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CLASSICAL CONDITIONING

Submitted By
Saman Ali Khan
Semester 7th
20109

Subject
Clinical Psychology

Submitted To
Ma’am Aneesa

Department of Psychology

Government Post Graduate Girls College, Haripur

Session: 2020_24
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Table of Content

Classical Conditioning.......................................................................................................3

Brief History Of Classical Conditioning......................................................................3

Definition of Classical Conditioning.............................................................................3

Pavlov Theory.................................................................................................................4

The Pavlovian Impact....................................................................................................5

Technical Term..............................................................................................................5

How Does Classical Conditioning Work?....................................................................6

Phase 1: Before Conditioning.......................................................................................6

Phase 2: During Conditioning......................................................................................7

Phase 3: After Conditioning.........................................................................................7

Principles of Classical Conditioning.............................................................................8

1. Acquisition...............................................................................................................8

2. Extinction.................................................................................................................9

3. Spontaneous Recovery.............................................................................................9

4. Stimulus Generalization.........................................................................................10

5. Stimulus Discrimination.........................................................................................10

Classical Conditioning Experiments..........................................................................10

Pavlov’s Dogs.............................................................................................................10

Fear Response.............................................................................................................11

Contemporary Findings and Case Studies................................................................13

1. Classical conditioning and phobias.....................................................................13

2. Classical conditioning and social anxiety...........................................................14

Role Of Classical Conditioning In Different Behavioral Therapies........................15

References.....................................................................................................................20
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Classical Conditioning

Brief History Of Classical Conditioning

To understand classical conditioning theory, you first need to understand learning.

Learning is the process by which new knowledge, ideas, behaviors, and attitudes are

acquired (Rehman, Mahabadi, Sanvictores, & Rehman, 2020). Learning can occur

consciously or unconsciously (Rehman et al., 2020).

Classical conditioning is the process by which an automatic, conditioned response

and stimuli are paired (McSweeney & Murphy, 2014). A famous work on classical

conditioning is that by Russian physiologist Ivan Pavlov, born in 1849. His influence on

the study of classical conditioning has been tremendous. He won the Nobel Prize in

Physiology or Medicine for this piece of research (The Nobel Prize, n.d.). Classical

conditioning was discovered accidentally and was referred to as ‘Pavlovian conditioning’

(Pavlov, 1927).

Definition of Classical Conditioning

“Classical conditioning involves associating two stimuli in a way that one

stimulus comes to evoke a response that was originally evoked only by the other

stimulus.” It's about learning associations between stimuli and responses, often resulting

in a conditioned response to a previously neutral stimulus. This process highlights how

the mind can form connections between events in the environment, shaping behavior

based on those associations.

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Classical Conditioning Basics

Although classical conditioning was not discovered by a psychologist at all, it had

a tremendous influence over the school of thought in psychology known as behaviorism.

Behaviorism is based on the assumption that:

 All learning occurs through interactions with the environment

 The environment shapes behavior

It's important to note that classical conditioning involves placing a neutral signal before a

naturally occurring reflex. In Pavlov's classic experiment with dogs, the neutral signal

was the sound of a tone and the naturally occurring reflex was salivating in response to

food. By associating the neutral stimulus with the environmental stimulus (presenting of

food), the sound of the tone alone could produce the salivation response.

Pavlov Theory

When Pavlov discovered classical conditioning, he was performing unrelated

research on dog digestion. He noticed how the dogs' reactions to the food they were being

fed evolved based on stimuli in the test environment, which had nothing to do with the

actual food he was giving to them.

At the beginning of the experiment, the dogs would salivate only when presented

with food. Later on, other neutral noises, such as the food cart coming into the testing

area, began to make them salivate because it always occurred prior to the dogs being fed.
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To test out whether the dogs were actually being conditioned by external and

unrelated stimuli, Pavlov set up an experiment that involved ringing a bell right before

giving food to the dogs. After some time, the dogs began salivating after hearing the bell

without seeing or hearing the food cart come into the room.

The results of this discovery led Pavlov to develop the theory that behavior could

be learned simply by introducing consistent stimuli.

The Pavlovian Impact

Classical conditioning is often considered the most important discovery in the

history of psychology, because it forms the basis of behavioral psychology. It can be used

in a variety of different ways, from helping people with mental health disorders to

keeping domestic livestock safe from ravenous coyotes. Because of Pavlov's findings on

classical conditioning, the process is also sometimes called Pavlovian conditioning.

Technical Term

 Unconditioned stimulus (UCS): Unconditioned stimulus occurs when you have

an automatic response to a certain stimulus in a natural and unlearned way. For

example, if you cut an onion and your eyes tear up, that is an automatic response

and thus an unconditioned stimulus.

 Neutral stimulus (NS): A neutral stimulus in the environment does not evoke any

response by itself. It can, however, be used later to trigger a response.

 Conditioned stimulus (CS): A conditioned stimulus is one that used to be neutral

but has since garnered a response because it has been connected to a stimulus that

evokes that specific response.

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 Unconditioned response (UCR): An unconditioned response is automatic,

meaning that it is a type of response that just happens naturally. Using food as an

example, if you smell food you like, your mouth may begin to water in

anticipation of the meal. That is automatic.

 Conditioned response (CR): This response is learned based on a neutral-to-

conditioned stimulus.

How Does Classical Conditioning Work?

Classical conditioning basically involves forming an association between two

stimuli resulting in a learned response. There are three basic phases of this process:

Phase 1: Before Conditioning

The first part of the classical conditioning process requires a naturally occurring

stimulus that will automatically elicit a response. Salivating in response to the smell of

food is a good example of a naturally occurring stimulus.

During this phase of the processes, the unconditioned stimulus (UCS) results in an

unconditioned response (UCR). For example, presenting food (the UCS) naturally and

automatically triggers a salivation response (the UCR). At this point, there is also a

neutral stimulus that produces no effect - yet. It isn't until this neutral stimulus is paired

with the UCS that it will come to evoke a response.

Let's take a closer look at the two critical components of this phase of classical

conditioning. The unconditioned stimulus is one that unconditionally, naturally, and

automatically triggers a response.

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For example, when you smell one of your favorite foods, you may immediately

feel very hungry. In this example, the smell of the food is the unconditioned stimulus.

The unconditioned response is the unlearned response that occurs naturally in response to

the unconditioned stimulus. In our example, the feeling of hunger in response to the smell

of food is the unconditioned response.

Phase 2: During Conditioning

During the second phase of the classical conditioning process, the previously

neutral stimulus is repeatedly paired with the unconditioned stimulus. As a result of this

pairing, an association between the previously neutral stimulus and the UCS is formed.

At this point, the once neutral stimulus becomes known as the conditioned stimulus (CS).

The subject has now been conditioned to respond to this stimulus. The

conditioned stimulus is previously neutral stimulus that, after becoming associated with

the unconditioned stimulus, eventually comes to trigger a conditioned response. In our

earlier example, suppose that when you smelled your favorite food, you also heard the

sound of a whistle. While the whistle is unrelated to the smell of the food, if the sound of

the whistle was paired multiple times with the smell, the sound would eventually trigger

the conditioned response. In this case, the sound of the whistle is the conditioned

stimulus.

Phase 3: After Conditioning

Once the association has been made between the UCS and the CS, presenting the

conditioned stimulus alone will come to evoke a response even without the unconditioned

stimulus. The resulting response is known as the conditioned response (CR). The
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conditioned response is the learned response to the previously neutral stimulus. In our

example, the conditioned response would be feeling hungry when you heard the sound of

the whistle.

Principles of Classical Conditioning

Behaviorists have described a number of different phenomena associated with

classical conditioning. Some of these elements involve the initial establishment of the

response while others describe the disappearance of a response. These elements are

important in understanding the classical conditioning process.

1. Acquisition

Acquisition is the initial stage of learning when a response is first established and

gradually strengthened.

During the acquisition phase of classical conditioning, a neutral stimulus is

repeatedly paired with an unconditioned stimulus. As you may recall, an unconditioned

stimulus is something that naturally and automatically triggers a response without any

learning. After an association is made, the subject will begin to emit a behavior in

response to the previously neutral stimulus, which is now known as a conditioned

stimulus. It is at this point that we can say that the response has been acquired.

For example, imagine that you are conditioning a dog to salivate in response to

the sound of a bell. You repeatedly pair the presentation of food with the sound of the

bell. You can say the response has been acquired as soon as the dog begins to salivate in

response to the bell tone.

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Once the response has been established, you can gradually reinforce the salivation

response to make sure the behavior is well learned.

2. Extinction

Extinction is when the occurrences of a conditioned response decreases or

disappears. In classical conditioning, this happens when a conditioned stimulus is no

longer paired with an unconditioned stimulus.

For example, if the smell of food (the unconditioned stimulus) had been paired

with the sound of a whistle (the conditioned stimulus), it would eventually come to

evoke the conditioned response of hunger. However, if the unconditioned stimulus (the

smell of food) were no longer paired with the conditioned stimulus (the whistle),

eventually the conditioned response (hunger) would disappear.

3. Spontaneous Recovery

Sometimes a learned response can suddenly reemerge even after a period of

extinction. Spontaneous Recovery is the reappearance of the conditioned response after a

rest period or period of lessened response. For example, imagine that after training a dog

to salivate to the sound of a bell, you stop reinforcing the behavior and the response

eventually becomes extinct. After a rest period during which the conditioned stimulus is

not presented, you suddenly ring the bell and the animal spontaneously recovers the

previously learned response.

If the conditioned stimulus and unconditioned stimulus are no longer associated,

extinction will occur very rapidly after a spontaneous recovery.

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4. Stimulus Generalization

Stimulus Generalization is the tendency for the conditioned stimulus to evoke

similar responses after the response has been conditioned.

For example, if a dog has been conditioned to salivate at the sound of a bell, the

animal may also exhibit the same response to stimuli that are similar to the conditioned

stimulus. In John B. Watson's famous Little Albert Experiment, for example, a small

child was conditioned to fear a white rat. The child demonstrated stimulus generalization

by also exhibiting fear in response to other fuzzy white objects including stuffed toys and

Watson own hair.

5. Stimulus Discrimination

Discrimination is the ability to differentiate between a conditioned stimulus and

other stimuli that have not been paired with an unconditioned stimulus.

For example, if a bell tone were the conditioned stimulus, discrimination would

involve being able to tell the difference between the bell tone and other similar sounds.

Because the subject is able to distinguish between these stimuli, he or she will only

respond when the conditioned stimulus is presented.

Classical Conditioning Experiments

Pavlov’s Dogs

The most famous example of classical conditioning was Ivan Pavlov’s experiment

with dogs, who salivated in response to a bell tone. Pavlov showed that when a bell was

sounded each time the dog was fed, the dog learned to associate the sound with the
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presentation of the food.

He first presented the dogs with the sound of a bell; they did not salivate so this

was a neutral stimulus. Then he presented them with food, they salivated. The food was

an unconditioned stimulus and salivation was an unconditioned (innate) response.\

He then repeatedly presented the dogs with the sound of the bell first and then the

food (pairing) after a few repetitions the dogs salivated when they heard the sound of the

bell. The bell had become the conditioned stimulus and salivation had become the

conditioned response.

Fear Response

Watson & Rayner (1920) were the first psychologists to apply the principles of

classical conditioning to human behavior by looking at how this learning process may

explain the development of phobias.

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They did this in what is now considered to be one of the most ethically dubious

experiments ever conducted – the case of Little Albert. Albert B.’s mother was a wet

nurse in a children’s hospital. Albert was described as ‘healthy from birth’ and ‘on the

whole stolid and unemotional’.

When he was about nine months old, his reactions to various stimuli (including a

white rat, burning newspapers and a hammer striking a four-foot steel bar just behind his

head) were tested.

Only the last of these frightened him, so this was designated the unconditioned

stimulus (UCS) and fear the unconditioned response (UCR). The other stimuli were

neutral because they did not produce fear.

When Albert was just over eleven months old, the rat and the UCSwere presented

together: as Albert reached out to stroke the animal, Watson struck the bar behind his

head. This occurred seven times in total over the next seven weeks. By this time the rat,

the conditioned stimulus (CS), on its own frightened Albert, and fear was now a

conditioned response (CR).

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The CR transferred spontaneously to the rabbit, the dog and other stimuli that had

been previously neutral. Five days after conditioning, the CR produced by the rat

persisted. After ten days it was ‘much less marked’, but it was still evident a month later.

Classroom Learning

The implications of classical conditioning in the classroom are less important than

those of operant conditioning, but there is a still need for teachers to try to make sure that

students associate positive emotional experiences with learning. If a student associates

negative emotional experiences with school, then this can obviously have bad results,

such as creating a school phobia.

For example, if a student is bullied at school they may learn to associate the

school with fear. It could also explain why some students show a particular dislike of

certain subjects that continue throughout their academic career. This could happen if a

student is humiliated or punished in class by a teacher.

Contemporary Findings and Case Studies

The experimental studies by Pavlov, Watson, and Skinner took place many years

ago, but their influence can still be seen every day in modern society.

1. Classical conditioning and phobias

The classical and operant conditioning models developed by Pavlov, Watson, and

Skinner are very relevant in contemporary society today. They can help explain the

etiology and treatment of phobias in humans (Davey, 1992).

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A phobia is a persistent and irrational fear to a specific situation, object, or activity.

As an example, consider aerophobia, which is the fear of flying. People who have this

phobia have an intense fear and anxiety around flying, sometimes at the mere thought of

an airplane. People with this phobia may avoid flying as much as possible to limit their

distress. A closer look at the reason why people develop a fear of flying shows that a bad

experience of taking off, terrible weather when flying, or turbulence may have been a

crucial factor in the past (Clark & Rock, 2016). We can think back to Pavlov’s dog

experiments to understand more. It seems that the sight or thought of a plane has become

the conditioned stimulus, and the fear of flying is the conditioned response.

Effective treatments for a phobia of flying often use the same principles of classical

conditioning and learning (Rothbaum, Hodges, Lee, & Price, 2000). Therapists might

activate the fear structure by exposing the person to the feared stimuli. This will elicit a

fearful response (Rothbaum et al., 2000).

Once the exposure has been undertaken several times, in a process known as

habituation (Bouton, 2007), the phobia is no longer reinforced (known as extinction) and

eventually disappears (Miltenberger, 2012). In this way, a phobia can be reversed with

the same principles of classical conditioning.

2. Classical conditioning and social anxiety

Social anxiety disorder is an anxiety disorder that has characteristics of extreme

and persistent social anxiety that causes distress and prevents someone from participating

in social activities. Social anxiety disorder may be triggered by some kind of stressful
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event early in a child’s life, such as being bullied, family abuse, or some type of public

embarrassment (Erwin, Heimberg, Marx, & Franklin, 2006).

The dominant psychological treatment for anxiety disorders also involves repeated

exposure, similar to the treatment of phobias described above.

Systematic desensitization is a gradual exposure to the phobic stimulus, perhaps

including a gradual exposure to social situations.

Flooding is an alternative approach and not gradual. It is an immediate exposure

to the most frightening aspect of the situation such as attending a large gathering.

Systematic desensitization and flooding can be undertaken in vitro (imagining exposure

to the phobic stimulus) or in vivo (actually exposure to the phobic stimulus). Menzies and

Clarke (1993) found that in vivo techniques are much more successful. In vitro can be

used if it is more practical.

Role Of Classical Conditioning In Different Behavioral Therapies

Classical conditioning plays a crucial role in various behavioral therapies,

influencing how individuals respond to stimuli and shaping their behaviors. Here's a

breakdown of its role in different behavioral therapies:

1.Systematic Desensitization (SD)

Overview. SD is commonly used to treat phobias and anxiety disorders. The goal is to

replace the fear response with a relaxation response.

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Role of Classical Conditioning . Through a process called counterconditioning,

therapists pair the feared stimulus with a relaxation response. Over time, the individual

learns to associate relaxation with the once-feared stimulus, gradually reducing anxiety.

Example. Consider someone with a phobia of flying. In SD, the therapist might gradually

expose the individual to elements of flying (like pictures, then airplane sounds, and

eventually a short flight) while pairing each exposure with relaxation techniques. Over

time, the person learns to associate flying-related stimuli with relaxation rather than fear.

2. Aversion Therapy

Overview. Aversion therapy aims to eliminate undesirable behaviors by associating them

with unpleasant stimuli.

Role of Classical Conditioning: Undesirable behaviors are paired with aversive stimuli,

creating a negative association. The hope is that the individual will begin to avoid the

behavior to escape the unpleasant consequences.

Example: Imagine someone struggling with alcohol addiction. Aversion therapy might

involve pairing the act of drinking alcohol with an unpleasant stimulus, like a nauseating

medication. The goal is for the individual to develop a strong aversion to alcohol due to

the negative association.

3. Flooding Therapy

Overview. Flooding is a type of exposure therapy where individuals are exposed to the

feared stimulus in a controlled and prolonged manner until the anxiety decreases.
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Role of Classical Conditioning. The repeated exposure to the feared stimulus without

any harmful consequences leads to extinction of the fear response. Over time, the

individual's anxiety diminishes as they learn that the stimulus is not inherently

threatening.

Example. A person with social anxiety might undergo flooding therapy by engaging in a

prolonged social event. As they endure the situation without negative consequences, the

anxiety response diminishes. For instance, attending a party and realizing that socializing

does not lead to the anticipated negative outcomes.

4. Cognitive-Behavioral Therapy (CBT)

Overview. CBT addresses the interplay between thoughts, feelings, and behaviors. It

aims to identify and change negative thought patterns and behaviors.

Role of Classical Conditioning. While CBT primarily focuses on cognitive processes,

classical conditioning may be integrated by identifying and challenging maladaptive

associations between stimuli and emotional responses. Therapists may work to

recondition these associations through cognitive restructuring and exposure.

Example. In CBT for someone with social anxiety, the therapist may identify irrational

thoughts like "Everyone is judging me." By challenging and changing these thoughts, the

individual starts to recondition their emotional response to social situations. Over time,

they may associate social interactions with less anxiety.

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5. Eye Movement Desensitization and Reprocessing (EMDR)

Overview. EMDR is used to treat trauma and involves bilateral stimulation (such as eye

movements) while recalling distressing memories.

Role of Classical Conditioning. The bilateral stimulation during EMDR appears to

facilitate the reprocessing of traumatic memories, potentially altering the emotional

charge associated with these memories. This may involve a form of reconditioning the

emotional response to the traumatic stimuli.

Example. Consider a person with post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) resulting from a

car accident. During EMDR sessions, the therapist may guide the individual to recall the

traumatic event while engaging in bilateral stimulation (e.g., following a moving light).

The goal is to facilitate the reprocessing of the traumatic memory, reducing its emotional

intensity.

6. Behavior Modification

Overview. Behavior modification focuses on reinforcing desired behaviors and

extinguishing undesirable ones.

Role of Classical Conditioning. Positive reinforcement involves pairing a positive

stimulus with a desired behavior to increase the likelihood of that behavior occurring.

This process relies on classical conditioning principles to establish associations between

the behavior and positive outcomes.

Example. A child with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) might exhibit

disruptive behavior in the classroom. Through behavior modification, the teacher could
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use positive reinforcement, such as giving the child a small reward, when they display

positive behaviors like staying focused. The child then associates good behavior with

positive outcomes.
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