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SECOND ORDER CONDITIONING AND GENERALIZATION

Submitted By
Saman Ali Khan
Semester 7th
20109

Subject
Experimental Psychology

Submitted To
Ma’am Saba

Department of Psychology

Government Post Graduate Girls College, Haripur

Session: 2020_24
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Table of Content

S.No Topics Page No

1. Introduction Of Second Order Conditioning 3

2. Basic Components 3

3. Phases of SOC 4

4. Examples 6

a. Humans

b. Animals

5. Significance 7

6. Applications 8

7. Limitations 8

8. Generalization 9

9. Definition 9

10. Examples 10

11. Types 12

12. Importance 13

13. References 14
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Introduction

Second Order Conditioning (SOC) is a fundamental concept in classical

conditioning, a type of associative learning pioneered by Russian physiologist Ivan

Pavlov. While classical conditioning involves pairing a neutral stimulus with an

unconditioned stimulus (US) to elicit a conditioned response (CR), Second Order

Conditioning takes this a step further by introducing a second neutral stimulus into the

process.

Second-order conditioning is a form of associative learning in which, after a

stimulus becomes conditioned through an initial step of association (first-order

conditioning), it acquires the properties of an unconditioned stimulus and becomes the

basis for a subsequent stimulus to become conditioned (second-order conditioning). A

subsequent new stimulus does not need to be paired with the initial stimulus and can still

generate similar results. Second-order conditioning is a type of higher-order conditioning.

Basic Components

a. Conditioned Stimulus 1 (CS1):

CS1 is the original conditioned stimulus, often well-established through prior

conditioning. It is associated with the US and can trigger a CR on its own.

b. Conditioned Stimulus 2 (CS2 or NS2):

CS2, also known as the neutral stimulus 2 (NS2), is the new element introduced in the

second-order conditioning phase. It's a neutral stimulus initially, meaning it doesn't

naturally evoke the desired response.

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c. Unconditioned Stimulus (US) and Unconditioned Response (UR):

The US is a stimulus that naturally triggers an unlearned response, known as the UR.

Phases Of Higher Or Second Order Conditioning

The first is acquisition when the conditioned stimulus (conditioned stimulus) and

unconditioned stimulus (unconditioned stimulus) are paired together.

In the second phase, extinction, the conditioned stimulus is presented without the

unconditioned stimulus.

In the final phase, spontaneous recovery, the Conditioned Stimulus is presented again

after a period of time in which it was not present (Williams, 2002).

1. Acquisition

In the first phase of higher-order conditioning, the conditioned stimulus (conditioned

stimulus) and unconditioned stimulus (unconditioned stimulus) are paired together.

For example, if a tone is paired with food, then the tone will come to elicit salivation.

This pairing of the conditioned stimulus and Unconditioned Stimulus is known as

conditioning (Williams, 2002).

2. Extinction

As with first-order conditioning, higher-order conditioning is subject to extinction —

that is, the conditioned response will disappear if the conditioned stimulus is no longer

associated with the unconditioned stimulus.

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However, higher-order conditioning is often more resistant to extinction than first-

order conditioning (Williams, 2002).

In the second phase of higher-order conditioning, the conditioned stimulus is

presented without the unconditioned stimulus.

For example, if the tone is presented without food, then it will no longer elicit salivation.

This is because the conditioned stimulus has become associated with the

unconditioned stimulus (in this case, food), and so when the unconditioned stimulus is

not present, the conditioned response (CR) — in this case, salivation — is also not

elicited (Williams, 2002).

Spontaneous recovery

In the final phase of higher-order conditioning, the Conditioned Stimulus is

presented again after a period of time in which it was not present.

For example, if the tone is presented again after a period of time in which it was not

paired with food, then it will once again come to elicit salivation.

This is because the association between the conditioned stimulus and

unconditioned stimulus has not been completely extinguished, and so the CR can still be

elicited (Williams, 2002).

Evaluative Vs. Higher-Order Conditioning

Evaluative conditioning (EC) refers to attitude change in an organism due to an

object’s pairing with positive or negative stimuli. Adopting the terminology of Pavlovian
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conditioning, the former is called the conditioned stimulus (conditioned stimulus), and

the latter is the unconditioned stimulus (unconditioned stimulus).Attitude change can be

measured in self-report, cognitive tasks (e.g., lexical decision tasks), and physiological

indices. Higher-order conditioning is thought to be a more powerful form of learning than

evaluative conditioning because it involves two stages of conditioning (the conditioned

stimulus being conditioned to the unconditioned stimulus and then the unconditioned

stimulus being conditioned to the conditioned stimulus).

Evaluative conditioning only involves one stage (the unconditioned stimulus

being conditioned to the conditioned stimulus).This means that higher-order conditioning

is more likely to produce long-lasting attitude change than evaluative conditioning in an

experimental context (Martin & Levey, 1978).

Examples Of Higher Order Conditioning In Humans

Fear Conditioning

Higher-order conditioning has also been found to occur in humans.

For example, one study found that after participants were exposed to pictures of snakes

and spiders paired with an unpleasant noise, they exhibited increased fear responses when

shown pictures of the animals alone.

Conditioned emotional responses (CERs) can be elicited through higher-order

conditioning. For example, after pairing a picture of a snake with an unpleasant noise, the

picture alone may elicit fear.

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Posttraumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD)

It is an example of second order conditioning in humans.

In PTSD, a traumatic event is the US, and patients’ fear response is the UR.

Phase 1 – During the trauma, environmental cues become a conditioned stimulus

(CS1) through first-order aversive conditioning. For instance, if the patient saw a fearful

face right before an accident, then the fearful face becomes CS1.

Phase 2 – Later, CS1 becomes associated with another environmental cue through SOC.

The fearful face is associated with a knock on the door. Then the knocking becomes CS2.

Phase 3 – Afterwards, even though the traumatic experience and fearful faces are no

longer present, the knocking may still trigger fear responses.

Second Order Conditioning In Animals

Here is the training procedure Pavlov (1927) used on his dog .

Phase 1 – Initial training involved pairing the sound of a metronome (CS1) with the

presentation of food (US) to trigger salivation in the dog (CR).

Phase 2 – Further training was done to pair a black square (CS2) with the sound of a

metronome to trigger salivation in the dog.

Phase 3 – Finally, the dog salivated at the sight of the black square, even in the absence

of the metronome.
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Significance

SOC illustrates the dynamic nature of learned associations, showcasing that

neutral stimuli (CS2) can acquire conditioned properties through their connection with

already conditioned stimuli (CS1). It sheds light on the intricacy of how organisms

develop responses to various stimuli, revealing a level of psychological adaptability.

Applications

Phobias and Conditioned Emotional Responses:

SOC provides insight into the formation of phobias, where traumatic experiences

(US) lead to fear responses (UR). Later, unrelated stimuli (CS1 and CS2) can evoke

anxiety due to their association with the initial traumatic event.

Behavioral Therapy:

SOC principles are applied in therapeutic practices like exposure therapy, where

gradually introducing stimuli associated with a phobia (CS2) can help desensitize

individuals.

Limitations

 SOC's effectiveness depends on the strength of the initial CS1 conditioning. If the

association between CS1 and the US is weak, CS2 may not acquire the same

conditioned properties.
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Generalization

Generalization is a concept of psychology that deals with learning and behavior. It

refers to the process whereby information or responses learned in one particular context

can be applied to others. For example, suppose a person learns to open a door by turning

the handle left. In that case, they will likely do it whenever they encounter another door,

regardless of its design.

Generalization helps individuals become more adaptive and allows them to easily

generalize what they have learned across different situations. By embracing this

approach, learners can reduce the time needed to master new skills and become proficient

in a much more efficient manner. However, there is a risk that over-generalization may

occur; this means that an individual has assumed more knowledge than they actually have

to lead them to make incorrect decisions or assumptions based on incomplete data or

experiences.

Definition Of Generalization

Generalization is a psychological phenomenon whereby people transfer what they

have learned in one context to other situations (Honig et al., 2018).

Scientifically speaking, it involves the process of forming responses or habits

based on prior learning experiences and applying them to new contexts. This process

helps the individual become more adaptive, allowing them to quickly develop new skills

and knowledge with minimal effort.

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According to Sofroniou (2015)

“…generalization is the tendency to respond in the same way to different but similar

stimuli” (p. 141).

For instance, when people learn to drive, they can quickly apply this skill to different cars

and roads, even if they lack specific knowledge.

Taylor and colleagues (2021) believe that:

“…humans and animals are able to generalize or transfer information from previous

experience so that they can behave appropriately in novel situations” (p. 1).

Generalization can operate at different levels, from simple behaviors such as liking a

certain type of music to more complex cognitive phenomena such as problem-solving.

Examples of Generalization

i. Riding a bike

When people learn to ride a bike, they develop a range of generalizable skills such as

balance and steering. When they start to learn to snowboard, they generalize their balance

skills, and are able to pick up snowboarding much faster than their friends.

ii. Manners

A child is taught to say ‘thank you’ to their mother every time she gives him

something. While he at first only does this at home, his teacher starts insisting on

manners, and because he has practiced it at home, he can start using those manners in

new contexts as well. He has generalized the skill of social etiquette.

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iii. Fear response generalization

If someone develops a fear of spiders, they may generalize this fear to other small

insects with multiple legs such as cockroaches. This person has applied their learned

fear response to in a process called stimulus generalization.

iv. Stereotyping

Assuming that all members of a certain group share the same characteristics because

you met someone once with those characteristics. For example, presuming that all elderly

people are technologically challenged. This is an example of hasty generalization.

v. Musical talent

An individual learns how to play the piano by drilling around specific notes, chords,

and finger positions until the pattern is ingrained in their memory. Eventually, this skill

can be applied to more complex pieces of music without relearning patterns each time.

Furthermore, when learning guitar, they can generalize their understanding of music

more easily and learn faster.

vi. Developing language skills

A child may learn to say ‘hello’ in one language from their parents, then generalize

this word when attempting to speak another language. In some circumstances, the same

word structure may exist across all languages, allowing this flexibility within language

learning for both children and adults.

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vii. Showing empathy

If someone has observed a positive response towards grief despite their own sadness,

they are likely to be empathetic in other difficult situations, even if they don’t know the

person facing the grief. So, they can easily transfer any learned behavior from one

context to another to provide comfort or assistance.

Types Of Generalization

1. Stimulus Generalization

Stimulus generalization is the process of generalizing learned responses from one

stimulus to another that is similar but different.

2. Response Generalization

Response generalization occurs when an individual develops awareness about

cause-effect relationships between certain stimuli and responses thanks to prior behavior

observance and experience (Shepard, 1958). This form of generalization allows

individuals to understand how they can use their learned responses in unfamiliar

situations as well.

3. Cognitive Generalization

Cognitive generalization involves the transfer of skills or knowledge across

contexts or tasks (Gupta et al., 2011).Unlike response generalizations that rely on known

behavior variables, cognitive generalizations allow individuals to apply previously

acquired knowledge outside social situations. For instance, students can apply math

principles from one subject matter (calculus) to other disciplines (physics).

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So, stimulus generalization, response generalization, and cognitive generalization

all involve utilizing past experiences for various scenarios. However, each form does so

slightly differently.

Importance Of Generalization

Generalization plays an important role in human lives, allowing us to draw upon

past experiences and knowledge to make sense of new situations. It promotes

adaptability, facilitates problem-solving, and encourages learning.

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References

FeldmanHall, O., Dunsmoor, J. E., Tompary, A., Hunter, L. E., Todorov, A., & Phelps,

E. A. (2018). Stimulus generalization as a mechanism for learning to

trust. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 115(7), E1690–

E1697. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1715227115

Gupta, A., Vig, L., & Noelle, D. C. (2011). A cognitive model for generalization during

sequential learning. Journal of Robotics, 2011, 1-

12. https://doi.org/10.1155/2011/617613

Honig, W. K., Fetterman, J. G., & Honig, W. K. (2018). Cognitive aspects of stimulus

control. New York: Psychology Press.

Jara E, Vila J, Maldonado A. Second-order conditioning of human causal

learning. Learning and Motivation. Published online August 2006:230-246.

doi:10.1016/j.lmot.2005.12.001

Martin, I., & Levey, A. B. (1978). Evaluative conditioning. Advances in Behaviour

research and Therapy, 1 (2), 57-101.

Sahley C, Rudy JW, Gelperin A. An analysis of associative learning in a terrestrial

mollusc. J Comp Physiol. Published online 1981:1-8. doi:10.1007/bf00612791

Shepard, R. N. (1958). Stimulus and response generalization: Deduction of the

generalization gradient from a trace model. Psychological Review, 65(4), 242-

256. https://doi.org/10.1037/h0043083

Skinner, B. F. (1971). Operant conditioning. The encyclopedia of education, 7, 29-33.

Sofroniou, A. (2015). Therapeutic psychology. LULU.

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Taylor, J., Cortese, A., Barron, H., Pan, X., Sakagami, M., & Zeithamova, D. (2021).

How do we generalize? Neuron Behav Data Anal Theory, 30(1), 1–

39. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC7613724/

Williams, B. A. (2002). Conditioned reinforcement. Encyclopedia of psychotherapy, 495-

502.