8) Collapsibility
3) Dry Strength 9) Fineness
4) Hot Strength 10) Bench Life
5) Permeability or Porousness 11) Coefficient of expansion
6) Refractoriness 12) Durability

Prof. J. V. Patel, UVPCE, Kherva 7

1. Flowability

• Flowability is the ability of the molding sand to get compacted to a

uniform density.

• Flowability assists molding sand to flow and pack all-around the pattern
and take up the required shape.

• Flowability increases as clay and water contents increase.

2. Green Strength

• It is the strength of the sand in the green or moist state

• A mold having adequate green strength will retain its shape, Will not
distort, Will not collapse, even after the pattern has been removed from
the molding box.

• Green strength helps in making and handling the molds.

Prof. J. V. Patel, UVPCE, Kherva 8
3. Dry Strength
• It is the strength of the molding sand in the dry condition.
• A mold may either intentionally be dried or a green sand mold may lose
its moisture and get dried while waiting for getting poured or when it
comes in contact with molten metal being poured.
• The sand (of molding cavity) thus dried must have (dry) strength to
– withstand erosive forces due to molten metal,
– withstand pressure of molten metal, and
– retain its shape.
• There should be an optimum balance between dry strength, and
collapsibility of the molding sand.

4. Hot Strength
• It is the strength of the sand (of mold cavity) above 212°F.
• In the absence of adequate hot strength, the mold may Enlarge, break,
erode or, get cracked.
Prof. J. V. Patel, UVPCE, Kherva 9
5. Permeability or Porousness
• The moisture, binders (organic compounds) and additives present in
mould sand core produce steam and other gases.
• Though much of these gases escape through vents and open feeder
heads, yet a good amount of the same tends to pass off through the
pore spaces of the molding sand.
• Thus to provide a path for free escape of the gases, the molding sand
should be permeable or porous.
• Sands which are coarse (Bigger in size) or have rounded grains exhibit
more permeability.
• Soft ramming and clay addition in lesser amounts also improves
permeability.
• In the absence of adequate permeability, defects like surface blows, gas
holes, mold blast etc. may be experienced.

Prof. J. V. Patel, UVPCE, Kherva 10

6. Refractoriness
• It is the ability of molding sand to withstand high temperatures
(experienced during pouring) without
– Fusion
– Cracking
– Buckling
– Experiencing any major physical change.
• As compared to castings of low melting point alloys, refractoriness is
much more essential in the production of high melting point alloy
castings (e.g. steel etc.).
7. Collapsibility
• Collapsibility is that property of the molding sand which determines the
readiness with which the molding sand or mold,
– automatically gets collapsed after the casting solidifies, and
– breaks down in knock out and cleaning operations.
• If the mold or core does not collapse, it may restrict free contraction of
the solidifying metal and cause the same to tear or crack.
Prof. J. V. Patel, UVPCE, Kherva 11
8. Fineness
• Finer sand molds resist metal penetration and produce smooth casting
surfaces.
• Fineness and permeability are in conflict with each other and hence they
must be balanced for optimum results.
• Fineness and permeability, both the properties of the molding sand can be
maintained by using mold coating on highly permeable mold cavity walls.
9. Bench Life
• It is the ability of the molding sand to retain its properties during storage
or while standing (i.e., in case of any delay).
10. Coefficient of Expansion
• Molding sands should possess low coefficient of expansion.
11. Durability
• The molding sand should possess the capacity to withstand repeated
cycles of heating and cooling during casting operations.
• Molding sand should be chemically immune to molten metals.
• Molding sand should be reusable.
Prof. J. V. Patel, UVPCE, Kherva 12
 Types of Sand Moulds
• Moulds prepared with sand are called 'sand moulds' or 'temporary
moulds', as they are broken for removing the casting.
• The different types of sand moulds are:
– Green sand mould
– Dry sand mould and
– No-bake sand mould

1. Green Sand Mould

• The word 'green’ signifies that the moulding sand is in the moist state at
the time of metal pouring.
• The main ingredients of green sand are silica sand, clay and moisture
(water).
• Additives may be added in small amounts to obtain desired properties of
mould/casting.
• Nearly 60 % of the total castings are prepared from green sand moulds.
Prof. J. V. Patel, UVPCE, Kherva 13
Advantages of green sand moulds
• Preferred for simple, small and medium size castings.
• Suitable for mass production
• Least expensive
• Sand can be reused many times after reconditioning with clay and moisture
Disadvantages
• Moulds/cores prepared by this process lack in permeability, strength and
stability.
• They give rise to many defects like porosity, blow holes etc., because of low
permeability and lot of steam formation due to their moisture content.
• Moulds/cores cannot be stored for appreciable length of time.
• Not suitable for very large size castings.
• Surface finish and dimensional accuracy of castings produced are not
satisfactory.
• Difficult to cast thin and intricate shapes.
• Mould erosion which is common in green sand moulds is another
disadvantage. Prof. J. V. Patel, UVPCE, Kherva 14
2. Dry Sand Mould
• The word 'dry' signifies that the mould is dry or free from moisture
at the time of metal pouring.
• The absence of moisture makes dry sand moulds to overcome most
of the disadvantages of green sand moulds.
• A dry sand mould is prepared in the same manner as that of green
sand mould, i.e., by mixing silica sand, clay and water.
• The entire mould/core is dried (baked) in ovens to remove the
moisture present in them.
• Baking hardens the binder thereby increasing the strength of
moulds/cores.
• The temperature and duration of baking ranges from 200 - 450°F
and from a few minutes to hours respectively depending on the
type of metal being poured and size of the casting.

Prof. J. V. Patel, UVPCE, Kherva 15

Advantages of Dry sand mould
• Strength and stability of moulds is high when compared to green sand
moulds.
• Baking removes moisture and hence, defects related to moisture are
eliminated.
• Better surface finish and dimensional tolerance of castings.

Disadvantages
• Consumes more time, labor and cost due to baking process. Hence, not
suitable for mass production.
• Not suitable for large and heavy size castings, as they are difficult to
bake.
• Capital cost of bake ovens.
• Under baked or over baked moulds/cores is another disadvantage.

Prof. J. V. Patel, UVPCE, Kherva 16

3. No-Bake Sand Moulds
• A no-bake or self-setting sand mould is one that does not require
baking.

• The main ingredients of no-bake sand are silica sand, binder (resin
type), hardener and a catalyst or accelerator (if necessary).

• The bonding strength developed in moulds/cores is by means of a

self-setting chemical reaction between the binder and the
hardener.

• In some cases, a catalyst or an accelerator is added to speed up the

chemical reaction.

Prof. J. V. Patel, UVPCE, Kherva 17

Advantages of No-Bake sand moulds
• Higher strength - about 50 to 100 times that of green sand moulds.
• Patterns can be stripped within a few minutes after ramming which is not
possible in both green and dry sand moulds.
• Moulds/cores can be stored for longer periods.
• Highly simplified moulding. Hence, reduced need for skilled labour.
• Better dimensional accuracy and stability.
• Improved casting quality with increased freedom from defects.
• Surface finish is excellent. In many cases, castings can be used in as-cast
condition without machining.
Disadvantages
• Use of resins and catalysts causes lot of environmental problems both
within (i.e., during mixing and pouring) and outside (dumped sand) the
foundries.
• Resins and catalysts are expensive.
• Unsafe to human operators.
• Due to high strength and hardness of moulds/cores, sand reuse is a slightly
Prof. J. V. Patel, UVPCE, Kherva 18
difficult process.
 Skin-dried Moulds
• Sands used for making skin dried molds contain certain binders like
linseed oil which harden when heated.

• The mold is made with the molding sand in the green condition and then
the skin of the mold cavity is dried with the help of gas torches or radiant
heating lamps.

• Unlike dry mold, a skin dried mold is dried only up to a depth varying from
6 mm to 25 mm.

• A skin-dried mold possesses strength and other characteristics in between

green and dry sand molds.

• If a skin-dried mold is not poured immediately after drying, moisture from

green backing sand may penetrate the dried skin and make the same
ineffective. Prof. J. V. Patel, UVPCE, Kherva 19
 Moulding Sand Mixture- Ingredients For
Different Sand Mixtures
• A moulding sand is a mixture of base sand, binder and additives.

• Ingredients of

1) Green Sand

2) No-bake Sand Mixture

3) Dry Sand Mixture

Prof. J. V. Patel, UVPCE, Kherva 20

 Ingredients for Green Sand Mixture
• Green sand mixture is composed of base sand, binder, moisture and additives.
• Base sand
– Silica sand is used as the base sand.
– It possesses favorable properties, inexpensive and can be reused many
number of times.
– The amount of silica sand added may vary from 85 - 92 % depending on the
requirements.
• Binder
– Bentonite (clay binder) is the widely used binder for bonding sand particles.
– It is activated in the presence of water.
– A best bond between the sand particles can be obtained with Bentonite
varying from 6 - 12 % and water 3 - 5 %.
• Additives
– Additives are added in small quantities to develop certain new properties, or
to enhance the existing properties of moulding sand.
– Sea coal, silica flour, wood flour and iron oxide are a few commonly used
additives. Prof. J. V. Patel, UVPCE, Kherva 21
 Ingredients for No-bake sand mixture
• Ingredients of 'alkyd binder system' which is one of the most widely used binder system in
Indian foundries is discussed below.
• Base sand
– Silica sand is used as the base sand.
• Binder
– The alkyd binder system consists of three parts: Part A (binder), Part B (hardener) and
Part C (catalyst).
• Part A (Binder):
– The binder is an alkyd resin which is obtained by reacting linseed oil with a polybasic
acid like isopthalic and solvents like turpentine, kerosene or mineral spirit to improve
flowability.
– Its addition ranges from 2 - 5 % based on weight of sand.
• Part B (Hardener):
– The hardener is a reacted product between cobalt/lead salts and napthanic acid.
– Its addition ranges from 5 - 10 % based on weight of binder.
• Part C (Catalyst):
– Methylene-diphenyl-Di-isocyanate commonly known as MDI is used as catalyst to
speed up the chemical reaction.
– Its addition ranges from 20- 25Prof.
% J.based
V. Patel, on weight
UVPCE, Kherva of binder. 22
 Ingredients for Dry Sand Mixture
• Ingredients for dry sand mixture is similar to that of
green sand.

Prof. J. V. Patel, UVPCE, Kherva 23

 Loam Sand Ingredients
• Loam sand contains much more clay as compared to ordinary molding
sand. The clay content is of the order of 50% or so.

• The ingredients of loam sand may be fine sands, finely ground

refractories, clays, graphite and fibrous reinforcement.

• A typical loam sand mixture contains silica sand 20 volumes, clay 5 vols,
and moisture 20%.

• Molds for casting large bells etc., are made up of brick framework and
lined with loam sand and dried.

• Sweep or skeleton patterns may be used for loam molding.

Prof. J. V. Patel, UVPCE, Kherva 24

 Molding Methods
• Various molding methods are:
a) Bench molding
b) Floor molding
c) Pit molding
d) Machine molding

a) Bench Molding
• Molding is carried out on a bench of convenient height.
• Small and light molds are prepared on benches.
• The molder makes the mold while standing.
• Both green and dry sand molds can be made by bench molding,
• Molds, both for ferrous and (especially) non-ferrous castings are made
on bench molds.
• Both cope and drag are rammed on the bench.
Prof. J. V. Patel, UVPCE, Kherva 25
 Molding Methods
b) Floor Molding
• Molding work is carried out on foundry floor when mold size is large and
molding cannot be carried out on a bench.

• Medium and large-sized castings are made by floor molding.

• The mold has its drag portion in the floor and cope portion may be
rammed in a flask and inverted on the drag.

• Both green and dry sand moulds can be made by floor molding

Prof. J. V. Patel, UVPCE, Kherva 26

c) Pit Molding
• Very big castings which cannot be made in flasks are molded in pits dug on the
floor.
• Very large jobs can be handled and cast easily through pit molding.
• The mold has its drag part in the pit and a separate cope is rammed and used
above the (pit) drag.
• The depth of the drag in pit molding is much more than that in floor molding.
• In pit molding, the molder may enter the drag and prepare it.
• A pit is of square or rectangular shape.
• The sides of the (pit) drag are lined with brick and the bottom is covered with
molding sand .
• The cope (a separate flask) is rammed over the pit (drag) with pattern in position.
• Gates, runner, pouring basin, sprue etc. are made in the cope.
• The mold is dried by means of a stove(heater) placed in the pit.
• Cope and drag are then assembled. A crane may be used for lifting and
positioning the cope over drag.
• Cope can be clamped in position.
• Mold is ready for being poured.
Prof. J. V. Patel, UVPCE, Kherva 27
d) Machine Molding
• In bench, floor and pit molding, the different molding operations are carried out
manually by the hands of the molder, whereas in machine molding, various
molding operations like sand ramming, rolling the mold over, withdrawing the
pattern etc. are done by machines.
• Machines perform these operations much faster, more efficiently and in a much
better way.
• Molding machines produce identical and consistent castings.
• Molding machines produce castings of better quality and at lower costs.
• Molding machines are preferred for mass production of the castings whereas
hand molding (bench, pit and floor) is used for limited production.
• Machine molding is not a fully automatic process; many operations can though be
performed by machines, yet some others have to be carried out by hands.
• A few different types of molding machines are listed below:
– Jolt machine
– Squeeze machine
– Jolt-squeeze machine
– Sand Slinger
Prof. J. V. Patel, UVPCE, Kherva 28
 Core
Introduction
• Core is an obstruction-which when positioned in the mold, naturally does
not permit the molten metal to fill up the space occupied by the core. In
this way a core produces hollow castings.
• Cores are required to create the recesses, undercuts and interior cavities
that are often a part of castings.
• A core may be defined as a sand shape or form which makes the contour
of a casting for which no provision has been made in the pattern for
molding.
• core as a sand shape is generally produced separate from the sand mold
and is then baked (hardened) to facilitate handling and setting into the
mold.
• Cores may be made up of sand, metal, plaster or ceramics.

Prof. J. V. Patel, UVPCE, Kherva 29

Different Functions (Purposes) of Cores
• For hollow castings, cores provide the means of forming the main internal
cavities.
• Cores may provide external undercut features
• Cores may be employed to improve the mold surface
• Cores may be inserted to achieve deep recesses in the castings.
• Cores may be used to strengthen the molds
• Cores may be used to form the gating system of large size molds.

Essential Characteristics of (dry sand) Cores

A Core must possess
• Sufficient strength to support itself and to get handled without breaking.
• High permeability to let the mold gases escape through the mold walls.
• Smooth surface to ensure a smooth casting.
• High refractoriness to withstand the action of hot molten metal (metal
penetration etc.).
• High collapsibility in order to assist the free contraction of the
• solidifying metal.
• Those ingredients which do not Prof. J. V. Patel, UVPCE, Kherva
generate mold gases. 30
 Types of Cores
Cores may be classified according to
A. The state or condition of core
1. Green sand core 3. No bake sand core
2. Dry sand core
B. The nature of core materials employed
1. Oil bonded cores 3. Shell cores
2. Resin bonded cores 4. Sodium silicate cores
C. The type of core hardening process employed
1. C02 process 4. Fluid or castable sand process
2. The hot box process 5. Furan-No-Bake system
3. The cold set process 6. Oil-No-Bake process
D. The shape and position of the core
1. Horizontal core 5. Drop core or stop off core
2. Vertical core 6. Ram up core
3. Hanging or cover core 7. Kiss core
4. Balanced core Prof. J. V. Patel, UVPCE, Kherva 31
A. The state or condition of core
1. Green sand cores
• Green sand cores are formed by the pattern itself.
• A green sand core is a part of the mold.
• A green sand core is made out of the same sand from which the rest of
the mold has been made i.e., the molding sand.
2. Dry sand cores
• Dry sand cores (unlike green sand cores )are not produced as a part of
the mold.
• Dry sand cores are made separately and independent of the mold.
• A dry sand core is made up of core sand which differs very much from
the sand out of which the mold is constructed.
• A dry sand core is made in a core box and it is baked after ramming.
• A dry sand core is positioned in the mold on core-seats formed by core-
prints on the patterns.
• A dry sand core is inserted in the mold before closing the same.
Prof. J. V. Patel, UVPCE, Kherva 32
A. The state or condition of core
3. No-bake sand cores

• The sand used for preparing no-bake core is similar to that used
for making no-bake sand moulds.

• Synthetic resins like phenol or urea formaldehyde are used as

binder for bonding silica sand.

• Certain chemicals are used as hardeners and catalysts to bring

about a chemical reaction with the binder due to which bonding
of sand grains takes place.

Prof. J. V. Patel, UVPCE, Kherva 33

B. The nature of core materials employed
1. Oil bonded cores

• Conventional sand cores are produced by mixing silica sand with a

small percentage of linseed oil.

2. Resin-bonded cores

• Phenol resin bonded sand is rammed in a core box.

• The core is removed from the core box and baked in a core oven at
375 to 450°F to harden the core.

3. Sodium Silicate cores

• These cores use a core material consisting of clean, dry sand mixed
with a solution of sodiumProf.silicate
J. V. Patel, UVPCE, Kherva 34
C. The type of core hardening process employed
1. hot box process
• It uses heated core boxes for the production of cores.
• The core box is made up of cast iron, steel or aluminium and possesses
vents and ejectors for removing core gases and stripping core from the
core box respectively.
• Core box is heated from 350 to 500°F.
• Heated core boxes are employed for making shell cores from dry resin
bonded mixtures.

2. The cold set process

• While mixing the core-sand, an accelerator is added to the binder.
• Curing begins immediately with the addition of accelerator and continues
until the core is strong to be removed from the core box.
• Cold set process is employed for making large cores.

Prof. J. V. Patel, UVPCE, Kherva 35

C. The type of core hardening process employed
3. Castable sand process

• A setting or hardening agent such as dicalcium silicate is added to

sodium silicate at the time of core sand mixing.

• The sand mixture possesses high flowability and after being poured
in the core box, it chemically hardens after a short interval of time.

Prof. J. V. Patel, UVPCE, Kherva 36

D. The shape and position of the core
1. Horizontal core
• A horizontal core is positioned horizontally in the mold.
• A horizontal core may have any shape, circular or of some other section
depending upon the shape of the cavity required in the casting.
• A horizontal core is supported in core seats at both ends.
• Uniform sectioned horizontal cores are generally placed at the parting
line.
• A horizontal core is very commonly used in foundries.

Prof. J. V. Patel, UVPCE, Kherva 37

2. Vertical core
• On the cope side, a vertical core needs more taper so as not to tear the
sand in the cope while assembling cope and drag.
• A vertical core is named so because it is positioned in the mold cavity with
its axis vertical.
• The two ends of a vertical core are supported in core seats in cope and
drag respectively.
• A big portion of the vertical core usually remains in the drag.
• A vertical core is very frequently used in foundries.

Prof. J. V. Patel, UVPCE, Kherva 38

3. Hanging or cover core
• It is known as hanging core
because it hangs; it is also called
cover core if it covers the mold and
rests on a seat made in the drag.
• A simple hanging core is one which
is not supported on any seat rather
it hangs from the cope with the
help of wires, etc.

• A hanging core is supported from above and it hangs vertically in the

mold cavity.
• A hanging core has no support from bottom.
• A hanging core is provided with a hole through which molten metal
reaches the mold cavity.
• Hanging cores can be made up of either green or dry sand.

Prof. J. V. Patel, UVPCE, Kherva 39

4. Balanced core
• A balanced core is one which is supported and balanced from its one end
only.
• A balanced core requires a long core seat so that the core does not sag or
fall into the mold.
• A balanced core is used when a casting does not want a through cavity.

Prof. J. V. Patel, UVPCE, Kherva 40

5. Drop or stop off core
• A stop off core is employed to make a cavity (in the casting) which cannot
be made with other types of cores.
• A stop off core is used when a hole, recess or cavity, required in a casting
is not in line with the parting surface, rather it is above or below the
parting line of the casting.
• Depending upon its shape and use, a stop off core may also be known as
tail core, saddle core, chair core, etc.

Prof. J. V. Patel, UVPCE, Kherva 41

6. Ram-up core
• A ram-up core is one which is placed in the sand along with pattern
before ramming the mold.

• A ram-up core cannot be placed in the mold after the mold has been
rammed.

• A ram-up core is used to make internal or external (surface) details of a

casting.

Prof. J. V. Patel, UVPCE, Kherva 42

7. Kiss core
• A kiss core does not require core seats for getting supported.

• A kiss core is held in position between drag and cope due to the pressure
exerted by cope on the drag.

• A number of kiss cores can be simultaneously positioned in order to obtain

a number of holes in a casting.

Prof. J. V. Patel, UVPCE, Kherva 43

 Method of making the cores
Core Making (Preparation)
Procedure

Steps involved:
1. Core Sand Preparation
2. Making the Cores
3. Baking the Cores.
4. Finishing of Cores.
5. Setting the Cores.

1. Core Sand Preparation

The core sand of desired type (dry sand, no-bake etc.,) and
composition along with additives is mixed manually or using Muller of
suitable type. Prof. J. V. Patel, UVPCE, Kherva 44
 Method of making the cores
2. Making The Cores
• Cores are prepared manually or using machines depending on the
needs.

• Machines like jolt machine, sand slinger, core blower etc., are used
for large scale continuous production, while small sized cores for
limited production are manually made in hand filled core boxes.

• A core box is similar to a pattern that gives a suitable shape to the

core.

• Figure shows a core box used to produce rectangular shaped cores

with procedure.
Prof. J. V. Patel, UVPCE, Kherva 45
 Method of making the cores
Steps Involved in making the core
• Core box is usually placed on work-bench; it is filled with already
mixed and prepared core sand, is rammed by hand and the extra
sand is removed from the core box.
• Weak cores may be reinforced with steel wires to strengthen
them.
• Core box is inverted over the core plate and this transfers the core
from the core box to core plate which (i.e., core) is then baked in
the oven (over the core plate itself).
• Larger cores can also be made manually but on the floor (and not
on bench). It needs more than one man to work and the cranes
may also be used, if necessary

Prof. J. V. Patel, UVPCE, Kherva 46

 Method of making the cores
3. Core Baking
• Cores are baked in ovens in order to drive away the moisture in
them and also to harden the binder thereby imparting strength to
the core.
• The temperature and duration for baking may vary from 200 -
450°F and from a few minutes to hours respectively depending on
the size of the core and type of binder used.
4. Core finishing
• The baked cores are finished by rubbing or filing with special tools
to remove any fins, bumps, lose sand or other sand projections
from its surface.
• The cores are also checked for dimensions and cleanliness.
• Finally, if cores are made in parts, they are assembled by using
suitable pastes, pressed and dried in air before placing them in the
mould cavity.
Prof. J. V. Patel, UVPCE, Kherva 47
 Core Binders
• A core binder,

– holds sand grains together,

– gives strength to cores,

– makes cores to resist erosion and breaking,

– imparts adequate collapsibility to cores.

• Core binders are of the following types

A. Organic binders

B. Inorganic binders

C. Other binders
Prof. J. V. Patel, UVPCE, Kherva 48
A. Organic Binders
1. Core oil.
They may be
• Vegetable (i.e., linseed oil)
• Marine animal (i.e., whale oil), and
• mineral oil (used for diluting vegetable and marine animal oils)

2. Cereal binders
• They are
– Gelatinized starch. It is made by wet milling and contains starch
and gluten.
– Gelatinized corn flour.
• Cereal binders contribute to green strength.

Prof. J. V. Patel, UVPCE, Kherva 49

A. Organic Binders
3. Water soluble binders
• They are
– Dextrin, made from starch.
– Molasses, etc.

4. Wood product binders

• They are
– Natural resins (i.e., rosin, thermoplastic).
– Sulfite binders. They contain Lignin, are water soluble
compounds of wood sugars produced in the paper pulp process
i.e., as a by-product of paper making.

Prof. J. V. Patel, UVPCE, Kherva 50

B. Inorganic Binders
• They are
– Fire clay
– Bentonite
– Silica flour
– Iron oxide, etc.
• These binders develop green strength, baked strength, hot strength
and impart smooth surface finish.

• They are finely pulverized materials.

• They greatly increase the amount of oil necessary in oil sand mixes.

Note: Inorganic binders have been discussed under 1st chapter

Prof. J. V. Patel, UVPCE, Kherva 51
C. Other Binders
• They are

– Portland cement. It hardens at room temperature.

– Cements (i.e., rubber cements). They harden at room

temperature

– Sodium silicate. The core hardens as carbon-di-oxide gas is

passed through it.

Prof. J. V. Patel, UVPCE, Kherva 52

 Moulding Machines
• When large number of castings is to be produced, hand moulding
consumes more time, labour and also accuracy and uniformity in
moulding varies.

• To overcome this difficulty, machines are used for moulding.

• Based on the methods of ramming, moulding machines are

classified as follows:

1. Jolt machine

2. Squeeze machine

3. Jolt-squeeze machine

4. Sand slinger
Prof. J. V. Patel, UVPCE, Kherva 53
1. Jolt Machine
• A jolt machine consists of a flat table mounted on a piston-cylinder
arrangement and can be raised or lowered by means of compressed
air.
• In operation, the mould
box with the pattern
and sand is placed on
the table. The table is
raised to a short
distance and then
dropped down under
the influence of gravity
against a solid bed plate.
The action of raising and
dropping (lowering) is
called ‘Jolting’.
Prof. J. V. Patel, UVPCE, Kherva 54
• Jolting causes the sand particles to get packed tightly above and
around the pattern. The number of 'jolts' may vary depending on
the size and hardness of the mould required. Usually, less than 20
jolts are sufficient for a good moulding.

• The disadvantage of this type is that, the density and hardness of

the rammed sand at the top of the mould box is less when
compared to its bottom portions.

Prof. J. V. Patel, UVPCE, Kherva 55

2. Squeeze Machine
• In squeeze machine, the mould box with pattern and sand in it is
placed on a fixed table as shown in figure.
• A flat plate or a
rubber diaphragm
is brought in
contact with the
upper surface of
the loose sand
and pressure is
applied by a
pneumatically
operated piston.

Prof. J. V. Patel, UVPCE, Kherva 56

• The squeezing action of the plate causes the sand particles to get
packed tightly above and around the pattern.

• Squeezing is continued until the mould attains the desired density.

• In some machines, the squeeze plate may be stationary with the

mould box moving upward.

• The disadvantage of squeeze machine is that, the density and

hardness of the rammed sand at the bottom of the mould box is
less when compared to its top portions.

Prof. J. V. Patel, UVPCE, Kherva 57

3. Jolt Squeeze Machine
• Jolt squeeze machine combines the operating principles of 'jolt' and
'squeeze' machines resulting in uniform ramming of the sand in all
portions of the moulds
• The machine makes
use of a match plate
pattern placed
between the cope
and the drag box.
• The whole assembly
is placed on the table
with the drag box on
it.
• The table is actuated
by two pistons in air
cylinders, one inside
the other.
Prof. J. V. Patel, UVPCE, Kherva 58
• One piston called 'Jolt piston' raises and drops the table
repeatedly for a predetermined number of times, while the other
piston called 'squeeze piston' pushes the table upward to squeeze
the sand in the flask against the squeeze plate. In operation, sand
is filled in the drag box and jolted repeatedly by operating the jolt
piston.
• After jolting, the complete mould assembly is rolled over by hand.
• The cope is now filled with sand and by operating the squeeze
piston, the mould assembly is raised against the squeeze plate. By
the end of this operation, the sand in the mould box is uniformly
packed.
• The match plate is now vibrated and removed. The mould is
finished and made ready for pouring.

Prof. J. V. Patel, UVPCE, Kherva 59

4. Sand slinger
• A sand slinger is an automatic machine equipped with a unit that
throws sand rapidly and with great force into the mould box.
• Figure shows a sand
slinger. Sand slinger
consists of a rigid base,
sand bin, bucket
elevator, belt conveyor,
ramming head (sand
impeller) and a swinging
arm.
• In operation, the pre-
mixed sand mixture from
the sand bin is picked by
the bucket elevator and
is dropped on to the belt
conveyor. Prof. J. V. Patel, UVPCE, Kherva 60
• The conveyor carries the sand to the ramming head, inside which
there is a rotating impeller having cup shaped blades rotating at
high speeds (around 1800 rpm).

• The force of the rotor blades imparts velocity to the sand particles
and as a result the sand is thrown with very high velocity into the
mould box thereby filling and ramming the sand at the same time.

• The density of the ramming sand can be controlled by varying the

speed of the impeller. Rest of the operations, viz., removal of
pattern, cutting gates etc., are done manually.

• In the initial stages of ramming, the blades are rotated at slow

speeds; around 1000 - 1200 rpm to avoid damage to the pattern
due to the abrasive action of the high velocity sand particles.

Prof. J. V. Patel, UVPCE, Kherva 61