Chapter 3

Conversion and Storage of

Electrochemical Energy

8 March 2023 1
 Battery Technology

• Two electrodes (half-cells), that generate electrical energy

• Arrangement of two or more cells coupled in series

• Indispensable source of portable energy

• Used in electronic gadget, pacemakers, calculators,

power supplied

• Batteries of long shelf life, power, recharging capacity,

tolerance, reliability and wide application

8 March 2023 2
 3.1 Basic Concepts of Batteries
• A galvanic cell -
• A battery is device consist of one or more cells connected in a
series or parallel or both converts the chemical energy by
means of an electrochemical oxidation –reduction reaction
depending on their desired output voltage and capacity.
1. Anode (-ve electrode) is oxidized during the electrochemical
reaction and liberates electron to the external circuit
2. Cathode (+ve electrode) is reduced during the
electrochemical reaction, which accepts electron to the
external circuit
3. Electrolyte, the medium for transfer of ions inside the cell
between the anode and cathode. Good ionic conductivity.

shape- cylindrical, button and flat

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 3.2. Battery Characteristics

1. Free Energy change

2. EMF of a Battery
3. Amps/ Ampere –Hour
4. Capacity
5. Power
6. Power Density
7. Energy
8. Efficiency
9. Cycle Life
10. Tolerance to Service Condition

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1. Free Energy change
-∆ G =nEF ( F = Faraday constant , 96500 C or 26.8 Ah)

2. EMF of a Battery
M1 + Mn+2 Mn+1 + M2
0.0951 M1+
Ecell = Eo cell - Log [ M + ] ; Eocell =Eocathode – Eoanode
𝑛 2
EMF of the cell of a battery depent on
(i) the pd between the cathode and anode.
(ii) the ratio of the ionic concentration of Mn+1 and Mn+2.
(iii) the temperature
Summarising – EMF of the battery is higher, the electrode potential
difference between two electrodes are more.
- EMF of the cell decreases with increasing molar concentration of
- [ Mn+1 ] .

8 March 2023 5
3.Amps/ Ampere-Hour

Rate, electrons flow in wire.

Unit-an electron has a charge 1.602 X 10-19 Coulombs/s AMP
is 6.24 X 10+18 electron per second. One ampere-hour is to a
current of one ampere flowing for one hour.

4 . Capacity
Total quantity of electricity involved in the electrochemical
reaction; also known as the total number of ampere hour or watt-
hours. (unit- ampere –hour per gram –Ah/g).

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5. Power
W =V.I
V= voltage cell, I = Current (or rate)
E =V.I.t = q V (q = charge = Rate x Time)
V = E/ q
6.Power Density
PD = Power/ mass , (unit are W/kg)

7. Energy Density,
E= qV
Weight capacity = qV/ mass ( unit- W hr/ kg )
Volume capacity = qV/ volume ( unit- W hr/ l )

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8. Efficiency
( I ) Voltage efficiency (ii) Watt hour efficiency (iii) Ampere
hour efficiency
9. Life Cycle

- For rechargeable batteries, Duration of satisfactory

performance, measured in year or in a number of charge /
discharge cycles.
- End of life is usually considered to be reached when the
cell or battery approximately 80% of the rated ampere-hour
capacity

10. Tolerance to Service Condition

- Provides power continuously, intermittently, or at an
Irregular rate.
8 March 2023 8
3.3. Commercial Cell or Battery

1. Long shelf life

2. Recharging capacity

3. Easily portable

4. Compact and light weight and

5. Low priced

8 March 2023 9
 3.4. Classification of Batteries
1. Primary (non- rechargeable)

The working principle of a primary battery is the conversion of the free energy
change of the active materials during electrode process into the electrical
energy. A battery which is not intended to be recharged and discarded when
the battery has delivered all its electrical energy is known as a primary battery.

The net reaction of a primary battery is irreversible and as long as the active
materials are present in a battery, the cell generates electrical energy. In other
words, primary batteries cannot be recharge. eg. ZnMnO2 dry cell

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2. Secondary (recharge)
A secondary battery is known as galvanic battery, which after
discharge, may be restored to the fully charged state by the passage of an
electrical current through the cell in the opposite direction to that of the charge.

In other worlds, the net cell reactions of the battery can be reversed. They are
storage device for electrical energy and are known as storage batteries

eg. (1) Lead acid battery, (2) Ni-Cd battery

The secondary battery have a advantage over the other primary
batteries in the net cell reaction can be reversed during the charging process
and the current can be drawn during the discharge process. Secondary battery
have better life and capacity, So that it can be used over and over again. The
secondary batteries are classified into two types; (a) Acid storage battery (b)
Lead acid battery.

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3. Reserve batteries
In these reverse type of batteries, a vital component is
separated from the rest of the battery prior to activation. In this
condition, Chemical deterioration or self discharge is essentially
eliminated and the battery is capable of long term storage.
Usually., Electrolyte is the component that is isolated.

These batteries are used, for example , to deliver high

power for relatively short periods of time, in missiles tropedoes
and other weapon systems. Eg. LiV2O5 cell

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3.5. Important Application of Battery
• Car batteries- High specific power is required for the large
mechanical load. Low operating temps can arise, safety and
environmental concerns an important issue. The Pb/acid cell is
currently used exclusively.
• Electrically Power Vehicles- use batteries to replace the
combustion engine. The batteries will need sufficient energy and
power densities and environmental safety and cost issues become
especially important for batteries produced on a large scale.
• Secondary cell for portable high power application such as laptops
(a rapidly growing market currently these use NiCd, NiMH, or
lithium ion cells), power tools, flashlights, etc.
• Primary cells for portable Low power application such as Watches,
meters, cameras and calculator. In these devices, low power
densities are desirable to provide long service life. Lithium batteries
are most often used.

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• Military application- Examples include power for missile or
torpedo guidance drive or activation and communication
devices. Fuel cells are currently used extensively.

• Pacemaker – Cost is not a primary issue, out concerns focus

on long service life, safety and discharge profile. A
lithium/iodine cell is typically used.

• Hearing aids- Usually use mercury, silver oxide or zinc air

batteries because the high volumetric energy densities allow
for a smaller battery.

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3.6. Classical Battery

1. Primary cell
Eg. Zn-MnO2 dry cell

Anode - Zn cylinder
Cathode - MnO2 /C
Electrolyte -ZnCl2 + NH4Cl

Zn/Zn2+ // NH4+ / MnO2 /C

At anode Zn Zn2+ + 2e
At cathode 2MnO2 + 2H2O + 2e 2MnO(OH) + 2OH-

Zn + 2MnO2 + 2H2O Zn2+ + 2MnO(OH) + 2OH-

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Secondary Reactions – The secondary reactions also takes
place inside the dry cell, The free energy change of this
reactions do not contribute significantly to the EMF of the dry
cell.
2NH4Cl + 2OH- 2NH2 + 2H2O + 2Cl-
Zn2+ + 2NH3 + 2 Cl- Zn (NH3 )2Cl2

The overall secondary reactions taking place inside the

cell is the formation of a Zn (NH3 )2Cl2 complex.

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Limitations:
1. The capacity of the battery is low. They are not suitable for
high drain application as the readily polar and the available
capacity falls sharply with the increased discharge rate.
2. The batteries are not chargeable
3. The shelf life of the battery is not especially long.
4.The optimum temperature range of operation is 20-40℃;
outside this temperature range the performance deteriorates
markedly

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Advantages and Uses:

• The battery/cell is convenient source of power for portable

electric and electronic devices, lighting photographic
equipment, computers, communication equipment, watch
and calculator and variety of other application.

• The other general advantages are a good shelf life,

reasonable power density, low cost, reliable performance
and ready availability.

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Cell Performance:

• The primary cell generate almost constant voltage for small

discharge current at a reasonable moderate loads. For
reasons, natural deterioration is observed, through these
cells have a long shell life.

• The efficiency of the cell is high, if the battery operates

within the optimum temperature 40 ˚C.

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2. Alkaline Primary cell
There are two types-
(i) HgO- Zn cell (ii) Ag2 O- Zn cell

(i) HgO- Zn cell

This alkaline primary cell is known as Reuben- Mallori (RM)

cell. In an RM cell, an amalgamated zinc rod is at the center which acts
as the anode of the cell. An absorb material containing 40% KOH
saturated with ZnO surrounds the anode. This is surrounded by a paste
of 5-10% graphite in HgO which is introduced into the steel case as
shown in fig. The anode and the cathode materials are separated by a
layer of insulating material.

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(i) HgO- Zn cell

- Zinc rod
- 40% KOH saturated
- 5-10% graphite in HgO
- Separated by a layer of insulating material

At anode Zn + 2OH- ZnO + H2O + 2e

At cathode HgO+ 2H2O + 2e Hg + 2OH-

Overall cell Zn + HgO + 2e ZnO + Hg

The voltage of the RM cell is 1.35 V.

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(ii) Ag2 O-Zn cell

It is sold in the market as button type alkaline primary

cell. A typical button type Ag2O-Zn cell in fig. In this cell )Ag2O
material is pressed into the thin button type metal case, which
acts as the cathode. An absorbent material soaked in KOH is
placed in between the anodic and the cathode compartments.
Zinc metal is at the center of the cell which behaves as the
anode of the cell. Electrolyte is the KOH solution.

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At anode Zn + 2OH- ZnO + H2O + 2e

At cathode Ag2O+ 2H2O + 2e Ag + 2OH-

Overall cell Zn + Ag2 O + 2e ZnO + Ag

The voltage generated by cell is 1.5 V.

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3.6.2 Secondary Battery/ Cell

1. Lead –Acid Battery

(a) Discharging electrode reactions

Pb/ PbSO4(s) /H2 SO4(aq) // PbSO4(s) PbO2(s) /Pb

(a) Anode – Pb grid with spongy lead

(b) Cathode – Pb –Sb with lead dioxide
(c) Electrolyte – 28-30% H2SO4

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(i) Discharge reactions of a battery
-∆ G =nEF

At anode Pb Pb2+ + 2e
Pb2+ + SO42- PbSO4

Pb + SO42- PbSO4 + 2e Eo Pb/ Pb2+ = 0.36

Eo Pb2+ /Pb= -0.36

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At cathode PbO2 + 4H+ + 2e Pb2+ + 2H2O
Pb2+ + SO42- PbSO4
PbO2 + 4H+ + 2e + SO42- PbSO4 + 2H2O Eo = 1.69

At cathode
PbO2 + 4H+ + 2e + SO42- PbSO4 + 2H2O Eo= 1.69

At anode Pb + SO42- PbSO4 + 2e Eo = -0.36

PbO2 + Pb + 2H2SO42- 2PbSO4 + 2H2O Eo = 2.00V

The voltage produced during the discharge process is 2V.

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Eg 3.1 Calculate the voltage produced by a cell of a lead-acid
battery
Pb/ PbSO4(s) /H2 SO4(aq) ( 5M) // PbSO4(s) PbO2(s) /Pb

PbSO4 + 2e Pb + SO42- Eo Pb2+/ Pb= -0.36

PbO2 + 4H++ 2e + SO42- PbSO4 + 2H2O Eo PbO2 / PbSO4 = 1.69

Ecell = E cathode – E Anode = Eo PbO2 / PbSO4 - Eo Pb2+ /Pb

= 1.69 – (-0.36) = 2.05 V

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 (ii) Charging reactions of a battery
nEF =-∆ G

PbSO4 +2e Pb + SO42-

PbSO4 + 2H2O PbO2 + SO42-+4H++2e

2PbSO4 + 2H2O Pb + 2H2SO42- +PbO2

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2. Nickel – Cadmium Rechargeable Cell – This is another secondary
storage alkaline battery. Ni-Cd cell is a rechargeable battery.

Cd/ Cd O / KOH (6M) // Ni OOH Ni(OH)2/Ni

Anode –Spongy Cd/ CdO

Cathode – Nickel oxy hydroxide/ Ni

Electrolyte – KOH (6M)

Cd + 2OH- Cd(OH)2 + 2e

2NiO (OH) + 2H2O +2e 2Ni(OH)2 + 2OH-

Cd + 2NiOOH + 2H2O Cd(OH)2 + 2Ni(OH)2

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• The voltage of NI-Cd cell is 1.4 volt. It is very compact , light
weight, rechargeable battery with very low internal
resistance, good cycle life, capacity and long shelf life. They
are used in calculators, pacemakers, transmitters, hearing
aids and a host of others.

• Advantages – It is very reliable, sturdy and his long life

batteries which can be operated effectively at high discharge
rates and a wide temperature range. It is good retention
properties and it can be stored for long periods of life in any
condition without deterioration. Little maintenance is needed
for this battery.

• Application- Ni-Cd batteries are used in photography,

phones, computers, transmitter, hearing aids, emergency
light etc. Vented Ni-Cd batteries also find application in
railways, for marine duties, aircraft and traction batteries.
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3.7. Modern Batteries
1. Zinc – Air Battery

Anode –Granulated Zn power

Cathode – Air/C
Electrolyte – KOH (6M)

At anode Zn Zn2+ + 2e Eo = -1.20V

Zn2+ + 2OH Zn(OH)2

Zn(OH)2 ZnO + H2O
At cathode

1/2O2 + H2O + 2e 2OH- Eo = 0.45V

Zn + 1/2O2 ZnO Eo = 1.65V

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• Advantages – 1. High energy density
2. Flat discharge voltage
3. Long shelf life
4.No ecological problem
5. Low cost
6. Capacity independent of load and
temperature

• Application- hearing aids.

- electronic pagers, voice transmitters and various
medical device and so on

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2. Nickel–Metal Hydride Battery

Anode – A metal hydride, MH

Cathode –Nickel oxy hydroxide/ Ni
Electrolyte – KOH

At anode MH + OH- M + H2O + 2e Eo = -0. 83V

At cathode
Ni OOH + H2O + e Ni (OH)2 + 2OH- Eo = 0.52V

MH + NiOOH M + Ni (OH)2 Eo = 1.35V

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• Advantages – 1. High Capacity
2. no maintenance required
3. Minimum environmental problem
4. Rapid recharging capacity
5. Long cycle life
6. Long shelf life in a state of charge

• Application -Computers, cellular phones and other

portable

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3.8. Lithium Cell/ Batteries
1. Primary Lithium Battery

(i) Soluble cathode cell

(ii) Solid cathode cell
(iii) Solid electrolyte cell

(i) Soluble cathode cells ( Li/ SO2 Cl2 cell)

At anode 2Li 2Li2+ + 2e

At cathode SO2 Cl2 + 2e 2Cl- + SO2

2Li + SO2 Cl2 2LiCl + SO2

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(ii) Solid cathode cell
( a)Lithium- Manganese Dioxide [Li/MnO2 ]cell

At anode xLi xLi2+ + xe

At cathode xLi + xe + Mn2+O2 LiMn4+Mn3+O2

xLi + Mn4+O2 LiMn4+O2Mn3+O2 Eo = 3.5V

( b) Li/V2 O5 cell (Eo = 3.2V)

(iii) Solid electrolyte

-Lithium polymer electrolyte (Thin film solid state polymer)
8 March 2023 36
2. Secondary ( Rechargeable)Lithium Battery

(i) Liquid organic electrolyte cells

(ii) Polymer electrolyte cells

(iii) Lithium ion cells Polymer electrolyte cell

(iv) Inorganic electrolyte cells

(v) Lithium alloy cells

Lithium ion cell

8 March 2023 37
(i) Liquid Organic electrolyte cell

(a) Anode: Lithium metal

(b) Cathode: [LiCoO2,LiNiO2 ,MnO2 ,V2O5]

(c) Electrolyte : LiAsF6.PC/EC

(d) Separator : Polypropylene

At anode xLi xLi2+ + xe

At cathode xLi + xe + LiCoO2 LiCoO2

8 March 2023 38
 Fuel Cells
• Fuel cell technology offers the opportunity of creating
environmental friendly portable power supplies capable of
producing enough energy to run devices and motor
vehicles.
• Electrochemical conversion of free energy change of redox
reactions at the electrode into electrical energy is the
working principle of any type of cell.
• The electrode reactions of primary batteries are irreversible
and the cell produces EMF as a long as the active materials
are present in the cell while the net cell reactions of
secondary storage batteries are completely reversible and
such batteries are recharging.

8 March 2023 39
• A fuel cell which is an electrochemical device, always
operates with continuous replenishment of the fuel at the
electrode and consequently, it does not require any
recharging.
• A fuel cell is a device that converts the chemical energy of a
fuel (hydrogen, natural gas, methanol, gasoline, etc.) and
an oxidant (air or oxygen) into electricity.
• A fuel cell also has two electrode and an electrolyte. In a fuel
cell device, fuel and oxidizing agents are continuously and
separately fed into their respective electrodes, at which they
undergo redox reactions generating electrical energy.

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A fuel cell may be represented as
Fuel/electrode/electrolyte/electrode/ oxidant,
Like any electrochemical cell,
At anode,
fuel undergoes oxidation, Fuel oxidized product + ne
At cathode
Oxidant gets reduced, Oxidant + ne reduced product

The electrical energy produced in a fuel cell corresponds to the

free energy change of the electrode processes,
-∆G = nFE
Where,
-∆G = the decrease of free energy of the fuel cell reaction
n= the number of electrons involved, E = EMF in volts,
F= Faraday
8 March 2023 41
3.9 Merits of Fuel Cells

1. High efficiency of conversion of free energy into electric

energy
2. Silent operation
3. Recharging is not required
4. Less attention is needed
5. Harmless waste products and eco-friendly

3.10. Classification of Fuel Cells

1. Low temperature (< 100 ˚C)
2. Moderate temperature [100-200 ˚C)
3. High Temperature( <500 ˚C)

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3.11 Types of Fuel Cells

1. Alkaline fuel cells ( AFC)

2. Phosphoric acid fuel cells (PAFC)
3. Molten carbonate fuel cells (MCFC)
4. Polymer electrolyte membrane fuel cells (PEMFC)
5. Solid oxide fuel cells (SOFC) and
6. Biochemical fuel cells (BCFC)

3.11.1. Alkaline fuel cells ( AFC)

(a) Hydrogen –oxygen alkaline fuel cells
(b) Methyl alcohol oxygen alkaline fuel cells

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3.11.1. Alkaline fuel cell, ( AFC)
In alkaline fuel cells ( AFCs) as shown in fig . Liquid electrolyte like
solutions of NaOH or KOH are used, Pure oxygen or air is used as the
oxidant. The fuels of the cells are hydrogen or any hydrocarbons. Low
temperatures, highly active catalysts are required. Silver and high surface Ni
catalyst are also used. Cheaper catalyst normally require higher operating
temperature eg. 200-250 ˚C for Ni catalyst. At these temperatures, either a
high pressure of high concentration solutions must be used to prevent water
loss.

The operating temperature of AFC is about 70 ˚C and their power

output is 10-100kW. They have been widely used for space and defense
applications, where pure hydrogen is used. Their excessive cost and
sensitivity to CO2, have restricted their research and development no matter
their high
8 March 2023 efficiency and power density. 44
 Fuel : Hydrogen or any hydrocarbon
 Electrolyte : KOH
 Electrolyte state : Immobilised liquid
 Electrode : Porous carbon or graphite
 Catalysts : Platinum /Rhodium or Ni
 Charge carrier : OH- ions
 Operating temp : 60-80 ˚C
 Co- generating heat : Low quality
 Fuel cell efficiency : 40-50%

Anode H2 + 2OH- 2H2O + 2e

Cathode 1/2H2 + H2O + 2e 2OH-
Overall H2 + 1/2O2 H2O

Applications AFC is widely used in US space programmene to

produce electrical energy and water onboard spacecraft.
8 March 2023 45
(a) Hydrogen –oxygen Alkaline Fuel Cell
An H2-O2 fuel cell device consist of two porous carbon
electrodes as shown in fig; The anode is a porous carbon electrode
coated with Nickel, platinum catalyst and the cathode of the porous
carbon is impregnated with Ag catalyst to facilitate the desired
electrode reaction. Hydrogen is flushed into the anodic compartment
of the cell, where oxidation reaction occurs, while O2, the oxidant,
diffuses into the cathode porous carbon containing silver catalyst.

Fig The construction of H2-O2 fuel cell

8 March 2023 46
(a) Hydrogen –oxygen Alkaline fuel Cell (HOAFC)

• Fuel – Hydrogen –oxygen

• Electrolyde – KOH
• Electrolyde state – Immobilised liquid
• Electrodes –Two porous carbon
• Catalysts – Porous carbon electrodes coated with Ni/ Pt
• catalyst (Anode)
• - Porous carbon is impregnated with Ag catalyst
• (Cathode)
• Charge carrier- OH- ions
• Electrode reactions of HOAFC are

8 March 2023 47
At anode 2H2 4H+ + 4e

At cathode O2 + 2H2O + 4e 4OH-

Overall 2H2 + O2 2H2O

The H2-O2 fuel cell generates a voltage of 1.15 V, as long

as continuous supply of H2 and O2 is maintained.

8 March 2023 48
(b )Methyl alcohol oxygen alkaline fuel cells
In this fuel cell, CH3OH is used as a fuel and O2 as oxidant to
generate electrical energy. The fig shows a typical CH3OH-O2 fuel cell.

The methyl alcohol oxygen alkaline fuel cell has two

electrodes. The anode consist of porous nickel electrode impregnated
with Pt/Pd catalyst. Porous nickel electrode coated with silver catalyst
constitute a cathode of the cell.

The electrolyte KOH, is taken in between the two electrodes

CH3OH and O2 are sent continuously into the respective electrodes as
shown in fig. and the electrical energy is produced with the continuous
replenishment of the fuel, CH3OH at the anode.

8 March 2023 49
 (b) Methyl Alcohol – Oxygen Alkaline Fuel Cell

• Fuel - Methyl Alcohol – Oxygen

• Electrolyde – KOH
• Electrolyde state – Immobilised liquid
• Electrodes – Fuel cell has two electrodes
• Catalysts – Porous nickel electrodes impregnated with Pt/ Pd
• catalyst (Anode)
• - Porous nickel electrodes coated with silver
• catalyst (cathode)
• Charge carrier – OH- ions
• Electrode reactions of Methyl Alcohol – Oxygen Alkaline Fuel
Cell are

8 March 2023 50
At anode CH3OH + 6OH- CO2 + 5H2O + 6e
At cathode 3/2O2 + 3H2O + 6e 6OH-
Overall CH3OH + 3/2O2 CO2 + 2H2O

Fig. A typical CH3OH-O2 fuel cell

8 March 2023 51
3.11.2. Phosphoric acid fuel cell [ PAFC]

 Fuel : Hydrocarbon
 Electrolyte : Phosphoric acid
 Electrolyte state : Immobilized liquid
 Electrode : Porous carbon or graphite
 Catalysts : Platinum /Rhodium/Gold/ Tantalum
 Charge carrier : H+ ions
 Operating temp : 200 ˚C
 Co- generating heat : Low quality
 Fuel cell efficiency : 40-50%

Anode H2 + 2OH- 2H2O + 2e

Cathode 1/2O2 + H2O + 2e 2OH-
Overall H2 + 1/2O2 H2O
8 March 2023 52
 The design of phosphoric acid fuel cells is similar to an AFC (
Fig.) except that phosphoric acid is used as the electrolyte in the case
of hydrocarbon fuels.
The acid electrolyte cells are more tolerant to CO2 and allow
the use of normal air and impure hydrogen. But the corrosion problem
restricts the choice of construction materials especially for the
electrodes and catalysts.
The electrodes can be made out of gold , tantalum , titanium
and carbon and only platinum group metals can be used as catalysts.
The phosphoric acid electrolyte is used in the cell so that only water is
lost by evaporation. The electrolyte in the PAFC is a paper matrix
saturated with phosphoric acid transporting the hydrogen ions. The
operating temperature is around 200 ˚C .
8 March 2023 53
 PAFCs have an operating temperature of 200 ˚C. The efficiency of
this system is much lower than that of the other system at 40% .

It is the FC that has mostly been exploited, mainly due to its high
grade heat, which can be used in small-scale CHP especially at military
sites and UPS systems fuelled with hydrogen, natural gas, LPG and
methane from waste water purification plants. The power output varies
from 200 to 20MW.

The main advantage is that it has no self starting capability

because at lower temperatures (40-50 ˚C) freezing of concentrated
phosphoric acid.

Applications PAFC is typically used for the stationary generation, but

some PAFCs have been used to power large vehicles such as city
buses.
8 March 2023 54
3.11.3. Molten Carbonate fuel cell (MCFC)
It is know that the rate of electrode reactions and the electrical
conductivity of the electrolyte increases appreciably at high
temperatures. Majority of the fuel cells use fairly high concentrations
of aqueous electrolytes to minimize the polarization effects.
At high temperature, loss of water by evaporation could be
there for aqueous electrolytes. In order to overcome these difficulties,
fused carbonates [ or a eutectic mixture of lithium carbonates and
sodium carbonate or potassium carbonate in LiAIO2 matrix] are used
as electrolytes (Fig.).
The high temperature not only improves the electrical
conductivity of the electrolyte but also increase the rate of electrode
reactions.
8 March 2023 55
 Fuel : Hydrogen
 Electrolyte :Mixture of alkali carbonates
 Electrolyte state : Immobilized liquid
 Electrode : (i) Anode: Porous Ni powder alloyed with Cr
(ii) Cathode: Porous NiO doped with Li
 Catalysts : Nickel Oxide
 Charge carrier : CO32- ions
 Operating temp : 650 ˚C
 Co- generating heat : High
 Fuel cell efficiency : 50- 60 %

Anode H2 + CO32- H2O + CO32- + 2e

Cathode 1/2O2 + CO2 + 2e CO32-
Overall H2 + 1/2O2 H2O

Applications MCFCs are currently being developed for natural gas and
coal- based power plants for electrical utility, industrial and military
applications.

8 March 2023 56
3.11.4. Polymer Electrolyte Membrane Fuel Cell (PEMFC)

Steadily increasing requirements for portable electric power

have stimulated the interest to develop more efficient and more
energetic fuel cells.
A polymer membrane fuel cell (PEMFC) is one of the best
candidates as a portable power source for commercial applications
primarily because of its light weight , high energy, high power , non
emission and lower temperature operation.
The PEMFC’s with ‘Nafion’ membrane as electrolyte have
received much attention. Nafion is a per fluorinated cationic exchange
polymer membrane. It has shown good conductivity and stability up to
100 ˚C in the fuel cell operating environmental conditions.
8 March 2023 57
 Fuel : Hydrogen
 Electrolyte : Ion exchange polymer membrane
 Electrolyte state : Solid
 Electrode : Carbon or metal based
 Catalysts : Platinum
 Charge carrier : H+ ions
 Operating temp : 80 ˚C
 Co- generating heat : None
 Fuel cell efficiency : 60%
Anode H2 2H+ + 2e
Cathode 1/2O2 + 2H+ + 2e 2H2O
Overall H2 + 1/2O2 H2O

Applications PEMFC is used primary for transportation

application and some stationary applications.
8 March 2023 58
3.11.5. Solid Oxide Fuel Cell
High temperature solid oxide fuel cell offer a clean, pollution
free technology to electrochemically generate electricity at high
efficiencies. These fuel cells provide many advantages over traditional
energy conversion systems including high efficiency, reliability, fuel
adaptability and very low levels of NO and SO emission.

The high oxygen ion conductivity over a wide range of

temperature and oxygen pressure in stabilized cubic zirconia has led
to its use as a solid oxide electrolyte in a variety of electrochemical
applications. Zirconia based sensors are widely used for high
temperature solid oxide fuel cell (SOFCs)

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 Fuel : Hydrogen
 Electrolyte : Yettria stabilized zirconia
 Electrolyte state : Solid
 Electrode : Carbon or metal based
 Catalysts : Ceramic
 Charge carrier : O2- ions
 Operating temp : 1000 ˚C
 Co- generating heat : high
 Fuel cell efficiency : 50-60%
Anode O2- + H2 H2O+ 2e
Cathode 1/2O2 +2e O2-
Overall H2 + 1/2O2 H2O

Applications SOFCs are now being considered for large power plants
and for industrial applications because of its electrolytic resistance to
poisoning which allows internal reforming of many carbon compounds
into hydrogen to create power.
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The charge carrier of SOFC is
A. Hydrogen ion B. Carbon trioxide ion C. Hydroxide ion D.Oxygen ion

In which of the following the net cell reaction is irreversible?

A. Zn- MnO2 B. Pb-H2SO4 C. Ni-MH D. Ni-Cd

An example of reserve batteries is

A. Li-V2O5 B. Zn-MnO2 C. Ni-Cd D. Zn-Fe

In a dry-cell anode is made up of

A. Zinc B. Calcium C. Sodium D. Cadmium

Which of the following cells is not rechargeable?

A. Lead storage cell B. Fuel cell C. AgO - Zn cell D. Ni- Cd cell

In alkaline cell, the electrolyde is

A. Dilute H2SO4 B. NaOH C. KOH D. None of these
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