CHAPTER FOUR

CALCULATIONS AND METHODS

4.1 CALCULATION OF ENERGY GAP IN LOW TEMPERATURE

SUPERCONDUCTORS (LTS) AND HIGH TEMPERATURE
SUPERCONDUCTORS (HTS)

There is a widely accepted temperature that separate low temperature superconductors

from high temperature superconductors. However, all superconductors know before the
discovery of superconductor oxocuprate would be classified as “low temperature
superconductors (LTS) the lanthanum based cuprate with critical temp. (TC) of about 35k is
generally considered to be the first high temperature superconductor.
Certainly, any compound that would superconductor above the boiling point of liquid
nitrogen of 77k would be termed a high temperature superconductor (HTS)
The use of high temperature superconductor (HTS) in the levitation system has received
considerable attention since iits discovery in 1987. One of the unique characteristics of high
temperature superconductor (HTS) is its unique flux trapping capabilities which enables a stable
levitation/suspension over a permanent magnet. Until 1986, Physicist has believed that the BCS
theory forbade superconductivity at temperature above 30k. In that same year, Bednorz and
Muller discovered superconductivity in a lanthanum based cuprate perovskite material which had
a critical temperature (TC) of about 35k. It was shortly found that replacing the lanthanum with
yttrium i.e making YBCO, raised the critical temp. (TC) to 92k. Many other cuprate
superconductor have since been discovered, and the superconductivity in these materials is one
of the major outstanding challenges of theoretical condensed matter physics.
From about 1993, the highest temperature superconductor was ceramic material
consisting of thallium, mercury copper, barium, calcium and oxygen. With a critical temp of
about 138k. In Feb. 2008, an iron based family of high temperature superconductors was also
discovered. (Vidali G.; 2017).
In the classification of superconductors according to the Gindzburg-Landau (G-L) theory
and BCS theory, it shows that the highest critical temperature for (LTS) is 30K. This indicates
that superconductors above this critical temperature of differentiation would be termed the “high
temperature superconductors”. Therefore, below are a list of superconductors that have critical
temperature range of 0-30K and are termed the low temperature superconductors, (LTS), while
the others from critical range of 31-150K are grouped as “high temp. Superconductors (HTS)”
The table below illustrate these categories and the measurement of their energy gap.
Table 7: Measurement of energy gap of some materials
S/N Materials Analysis of energy gap (Eg) by the Energy gap (eg) in ev
BCS theory
1. Gallium (GA) From E= 7/2 KTC where k = 1.38 x 5.313 x 10-13
10-23 TC= 1.1 for Ga. Eg = 7/2 1.38
x 10-23 x 1.1
2. Aluminum Tc = 1.2, Eg = 7/2 x 1.38 x 10 -23 x 5.796 x 10-23
(AL) 1.2
3. Indium (IN) Tc = 3.4, Eg = 7/2 x 1.38 x 10 -23 x 1.64 x 10-22
3.4
4. Tin (Sn) Tc = 3.7, Eg = 7/2 x 1.38 x 10 -23 x 1.79 x 10-22
3.7
5. Mecury (Hg) Tc = 4.2, E.g = 7/2 x 1.38 x10 -23 x 2.0286 x 10-22
4.2
6. Lead (Pb) Tc = 7.2 Eg = 7/2 x 1.38 x10-23 x 7.2 3.4776 x 10-22
7. Niobium (Nb) Tc = 9.3 Eg = 7/2 x 1.38 x10-23 x 9.3 4.4919 x 10-22
8. Niobium – Tin Tc = 17.9 Eg = 7/2 x 1.38 x10 -23 x 8.6457 x 10-22
(Nbsn) 17.9
9. Rhodium (Rh) Tc = 0 Eg = 7/2 x 1.38 x10-23 x 0 OeV
10. Iridium (Ir) Tc = 0.1 Eg = 7/2 x 1.38 x10-23 x 0.1 4.83 x 10-24 Ev
11. Lutetium (Lu) Tc = 0.1 Eg = 7/2 x 1.38 x10-23 x 01 4.83 x 10-24 eV
12. Tungsten (w) Tc = 0.015 Eg = 7/2 x 1.38 x10-23 x 7.248 x 10-25 eV
0.015
13. Hafnium (Hf) Tc = 0.5 Eg = 7/2 x 1.38 x10-23 x 0.5 2 x 415 x 10-23 eV
14. Ruthenium (Ru) Tc = 0.5 Eg = 7/2 x 1.38 x10-23 x 0.5 2.415 x 10-23 eV
15. Osmium (Os) Tc = 0.7 Eg = 7/2 x 1.38 x10-23 x 0.7 3.38 x 10-23 eV
16. Molybdenum Tc = 0.92 Eg = 7/2 x 1.38 x10-23 x 92 4.436 x 10-23 eV
 (Mo)
17. Zirconium (Zr) Tc = 0.546 Eg = 7/2 x 1.38 x10-23 x 2.63718 x 10-23
0.546
18. Cadmium (Cd) Tc = 0.56 Eg = 7/2 x 1.38 x10-23 2.7048 x 10-23
x0.56
19. Uranium (U) Tc = 0.2 Eg = 7/2 x 1.38 x10-23 x 0.2 9.66 x 10-24 eV
20. Zinc (Zn) Tc = 0.85 Eg = 7/2 x 1.38 x10 -23 x 4.1055 x 10-23
0.85
21. Titanium (Ti) Tc = 2.39 Eg = 7/2 x 1.38 x10-23 1.15437 x 10-23
x2.39
22. Tantalum (Ta) Tc = 4.47 Eg = 7/2 x 1.38 x10 -23 x 2.2590 x 10-23
4.47
23. Protactinium (Pa) Tc=1.4 Eg = 7/2 x 1.38 x10-23 x 1.4 6.673 x 10-23
24. Rhenium (Rc) Tc = 1.4 Eg = 7/2 x 1.38 x10-23 x 1.4 6.672 x 10-23 eV
25. Thorium (Th) Tc = 1.4 Eg = 7/2 x 1.38 x10-23 x 1.4 6.672 x 10-23 eV
26. Vanadium (V) Tc = 5.38 Eg = 7/2 x 1.38 x10 -23 x 2.59854 x 10-23 eV
5.38

Table 8: High temperature superconductors (HTS)

S/N Materials Analysis of energy gap (Eg) by the BCS theory Energy gap
(eg) in ev
1. YBCO From E = 3.5kte Where K = Boltmann Constant = 4.446 x 10-21
1.38k 10-23 And Tc = 92k for YBO Eg = 3.5 x eV
1038 x 109-23 x 92k
2. Ti-Ba-cu oxide Tc = 125k 6.4 x 10-21 eV
Eg = 3.5 x 1.38 x 10-23 x 125
3. Hg Ba Tc = 135k 6.52 x 10-21 eV
2 C02C0308 Eg = 3.5 x 1.38 x 10-23 x 133
4. Co-o Look 4.83 x 10-21 eV
peroviskite type Eg = 3.5 x 1.38 x 10-23 x 100
5. HyBa2c004+ Tc = 98k
Eg = 3.5 x 1.38 x 10-23 x 123
6. Hg Ba2(Ca- Tc = 123 5.9409 x 10-21
xgr) Eg = 3.5 x 1.38 x 10-23 x 123 eV
7. La 1.88ro. Tc = 40k 3.72 x 10-21 eV
2c004 Eg = 3.5 x 1.38 x 10-23 x 40
8. La1.8sr0-1c004 Tc = 36k 1.74 x 10-2 eV
Eg = 3.5 x 1.38 x 10-23 36

4.2 COMPARISON OF DATA VALUE

Analysis of the investigation of the energy gap in oxide high temperature superconductor
by the method of termed effect electron photo emission, 1R absorption, Raman scattering of light
and other indicate satisfactory agreement of result obtain by the different method for all the
oxide superconductor with Tc ≥30K, the ratio 2/KTC = 5-6 in significantly greater than the value
predicted by the BCS theory. The deviation of experimented data near the edge and bottom of
the gap from the value that follows from the traditional model from the distribution in energy of
excitation are within the limit of accuracy of the measurement. The data obtained do not
contradict the ideals concerning the electron-phonon mechanism of superconductivity in the
oxide superconductors that has been investigated.
We present the data of the point context (pc) Andrew-reflection measurement on the new
paramagnetic superconductors M0 3567, which were used in finding the energy gap and upper
critical field HC2 for this compound. The maximum gap value reduced to zero temperature via
the BCS Δ (0) = 0.2mV which is slightly smaller than that expected from the BCS theory. Which
turned out to be Δ (0) = 0.35meV. The temperature dependence of the gap obey the bes theory
approximately. The HC2 (0) value of about 16.5koe was obtained from fitting the experimental
data to the conventional H (T) which is quadratic in temperature. This value is in close
agreement with the result from magnetization measurement of 17.2koe.
A method of designing improved monolithic planner arrays of superconductivity tunnel
junction (stjs) for use of photo detector has been convinced. These array would be suitable foe
detecting images at low light levels. They are for operation in the individual photon-counting
regime. They measure the individual photo energies. As such, the stj: array would be compact
sensors that would perform the function now performed by bulkier equipment in the form of
photon multipliers and spectrometers. Eventually, it should be possible to use stg arrays for suck
demanding application as simulations merging and spectroscopy of faint astronomical object.
Usually, an Stj photo detector containing three superconductors with different super
conducting energy gaps. Photons in the energy range of interest are absorbed in the
superconductor with the intermediate energy gap. The superconductor and the one with the
lowest electrical insulation thin energy that photo excited quasi-particle can tunnel through it.
Together, the intermediate and lowest energy gap superconductors and the insulating layer
between them constitute the detector junction. The superconductor with the highest energy gap is
for wiring to the other two superconductor in a typical previously developed STJ array separate
electrical connections are made to each photo detectors.
4.3 PSEUDO GAP
The working principle of high temperature superconductive (HTS) materials are a
mystery wrapped in an enigma. However, a term of researchers from ALS, Brook Haven
National Laboratory, and Cornell University part of this mystery-the nature and origin of the
pseudo gap. Using angle resolved photo emission spectroscopy (ARPES) and scanning
tunnelong microscopy (STM), they have determined the electronic structure of La2BaCu04
(LBCO), a unique system in which superconductivity is strongly suppressed near a doping level
of x = 1/8.
A “pseudo-gap is a term from the field of high temperature superconductivity (HTS)
which describe an energy (normally near the Fermi energy) which has very few states associated
with it. This is very similar to a “gap”, which is an energy that has no allowed states. Such gaps
open up for example, when electron interact with lattice. The pseudo gap is a zone of the phase
diagram genetic.
Interestingly, only certain electron “see” this gap. Which can be associated with an
insulating state, only exist for electron travelling parallel to the copper-oxygen bonds.
Electron travelling at 45 degree to this bond can move freely throughout the crystal. The
Fermi surface therefore consist of Fermi arcs forming pockets centred on the on the corner of the
Brillouin zone. In the pseudo gap phase, these arcs gradually disappear as the tempo. Is lowered
until only four points on the diagonal of the Brillouin zone remain un-gapped on one hand
electronic phase which consumes available state. Leaving only a few to pair up and super
conduct. On the other hand, the similarity between this partial gap and that in the super
conducting state could indicate that the pseudo gap result from performed copper pairs.
A pseudo gap can be seen with several experimental method. One of the first observation
was in specific heat measurement of YBa2CU306 by Loran et al. The pseudo gap is also
apparent in ARPES (Angle Resolved Photo Emission Spectroscopy) data, which can be measure
the density of the state of electron in a material. The origin of the pseudo gap is controversial and
still subject to debate in the condensed matter community two main are emerging.
4.3.1 The Scenario Of Performed Pairs
In this scenario electron form pairs at temperature that can be much larger than the
critical temperature Tc where superconductivity appears. T of the order of 300k have been
measured in under doped cuprates were Tc is about 80k. The superconductivity does not appear
at T because large fluctuation of the pairing field cannot order at this temperature. The pseudo
gap is then produced by non-coherent fluctuation of the pairing field. The pseudo gap is a normal
state precurser of the superconducting gap due to local, dynamic paining correlation. This point
of view is supported and confirmed by a model approach of the altercative pairing model to
specific heat experiment.
4.3.2 The Scenario of a Non-Superconducting Related Pseudo Gap.
In the class of scenario, many different origins have been put forward like the formation
of electronic stripes, antiferromagnetic ordering, exotic order parameter competing with super
conducting.
4.4 EFFECT OF IMPURITY
The effect of magnetic impurities in superconductors.
The problem of magnetic impurities in superconductors has been of great interest for a
long time. It involves the competition of two distinct phenomena. The superconducting state
characterized by a transition temperature Tco is formed by the coherent paring of electron which
times reversal symmetry, on the other hand, the magnetic moment on the impurity characterized
by a kondo Tk, temperature, couples anti-Ferro magnetically to the conduction electron are
locally break the time reversal symmetry. This even a small amount of magnetic impurities can
strongly reduce the temperature or, below the transition, break the pairs and form states within
the super conducting gap.
 Although many theoretical attempts have been made to study the problem, most of them
are based upon peturbative approaches specialized for either
Tk << TcO OR
Tk >> TcO. (4.1)
To bridge the gap between these regimes we employ QMC to simulate the impurity and
Eliashberg Migdal formalism to treat the super conducting host. This gives us an essentially
exact treatment of the problem over the entire region of interest and provides the only treatment
of the problem which is consistent with experiment among other things, we find that both the
initial suppression of the transition temperature and the super conducting transition temperature
are universal function of
TK
TCO (4.2)
(With a prefactor depending upon the electron-phonon coupling strength). Below the transition,
the suppression of the super conducting gap as well as the location of the gap states are given
universal. However, the ground state of the impurity changes from the singlet, when
Tk < TcO (4.3a)
And to a doublet when
Tk > TcO (4.34b)
Much of the physics of the system can be simply understood from this crossover.

4.5 CO-EXISTENCE OF ANTI FERROMAGNETISM AND

SUPERCONDUCTIVITY, A STRONG COUPLING-PERSPERCTIVE.
We introduce a tight binding model for spin-carrying nearest neighbour cooper pairs.
This model allows us investigate in a simple setting, the interplay between spin-ordering and
superconductivity. We obtain a very rich mean-field phase diagram. Most interestingly, we find a
region where the first other transition from the half-filling anti ferromagnet to the singlet
superconductor is split into two second order lines. Between these is found a co-existence phases
where the spines of the electron forming the copper pairs exhibit Neel orders for a special choice
of one of the model parameters, the co-existence phase can be interpreted as a gradual rotation of
Zhang’s 80(5) super spin from anti-ferromagnetic to the superconducting direction we discuss
the fluctuations are included focusing especially on the role of the on site repulsion in destroying
the 80 (5) symmetry.