An Overview of Electric Motors for Electric

Vehicles
Zhi Cao
College of Science and
Engineering
Flinders University
Adelaide, Australia
cao.zhi@flinders.edu.au
Amin Mahmoudi
College of Science and
Engineering
Flinders University
Adelaide, Australia
amin.mahmoudi@flinders.
edu.au
Solmaz Kahourzade Wen L. Soong
STEM School of Electrical and
University of South Electronic Engineering
Australia The University of Adelaide
Adelaide, Australia Adelaide, Australia
solmaz.kahourzade@unisa. wen.soong@adelaide.edu.a
edu.au u

Abstract—Electric motors are one of the key building blocks starting from the division between AC and DC motors [14,
of electric vehicles (EVs). The electric motor is drawing 15]. There is a variety of EV electric motors including brushed
particular attention due to the variety of topologies that can be
chosen as candidates for EV applications. Through the proper
motor type selection and design, the performance of EVs can be
enhanced, such as efficiency and stability. This paper presents a
2021 31st Australasian Universities Power Engineering Conference (AUPEC) | 978-1-6654-3451-5/21/$31.00 ©2021 IEEE | DOI: 10.1109/AUPEC52110.2021.9597739

state-of-the-art overview of alternative electric motors for EV

applications. Firstly, the classification and performance of
alternative electric motors is described. Then, research gaps and
possible future trends are introduced and identified in this
review paper.

Keywords—electric motors, electric vehicles, performance, Fig. 1 Classification of Electric Motors.

machine selection.
I. INTRODUCTION
Climate change and greenhouse (GHGs) emissions are the
subject of much debate around the world [1]. The pollution
caused by combustion engines are a major part of air pollution
especially in large cities. Compared with conventional internal
combustion engine vehicles, electric vehicles (EV) are the best
alternative approach to achieve zero emissions. High-
efficiency, high power density electrical motors are important
for EV applications [1-3].
In the 21st century, EV technology is critical for future
sustainable transportation. Most vehicle manufacturers have
accelerated the production of EVs, for example from 2016 to
2017, EV sales grew by 54% [4, 5]. It is predicted that there
could be over 200 million EV sales by 2030 [2]. Research on
the substitution of the conventional internal combustion
vehicle with EVs demonstrated that GHG emissions can be
reduced up to 75% by 2050 [4]. As a result, EVs have found
popularity among worldwide governments and researchers.
EVs can be mainly divided into three parts, including,
electric machines, auxiliary systems, and energy storage and
source systems [5-7]. Although electric machines have
already been here for many decades, the most suitable electric
machine and propulsion drive for EV applications still
requires further research and development. Efficiency
mapping is used as a measuring tool to assess and compare the
performance of EVs over the torque speed envelope [8-11].
Key requirements for the electric drive system are high
reliability, high efficiency, reasonable cost, and high power
density [7-13]. Moreover, for EV applications, electric motors
must be able to deliver high overload power; higher torque at
low speed for starting and climbing; moderate power at high
speed for cruising; act as a generator during braking and have
high power density. In the 18th century, Faraday demonstrated
the principle of electromagnetic induction [14] which is the
key operating principle of electric motors.
Fig. 1shows an example classification of electric motors
DC motors, permanent magnet brushless DC motors (BLDC),
permanent magnet synchronous motors (PMSM), induction
machines (IM), switched reluctance motors (SRM),
synchronous reluctance motors (SynRM), axial-flux ironless
permanent magnet motor (AFPM), and axial-flux induction
machine (AFIM) [16-19]. These machines will be discussed
in the following sections.
This paper discusses the various types of electric motors
for EV applications. It provides a comprehensive review of
possible viable electric motors. Moreover, the features and
characteristics for different electric motors are discussed to
explore the research gaps and possible future trends for EV
applications.
II. MOTORS FOR EV APPLICATIONS
A. Brushed DC Motor
For EV applications, brushed DC motors offer promising
torque versus speed performance curves with maximum
torque at low speed and ideally a wide constant power speed
range [19, 20]. However, the brushes and commutator reduce
the motor reliability and restrict its maximum speed. They
generally also have lower efficiency and power density [16,
19, 20].
B. Permanent Magnet Brushless DC Motor (BLDC)
As with all AC machines, BLDC machines have no
commutator but require an inverter. BLDC machines have
trapezoidal back-emf waveforms and use rectangular currents
which allows simpler rotor position estimation. The rotor
generally uses surface-mounted permanent magnets (PMs).
Rare-earth PMs allow BLDC machines to achieve high
efficiency and power density [21-23].
A challenge with BLDC machines is their limited constant
power speed (or field-weakening) range [19, 24]. This is due
to their high back-emf at high speeds, the low inductance of
the surface-mounted configuration and the limited control
flexibility. This can be improved using an additional field

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 TABLE I. ELECTRIC MACHINES USED IN COMMERCIAL ELECTRIC VEHICLES [26-34].
EV model Year Motor Type Motor Power Max. Speed [rpm] Max. Torque
[kW] [Nm]
Tesla 2013 IM 225 14,800 430
Prius 2004 PM 50 6000 400
Prius 2010 PM 60 13,500 207
Prius 2017 PM 53 17,000 163
Leaf 2012 PM 80 10,390 280
Leaf 2017 PM 80 10,390 280
Lexus 2008 PM 110 10,230 300
Camry 2013 PM 70 14,000 270
BMW i3 2016 PM 125 11,400 250
Sonata 2011 PM 30 6000 205

interior PMSM by optimising the rotor bridge design. The

bridge is necessary as it supports the flux barrier segments to

(a) (b)
Fig. 2 PMSM topologies. (a) Surface mounted magnet motor. (b)
Interior magnet motor [36].

winding in what is called a PM hybrid motor [21, 25]. Such

arrangements have higher complexity, and the achievable
speed ratio may not meet the requirements of EV applications (a)
[24].
C. Permanent Magnet Synchronous Motor (PMSM)
PMSMs operate with sinusoidal currents and can be
classified into surface-mounted and interior PM
configurations (see Fig. 2). The surface mounted PM topology
is simpler to design while the interior PM topology features
reluctance torque which can be used to reduce the PM volume
and hence cost. Currently, the majority of EV manufacturers
use PMSMs, such as Toyota, Nissan, Baic, Zotye, Zhidou,
BMW, JAC, Hyundai and Chevrolet [26-34] (see TABLE I).
PMSMs are currently used in around 26 EV models [35].
Wang et al. [37] presented a design technique for surface (b)
mounted, fractional-slot concentrated winding PMSMs for Fig. 3 The cross-sectional view of the Prius-00 and SUV-05 interior
EV applications to achieve high efficiency during a defined PMSM machines [39].
driving cycle. This targeted a mini-EV with both front and rear provide the rotor mechanical strength. However, the trade off
drives. The flux-weakening and overload performance between the flux leakage and mechanical strength needs to be
showed it to be a promising candidate for EV applications. considered. Fig. 3 presents the comparison between the Prius-
Nguyen et al. [38] presents a comparative study of integer- 00 and SUV-05 in which the magnet shape is shown. The
slot and fractional-slot surface-mounted PMSMs for EV researchers concluded that the developed motor fulfilled the
applications to show the advantages of fractional-slot requirements of power characteristics, torque density and a
windings. The first motor has 24 slots and eight poles on the 30% reduction of no-load losses.
stator and rotor and hence uses an integral slot winding.
Another motor has the same number of stator slots but has 40 EVs can be classified into direct-drive and indirect drive
poles on the rotor and thus uses a fractional slot winding. The [40]. Indirect drive EVs use reduction and differential gears
results shows that the PMSM with 40 poles has lower cogging between the motor and the wheels. Direct-drive EVs have the
torque and higher average output torque during one electrical motors directly driving the wheels which offers a potentially
cycle. Moreover, the loss in the 40-pole motor is much less simpler mechanical configuration and improves the efficiency
than the eight pole PMSM. [41, 42].

Kamiya et al. [39] aims to improve the rotor strength, For direct-drive machines, the electric machines are often
reduce iron loss, and improve the reluctance torque of an placed inside the wheel and are called in-wheel motors. This
places a tight axial length requirement on the electric motor.

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 TABLE II. COMPARISON OF DIFFERENT TYPE OF MOTORS FOR EVS
[51].
Machine Type Max. output Max. speed with
power (kW) 45Nm Torque (rpm)
IM 59.4 7110
IPM 68.9 7350
SRM 55.6 6520
SFM 58.2 6730
AFPM 53.7 6460
DSDR-AFIM 85.5 8000
With the axial length requirement, and the high torque and low
speed operation of the direct drive application, axial flux (AF)
PM (AFPMs) are a valid alternative to the conventional radial
flux PM machines (RFPMs) [41-45].
Credo et al. [40] presents a 3D multi-physics analysis of a
double-sided AFPM with two rotor plates and airgaps and one
stator. Initially, sizing equations were employed for the motor
design considering the design limitations and the desired
performance. The electromagnetic analysis showed that the
studied motor satisfied the desired performance and is viable
for traction applications in terms of power and torque
densities.
Qi et al. [46] described a custom-designed 36-kW AFPM
and the finite-element analysis (FEA) results were validated
by experimental tests on a prototype. The experiment
efficiency map was measured and had a maximum value of
92.81%. The map shows that for over 70% of the working
conditions the machine provides around 90% efficiency.
D. Induction Machines (IM)
The PM machines described earlier have advantages in
terms of high efficiency and torque density. However, they
need significant quantities of high-quality rare-earth magnets
and the large variations in the cost of these magnets in recent
year has been a major concern for manufacturers [47]. TABLE
I. showed that only Tesla was the only manufacturer with
models not using PM machines, and they use induction
machines. The major advantages of IMs for EV applications
are the lack of PMs in the rotor which reduces cost and
improves reliability, and the potential for higher efficiency
under high-speed cruising conditions.
Güneşer et al. [48] designed a 7.5 kW, 2-pole IM for urban
EVs based on considering four city driving cycles: city driving
cycle, cold temperature cycle, high driving cycle, and air-
conditioning cycle. Lumyong et al. [49] presented a study to
improve the efficiency and power density of IMs for EVs by
optimising parameters including the number of turns. The
proposed motor shows a wide high-speed operating region and
the rated power is twice that of the original design.
Pellegrino et al. [50] proposed a comparative study on
induction and surface and interior PM motors with the same
stack length and inverter size and the same cooling system for
EV applications. The comparative study shows the following
features:
• The surface PM design examined has limited performance
under overload conditions partly due to demagnetisation
concerns.
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• The interior PM design has the best overall performance
taking into account its overload and efficiency
characteristics.
• The induction motor performance has an overload power
performance which is not far behind the interior PM
results.
There has also been some research on axial-flux induction
machines. Mei et al. [51, 52] proposed a six-pole distributed-
winding and double-stator-double-rotor axial-flux IM
(DSDR-AFIM) with reduced back iron for EV applications.
The proposed design topology reduces the attractive forces
between the rotors and stators and hence the thrust bearing
requirements. An equivalent circuit for the DSDR-AFIM was
developed in this research. An optimized design was
developed using a Monte-Carlo algorithm. TABLE II.
illustrates the comparison between the proposed machine and
other typical machines for EV applications. It is shown that
the proposed DSDR-AFIM reaches the highest output
mechanical power, and the highest rotating speed while
generating the torque of 45Nm.
Dianati et al. [53, 54] proposed an AFIM and showed the
optimization process considering a driving cycle for an EV
application. An AFIM analytical model was proposed to
predict the performance including slotting effects. The
proposed analytical model was used to optimize and predict
the performance of AFIM at the nominal operating point and
the considered driving cycle. Moreover, it is observed that the
motor design considering driving cycle gains benefits by
producing a lower volume design.
E. Switched Reluctance Motor (SRM)
SRMs have potential in EV applications due to their
simple structure, fault-tolerant operation, good efficiency and
wide constant power torque-speed characteristic [16].
In SRMs, since the rotor has no coils, it is capable of high
speed operation and has lower rotor heat generation [55]. The
torque-speed characteristics for SRM correspond well with
typical EV load characteristics. It offers high torque at low
speeds and a wide constant power speed region. The wide
speed range operation provides SRMs with an advantage that
it has possibility to eliminate the mechanical transmission
parts, such as gearboxes [56]. Due to its simple structure and
low rotor inertia, the SRM has fast dynamics. However, the
torque ripple and noise are two main disadvantages that are
needed to be reduced [16].
F. Synchronous Reluctance Motor (SynRM)
SynRM have several advantages, including high
efficiency, small size, robustness, and fault tolerance [22].
SynRM uses rotor saliency to produce torque and does not
require PMs. In [57], a small SynRM is presented for EVs. It
provides a comparative study of the advantages and
disadvantages of IM, SRM and SynRM. Compared with IMs,
SynRMs show higher torque density, higher efficiency, and
lower cost. Compared to the SRM, SynRM has smoother low
speed torque. Challenges for SynRM in EV applications are
manufacturing, controllability and low power factor.
 III. COMPARATIVE STUDIES ON DIFFERENT TOPOLOGIES OF
ELECTRIC MOTORS FOR EVS
Fig. 4 Power Density Cumulative Correlations of different topologies
[58].
Fig. 5 Efficiency Cumulative Correlations of different topologies [58].
Fig. 6 Reliability Cumulative Correlations of different topologies [58].
Power density is an important performance parameter for
electric motors for EV applications. It is the power output
(kW) divided by the motor weight (kg). Fig. 4 presents the
power density for four different motor topologies. The DC
motor has the lowest power density while the BLDC motor
shows the highest value.
Fig. 5 shows a similar result is found for the efficiency
which is also important for EV applications. Fig. 6 provides
the reliability comparisons. It is observed that the most
reliable motors are the IM and SRM with the PM motor not
far behind. The DC motor shows the lowest reliability.
IV. FUTURE TRENDS AND RESEARCH GAPS
A. Induction Machine
The die-cast aluminum rotor technology is the most
popular choice for current induction machine. However, an
mature technology, die-cast copper rotor, provides a path to
improve the efficiency as lower losses in rotor comparing
with die-cast aluminum rotor. The tradeoff is that the copper
has larger weight than aluminum. Therefore, increasing the
efficiency by employing die-cast copper does not provide a
better solution to lift performance of the electric vehicle.
To improve the performance of the machine, the AFIM is
a potential path to achieve it due to its high-power density,
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efficiency, utilization of active material, the more compact
construction, and comparable material cost [53, 59].
B. Permanent Magnet Synchronous Machines
As mentioned in previous sessions and Table I, this type
of machine is the majority motors used in EV applications as
aim of the electric machine design is more about higher
efficiency, power density, and specific power. There are
various topologies of permanent magnet machines in terms of
the shape and location of the permanent magnets and the
winding configuration.
The new topology of permanent magnet machine is called
AFPM, which is increasingly being attracted by researchers
and machine designers. Comparing with conventional
topology, AFPM provides better characteristics for EV
application in terms of higher power density, efficiency,
compact structure, and lower weight [40]. Structurally, this
topology is a considerable option for in-wheel application.
C. Switched Reluctance and Synchronous Reluctance
Motor.
The main trend in electric motors for EV applications is
to eliminate rare-earth magnets due to the high cost on
material. As a result, SRM and SynRM have can be an
alternative option for eliminating the magnets. The proper
and optimized design of SynRM can deliver the desirable
electromagnetics performance and lower cost in terms of the
motor and inverter [60]. Therefore, the research on SRM and
SynRM design and optimization will be worthwhile for
electric vehicle.
V. CONCLUSIONS
In this paper, a review of different motors used in electric
vehicles is presented. The construction, operational
requirements, advantages, disadvantages, and the design
technologies of a range of motors are discussed. Furthermore,
possible trends and gaps have been identified, which are
summarized from the current literature and research
outcomes.
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