Sustainable Multimodality in Urban Regions

www.piarc.
org
2019R13EN
SUSTAINABLE
MULTIMODALITY IN URBAN
REGIONS
TECHNICAL COMMITTEE B.3 SUSTAINABLE MULTIMODALITY IN
URBAN REGIONS
SUSTAINABLE MULTIMODALITY IN URBAN REGIONS 2019R13EN
STATEMENTS
The World Road Association (PIARC) is a nonprofit organisation established in 1909 to improve international
co-operation and to foster progress in the field of roads and road transport.
The study that is the subject of this report was defined in the PIARC Strategic Plan 2016– 2019and approved
by the Council of the World Road Association, whose members are representatives of the member national
governments. The members of the Technical Committee responsible for this report were nominated by the
member national governments for their special competences.
Any opinions, findings, conclusions and recommendations expressed in this publication are those of the authors
and do not necessarily reflect the views of their parent organisations or agencies.
This report is available from the internet site of the World Road Association (PIARC): http://www.piarc.org
Copyright by the World Road Association. All rights reserved.
World Road Association (PIARC)

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International Standard Book Number: 978-2-84060-527-0
Front cover © Oscar Fariña

SUSTAINABLE
MULTIMODALITY IN URBAN
REGIONS
TECHNICAL COMMITTEE B.3 SUSTAINABLE MULTIMODALITY IN
URBAN REGIONS
AUTHORS/ ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
This report has been prepared by the Technical Committee B.3 “Sustainable Multimodality in Urban
Regions” of the World Road Association (PIARC). The report addresses three major issues that
structure the presentation into three main chapters preceded by an introduction presenting the
background context. The authors and reviewers of these chapters are:
Issue Authors and reviewers
BROTO André and LUZERNE Mathieu (France)

Introduction
ENDO Akira and YAJIMA Takashi (Japan)
MC CLEAN Michael (Australia)
DEBAUCHE Wanda (Belgium)
ENDO Akira (Japan)

1-Multimodal Urban Transportation
BROTO André and LUZERNE Mathieu (France)
Policies and Strategies
YAJIMA Takashi (Japan)
MBAMBO Dudley (South Africa)
NAMKUNG Ok (South Korea)
FARINA Oscar (Argentina)
DEBAUCHE Wanda (Belgium)

2-Road-based mobility solutions DOSTAL Ivo (Czech Republic)
including multimodal interchanges
and new road mobility BROTO André and LUZERNE Mathieu (France)
ENDO Akira (Japan)
MILLER Harlan (USA)
MACOUN Thomas (Austria)
3-Land use and urban development DOSTAL Ivo (Czech Republic)
NISHIMURA Takumi (Japan)

Those who participated in the exchanges and contributed to improving the quality of this report
are:
Stefan EBNER (Austria) Isabelle DULAERT (Belgium)
Francois RAMBAUD (France) Felix HUBER (Germany)
Andrea SIMONE (Italy) Suichi KAMATA (Japan)
Izmi KAWAGUCHI (Japan) Ken-Ichi NAKAMURA (Japan)
Peter LOS (Slovak Republic) Lina Sofia TOMCZAK (Sweden)
Seungmo KANG (South Korea)
The editors for the English version of this report are Harlan MILLER (United States of America) and
Dudley MBAMBO (South Africa)
The translation into French/English of the original version was produced by Wanda DEBAUCHE
(Belgium), André BROTO (France) and Mathieu LUZERNE (France).
The translation into Spanish/English of the original version was produced by Oscar FARINA
(Argentina).
The Technical Committee was chaired by Andre BROTO (France), and Mathieu LUZERNE (France),
Harlan MILLER (United States of America), Oscar FARINA (Argentina) were respectively the French,
English and Spanish-speaking secretaries.
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
2019R13EN
SUSTAINABLE MULTIMODALITY IN URBAN REGIONS

The work of Committee B.3 is in line with previous committees on urban mobility issues. The
general issues related to urban mobility were grouped together in a motion proposed for discussion
at the 20th World Road Congress in Montreal in September 1995. This motion led to the creation
of a PIARC Technical Committee for the City and Integrated Urban Transport (C10). The title of the
committee remained unchanged until the 2004-2007 cycle included. The current title (Sustainable
multimodality in urban areas) reflects the need to take into account a significant change in the
mobility practices of urban and rural populations, which should be recalled in the introduction.
Globalization and specialization have enabled cities to flourish and have led to the concentration of
activities and populations, resulting in an increase in urban transport needs and a scarcity of public
space. In these urban areas characterized by high population and employment densities, congestion
of transport systems is the rule and the sharing of public space is a necessity. Moreover, in a context
of scarce public finances, new developments were becoming increasingly difficult to implement,
especially since in the past they had not succeeded in solving all travel problems. Thus, in these
dense areas, it became necessary to organize and optimize existing transport systems.
Then, with the development of means of transport, more and more inhabitants have taken
advantage of these new offers to reconcile the attractiveness of the city's jobs with the lower
housing costs in the outskirts, or even the quality of life in the countryside. The result has been a
rapid expansion of the area of influence of cities in terms of employment, which extends well
beyond the urbanized area, well beyond congested networks, and a rapid increase in transport
needs for everyday travel. PIARC's Strategic Plan has taken this phenomenon into account by
requesting that the reflection on the city be extended to metropolitan regions, focusing on mobility
needs and services (and no longer only on transport needs) and multimodality. Thus, in addition to
the reflections on the density and scarcity of space, it was necessary to add a reflection on the links
that unite rural territories, of very low density, to the dense areas of the city. What transport needs?
How can access to jobs in the city centre, and more generally access to the city's amenities
(education, care, culture), be made possible under good conditions of social equity and cost? How
can development be guided in order to limit transport needs without forgetting the essential needs
of the inhabitants of the outskirts?
Finally, the 21st century has seen the rapid growth of digital technology and its many applications
in the field of mobility (networking applications, car-sharing and carpooling services, electric
bicycles, renewal of electric motor vehicles, autonomous driving, etc.) and the emergence of new
behaviours (sharing economy, circular economy, etc.). PIARC wanted these trends to be included in
the scope of the reflection.
It is on these bases, translated into the terms of reference of the 2015-2019 Strategic Plan, that a
dozen members of the CTB3 have pooled the diversity of their countries of origin (Argentina,
Australia, Austria, Belgium, Czech Republic, France, Japan, USA, South Africa, South Korea), and
that of their fields of expertise (representatives of road administrations and public engineering
services, academics and private sector actors) to bring, each with its specificity, experience and
perspective on these subjects.
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
As a follow-up to previous publications, the committee has organized this report into three chapters
corresponding to the three challenges set out in the Strategic Plan:
• Multimodal transport policies and strategies
• Road mobility solutions, including multimodal hubs and new road mobility
• Land use planning and urban development
Some of the themes developed in the previous report have not been further developed. This is the
case, for example, for active mobility, for which the reader may wish to refer to the reports
"Strategies to balance the modal share of urban transport in order to improve mobility and reduce
road congestion" (PIARC Reference: 2013R02FR) and "Key issues to improve mobility strategies in
large urban areas" (PIARC Reference: 2016R27FR). However, new services such as bicycle sharing
or electric bicycle are covered in this report.
Finally, the committee prepared a summary for each of the issues at the beginning of each chapter;
the most eager readers will be able to refer to it for a condensed overview of the issues and
highlights related to each chapter.
This report is the sole responsibility of its authors, but it reflects the richness of approaches, the
diversity of situations that are the result of the history of each territory and the culture of each
country, and the complexity of the challenges faced by road administrations in the different
territories that make up urban regions, whether they are developing or industrialized countries.
Indeed, mobility needs are similar, and while development solutions necessarily depend on the
context in which they are implemented, the issues and methods are shared.
At the end of this four-year cycle, the committee wishes to share some questions but also one
certainty.
The questions concern the future of mobility. We have seen in this short introduction that our
societies have moved in less than a century from a traditional model with two types of living
environment (cities and village communities) practically independent in terms of daily mobility, to
a model of peri-urbanization where hundreds or even thousands of village communities located
more than a hundred kilometres from a city live in close relationship with it, a relationship that
translates into daily exchanges for access to employment, education, care or leisure. The question
that arises today is whether this model of spatial occupation, consisting of a mosaic of
geographically separated territories closely linked by daily exchanges, will continue to expand,
stabilize or multiply?
Since digital technology already allows remote working, will we see a further dispersion of living
and working places with less physical presence in the workplace? It will also bring essential services
(education, care, etc.) closer to living spaces: it should therefore lead to a reduction in mobility
needs. But it also makes it possible, in particular, thanks to the autonomous vehicle, to reduce
transport costs, driver time lost and travel discomfort: the result should therefore be a rebound
effect consisting in transforming these innovations (as has happened with each innovation in the
field of transport) into new desires to travel further (or more often) to access new opportunities.
Finally, how can we take into account the challenges of climate change and the scarcity of natural
resources?
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
Certainty relates to the need to continue sharing observations, good and bad practices at the
international level, and the multiplicity of views on these practices. It also addresses the need to
broaden the transversality of reflection by confronting it with new approaches, particularly through
the social sciences.
May these contributions help the road authorities to provide a sustainable response to the needs
of the inhabitants of these territories.
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CONTENTS
1. INTRODUCTION ........................................................................ 3
1.1. TERMS OF REFERENCE ................................................................................ 3
1.2. WHAT DO WE MEAN BY “URBAN REGIONS”? ................................................. 4
1.3. COMPLEXITY OF URBAN TRANSPORTATION .................................................. 10
2. MULTIMODAL URBAN TRANSPORTATION POLICIES AND
STRATEGIES ................................................................................... 15
2.1. OVERVIEW ................................................................................................ 15
2.2. WHAT ARE THE DAILY NEEDS OF THE INHABITANTS? ..................................... 18
2.3. CONSEQUENCES OF TRANSPORT DEMAND ON TRANSPORTATION STRATEGIES
AND POLICIES ...................................................................................................... 23
2.4. ROAD MULTIMODAL LEVEL OF SERVICE (RMMLOS) ................................... 32

3. ROAD BASED MOBILITY SOLUTIONS INCLUDING
MULTIMODAL INTERCHANGES AND NEW ROAD MOBILITY ..... 38
3.1. OVERVIEW ................................................................................................ 38
3.2. BUS PRIORITY & BRT MANUAL .................................................................. 39
3.3. HOV HOT MANAGED LANES ...................................................................... 67
3.4. MULTIMODAL TRANSIT CENTRES ................................................................ 71
3.5. NEW SHARED MOBILITY SERVICES ............................................................. 84
4. LAND USE AND URBAN DEVELOPMENT ........................... 103
4.1. OVERVIEW ............................................................................................... 103
4.2. TRANSIT ORIENTED DEVELOPMENT ........................................................... 106

5. CONCLUSIONS ..................................................................... 134
6. BIBLIOGRAPHY .................................................................... 136
APPENDICES ................................................................................. 140
6.1. APPENDIX 1 : MULTIMODAL LEVEL OF SERVICE FRAMEWORKS ................... 140
3
1. INTRODUCTION
1.1. TERMS OF REFERENCE
This report has been produced by Technical Committee B.3, which is included in Strategic Theme B
1.1.1. Strategic Theme B: Access and Mobility
The goal of the strategic theme B (Access and mobility) is to encourage the improvement of access
and mobility provided to the traveling public and industry through efficient road network operation
and integration with other transport modes.
This strategic theme B recognizes that road authorities provide a service to the community and
industry, acknowledging these groups as customers. At the heart of this issue is the need to provide
predictable services and to ensure that the resilience of the network is at an appropriate level.
The strategic theme B include four (4) Technical Committees and one Task Force :
• Technical Committee B.1 (Road Network Operations/Intelligent Transportation Systems)
examine issues of obtaining maximum benefit from existing network infrastructure
providing updates to the ITS/Road Network Operation Manual
• Technical Committee B.2 (Winter Service) study issues of vulnerabilityof road networks
to the adverse effects of winter weather in addition to prepare the technical program for
the Winter Road Congress.
• Technical Committee B.3 (Sustainable Multimodality in Urban Regions) compare
strategies of mobility.
• Technical Committee B.4 (Freight) examine effective and efficient of freight multi-modal
transport and review good practices related to energy-efficient movement of freight.
• Task Force B.1 (Road Design and Infrastructure for Innovative Transport Solutions)
identify major considerations in the development and deployment of technology
enabling Vehicle-to-Infrastructure and Vehicle-to-Vehicle Communication.
1.1.2. TC B.3 – Sustainable Multimodality in Urban Regions
Technical Committee B.3 (Sustainable Multimodality in Urban Regions) compare strategies of urban
mobility, identifying transport policies and strategies from developed and developing countries to
improve travel choices and accessibility in the context of the acute demands imposed by urban
conditions. This technical committe has three issues :
• Issue B.3.1: Multimodal urban transportation policies and strategies
This issue compare efficiency of different multimodal transportation policies and strategies
considering mobility needs, social objectives and characteristics of transport modes.Compare
efficiency of different multimodal urban transportation policies and strategies considering mobility
needs, social objectives and characteristics of transport modes.
• Issue B.3.2: Road-based mobility solutions including multimodal interchanges and new
road mobility
The goal of this issue is to investigate and document in a qualitative and quantitative manner
solutions such as: car/bike sharing, carpooling, electro-mobility, public transport increase.
• Issue B.3.3: Land use and urban development
4
This issue deals with the impact of land use integrated with transport system development in urban
centers and suburban areas, considering urbanization trends.
This report is therefore structured in three main parts (themselves subdivided into different
chapters) to meet the expectations of these three issues.
1.2. WHAT DO WE MEAN BY “URBAN REGIONS”?

1.2.1. Urban Area and Commuting Area
A transportation system is made by a diversity of transport modes (active modes, individual cars,
public transport,…) the modal split is related to the spatial density, the urban shape, characteristics
of the population, the demand of mobility of inhabitants.
The transportation systems including road transport in large urban areas depend on average
densities and on the spatial distribution of densities. Here are some examples according to Alain
Bertaud.
Figure 1 : 3D representation of the spatial distribution of population in 7 metropolis represented at

the same scale by Alain Bertaud
5
Figure 2 : average population densities in buid-up areas by Alain Bertaud
Figure 3 : Different patterns of distribution of population densities in buidt-up areas by Alain

Bertaud
6
But when we focus on transportation daily needs, we must take into consideration not only the
urban area itself (900 km² in the case of Paris) but also its commuting area which is at least ten
times bigger than the urban area (15 000 km² for Paris). That is why the Terms Of Reference refer
to “Urban regions”.
1.2.2. Formal spatial structure
The formal structure of the city is defined by the organization of the urban system and configuration
of main development axes and transportation corridors connecting the principal parts of the city.
Often, there may be also a combination of multiple forms within a single city.
The formal structure of the city is defined by the organization of the urban system and configuration
of main development axes and transportation corridors connecting the principal parts of the city.
Often, there may be also a combination of multiple forms within a single city.
radial-centric city – the main transportation arteries are

radials connecting city center (CBD) with suburban
districts and are complemented by ring roads covering
tangential links. Usually the center is congested by
transport but in general the travel distances are short.
Figure 4 (left) : Moscow (Russian Federation) – example

of radial-centric city
fan-shaped city – specific case of

radial-centric city whose spatial
arrangement was affected by
external geographic conditions
such as marine coast, large river or
foot of high mountain range. The
development axes were developed
only in selected directions and are
connected by half-ring roads.
Figure 5 (left) : Helsinki
metropolitan area (Finland)
developed as a fan-shape city
linear/strip city – development of such city is concentrated along one transportation artery.
However the possible expansion of city is limited to the ends of linear strip. The arterial
transportation corridor is sensitive to congestion and vulnerable to interruptions due to
construction works, major traffic accidents, natural disasters etc. as there is lack of alternative
routes to divert traffic in these situations.
7
Figure 6 : Zlín in the Czech Republic emerged in 1920s under the influence of the principles of a
linear city
rectangular (or grid) city – is composed from sectors

arranged in a rectangular system. This system is
typical for newly established cities on a greenfield
providing good accessibility and the distortion of
traffic flows when the transport network is well
structured. This form needs regular structure and
adapts poorly on orographic conditions.
Figure 7 (right) : Milton Keynes in UK was founded

in 1967 as a rectangular city.
1.2.3. Some definitions : “Urban area and commuting area”

1.2.3.1. Introduction
In 2011, the OECD developed a new definition of the city and its commuting zone, in particular to
cope with the lack of harmonization of city definitions for European countries. Thus, the OECD
definition identifies 828 large cities consisting of an urban center of at least 50,000 inhabitants in
the European Union, Switzerland, Iceland, and Norway. This methodology identifies 492 in Canada,
Mexico, Japan, Korea, and the United States. For cities in Europe, they account for almost 40% of
the population of the European Union.
For further : http://ec.europa.eu/regional_policy/sources/docgener/focus/2012_01_city.pdf
Since this standardization, the definition of urban centers in Europe (pôles urbains in France) and is
relatively close to that of urban areas in the United States (I). However, thresholds differences can
be noted between functional urban zones in Europe (aires urbaines in France) and metropolitan
areas in United States (II).
8
1.2.3.2. Urban Area (United States) / Centre urbain (EU) / Pôle urbain (France) / : relatively close
definitions.
Urban center (EU) or urban area (United States), these two concepts are relatively close insofar as
they are based on comparable population densities (1500 inhabitants / km² for the OECD; 1000
inhabitants / mile² for the US Census Bureau).
European Union :
The European definition (Eurostat) of the "aire urbaine fonctionnelle" includes a centre urbain.
The centre urbain is a concept based on cells with a density of 1500 inhabitants / km² or more
grouped together when they are contiguous. Clusters with a population of 50,000 or more are
referred to as "centres urbains". Municipalities with at least half of the population inside the urban
center are integrated into the city.
In France, INSEE also integrates the notion of continuous building with cuts of less than 200 meters
into the calculation of its urban poles: An urban unit is defined as a municipality or a group of
municipalities with a continuous building area without cut of 200 meters or more between two
constructions .
United States :
The term urban area is used to designate what corresponds approximately to the French unité
urbaine (pôle urbain), ie a group of units with a population density of at least 1,000 inhabitants per
mile² and the units adjacent with a density of at least 500 inhabitants per mile².
The US Census Bureau also uses the concept of agglomeration to describe the nodal component of
the metropolitan area: urban area of 10,000 or more inhabitants. Each metropolitan statistical area
must have at least one urbanized area of 50,000 or more inhabitants. Each micropolitan statistical
zone must have at least one urban group of at least 10,000 inhabitants but fewer than 50,000
inhabitants.
Summary :
• European Union : Centre urbain : “population of 50,000 or more” and “density of 1500
inhabitants / km² or more”
• United States : Urban area : “Population Density Census Unit Group of 1,000
Population/Mile² or more”, and “Adjacent Units of Density 500 Population/Mile² or more”.
9
1.2.3.3. Metropolitan area (United States) 1 / Aire urbaine (France) 2 / Zone urbaine
fonctionnelle (EU) 3: thresholds differences.
The notion of urban area is debated, mainly on the relevance of this perimeter to study the area of
influence of cities .
Although the names vary from one country to another - we speak of an aire urbaine in France, a
zone urbaine fonctionnelle in the European Union, and a Metropolitan area (or core-based
statistical area) in the United States. This classification is equivalent between the different statistical
agencies, which are based on population density, as well as flows related to the labor market and
trade.
The difference lies in the thresholds of attraction: the outer limits of urban areas vary according to
the country: the zone urbaine fonctionnelle defined by Eurostat will thus be more spread out than
that defined by the US Census Bureau.
European Union:
The European definition (Eurostat) of the “aire urbaine” is the "zone urbaine fonctionnelle"
composed of a city and its commuting zone:
• City : characterized by the presence of an "urban center", a concept based on cells with
a density of 1500 inhabitants / km² or more grouped together when they are contiguous.
Clusters with a population of 50,000 or more are referred to as "urban centers".
Municipalities with at least half of the population inside the urban center are integrated
into the city
• Commuting zone : Once the cities have been defined, a commuting zone can be identified
on the basis of commuting habits: municipalities where at least 15% of the occupied
resident population works in a city are identified, as well as municipalities located in a
single functional zone. Non-contiguous municipalities are left out.
United States
In order to converge the definitions of the French urban area with a North American equivalent, we
prefer the concept of metropolitan area developed by American statistics. It uses the term "core-
based statistical area - metropolitan area", the definition of which includes:
• Agglomeration: urban area of 10,000 or more inhabitants. Each metropolitan statistical
area must have at least one urbanized area of 50,000 or more inhabitants. Each
micropolitan statistical zone must have at least one urban group of at least 10,000
inhabitants but fewer than 50,000 inhabitants.
1
US : https://www.census.gov/programs-surveys/metro-micro.html
2
France : https://www.insee.fr/fr/metadonnees/definition/c2070
3
EU:
• https://epthinktank-eu.cdn.ampproject.org/v/s/epthinktank.eu/2014/02/16/european-unions-cities-a-
typology/amp/?amp_js_v=0.1&usqp=mq331AQGCAEYASgB#origin=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.google.co.kr&prerenderSize=1&
visibilityState=prerender&paddingTop=54&p2r=0&horizontalScrolling=0&csi=1&aoh=15241191849238&viewerUrl=https%3
A%2F%2Fwww.google.co.kr%2Famp%2Fs%2Fepthinktank.eu%2F2014%2F02%2F16%2Feuropean-unions-cities-a-
typology%2Famp%2F&history=1&storage=1&cid=1&cap=swipe%2CnavigateTo%2Ccid%2Cfragment%2CreplaceUrl
• http://ec.europa.eu/eurostat/statistics-
explained/index.php/Territorial_typologies_for_European_cities_and_metropolitan_regions/fr#D.C3.A9finition_d.E2.80.99
une_ville
• http://ec.europa.eu/regional_policy/sources/docgener/focus/2012_01_city.pdf
10
• Peripheral zone (outlying counties): which are linked to it through the labor market and
commercial exchanges. A peripheral zone is characterized by:
- 25% or more of employed residents work in the central counties of the
metropolitan area,
- 25% or more of the job is made up of workers who live in the central counties.
Summary
• European Union : Zone Urbaine Fonctionnelle = Ville/Centre urbain + Zone de navettage
• France : Aire Urbaine = pôle urbain / unité urbaine + Couronne périurbaine
• United States : Metropolitan & Micropolitan = Agglomeration + Peripheral zone
Aire urbaine (France), zone urbaine fonctionnelle (European Union), or metropolitan area (United
States) have a similar structure. Indeed, it can be seen that for Eurostat, INSEE and the US Census
Bureau, such a structure adds two main layers, namely an urban center, and a periphery, connected
to the urban center by commuting flows or trade.
The differences thus are mainly in the thresholds of attraction and therefore in the extension of the
urban area.
1.2.4. Comment
Densities and spatial structures are related with the development of transportation networks (as
an example mass rapid transit is difficult to operate at low densities), and the issues of TC B3 must
be analysed taking into account the characteristics of each territory. For example, we should take
into account urban regions in developing countries differently from those which are in developed
countries because the idea we suggest here could not work in developing countries. The
urbanization trends in developing countries are characterized with the concept of pseudo-
urbanization. Despite that urban regions are unready to accept rapid growth of the population,
people in rural areas rushed into the urban areas mainly to avoid poverty. Such a trend causes the
shortage of public services in housing, transportation and so forth. Hence, our urban mobility
suggestions should be carefully examined whether they are applicable to the urban regions under
pseudo-urbanization trends.
1.3. COMPLEXITY OF URBAN TRANSPORTATION

Urban areas are characterized by their accumulation of industries and population. This means that
land use is intensive and the space for transportation needs to be utilized efficiently. There exist
many kinds of transportation modes which have different characteristics. We need to achieve best
transportation mode mix to achieve highest efficiency in multi-dimensional criteria.
This, however, is a challenging task requiring consideration of wide ranging factors because urban
transportation itself is very complex. The urban transportation consists of several elements such as
travel actors and their needs, freight planners and their needs, movement itself of people and
goods, transportation facilities, transportation services and their costs. They are influenced by
social and economic conditions such as income levels, social customs, administration systems and
safety concerns from crimes.
Those elements are located or occur in a particular urban space of the metropolitan area in
consideration. Therefore we need to understand the diverse spatial settings where the urban
11
transportation system is located. Those diversities include population and business density, terrain,
building density of the built-up area and the location of existing transportation infrastructure. These
are considered as given conditions for planning sustainable multimodality at least in a short run.
The observed travel or transport actions are the results of the decision making of actors after
comparing the service levels and costs of available transportation services with their needs based
on the available information. This decision making is made in the transportation market. Therefore
we also need to understand the interaction between the supply and demand in the transportation
market.
1.3.1. Challenges
Urban transportation systems are challenged in many respects. They include urban growth itself,
budgetary constraints, malfunction of institutions such as lack of coordination, social considerations
in providing transportation services, environmental consideration including limited fossil fuel
consumption, technology advancement such as automatic driving and e-car which will bring huge
benefit to the society but will necessitate the society to adapt its legal and social system to the
changing technology.
As a metropolitan area grows, the transportation system designed for a smaller size no longer
function properly. A commonly observed problem is bottlenecks on motorways where the capacity
of the network gets short of the incoming traffic. This is particularly severe in highway oriented
metropolitan areas since there is no other transport mode to get into the central area of the
metropolitan area.
Another challenge is related to financing and implementing capacity of the governments. Cost
effective solutions are eagerly pursued. Construction of gigantic motorway system is no longer
considered as a sustainable solution since often traffic congestion occurs only in peak hours and
motorway construction is not considered economical where other solutions are available. Neither
is a sophisticated extensive new urban rail system. The most effective use of the existing
transportation infrastructure is required.
The third one comes from social considerations. Population ageing is in progress in many developed
countries and in some developing countries. Barrier-free urban transportation environment and
accessibility to transport services and basic living functions are necessary for realizing sustainable
society.
Downtown revitalization could also be considered as a transportation-related challenge in a social

dimension. Many people need to come together for a downtown to become prosperous again. We
need to consider what the most suitable urban transportation system for downtown revitalization
is.
The fourth one would be consideration of the global warming. It is widely understood that CO2
emission from cars accounts for considerable share of the total CO2 emission by our civilization.
We need to approach as close as possible to carbon-free urban transportation system in order to
contain the global warming within the level our society can adapt to. We need to improve fossil fuel
consumption efficiency in our urban transportation system. On the other hand, off course, the
urban transport system itself needs to adapt to the foreseeable changes such as worsening heat
island effects by measures as an efficient airconditioning system.
12
Technology advancement is another challenge. With a rapid progress of information and

communication technology (ICT), transaction costs have dramatically been reduced. This has
enabled various sharing services at very low costs. In the transportation field, new services called
shared mobility is emerging. Some modes of the shared mobility might challenge the existing
transportation modes and this trend should be attended with a maximum care. Furthermore,
automatic driving technology and electric cars will be influential. The automatic driving technology
has a potential to reduce human-failure accidents and human costs of driving cars. This will lead to
safer and more economical provision of transportation services, thus making a transportation
system more affordable and accessible to all the mobility groups of the society. This, however, may
cause problems. Our society will need to change the legal and social system. Introducing automatic
driving system may increase car traffic in total and reduce bus passengers. Electric cars combined
with a use of renewable energy resources will remove constraints placed from global warming
consideration on the car use.
1.3.2. Why do we deal with sustainable multimodality?
As described in the Terms of Reference of ST B, the goal of ST B is to encourage the improvement

of access and mobility provided to the traveling public and industry through efficient road network
operation and integration with other transport modes.
Different transportation modes have their own suitable application conditions respectively. It is
therefore effective to combine those different modes into a multimodal solution since urban areas
usually consist of many kinds of areas with different characteristics such as population and business
density. In this multimodal solution, transfer from one transport mode to another is essential. It is
multimodal stations that deal with this transfer and integrate road network operation with other
transport modes. The following are exemples of how multimodality works in actual situations.
A common problem of traffic congestion at bottlenecks on the expressways and arterial roads in
the direction to the central part of metropolitan areas can be alleviated by shifting passenger trips
from private cars to public transport. Passengers, however, are likely to live in a suburb where
public transportation service level is low. Therefore, there is a need of transfer from a private car
to a public transport somewhere in the middle from the suburbs to the central part of the
metropolitan area. Multimodal stations serve the transfer actions between many transport modes
including private cars, local buses, express busses, commuter rails, subways, streetcars, LRTs, BRTs,
motorcycles and even bicycles.
From a viewpoint of costs and CO2 emission also, the multimodal transport system is efficient if it
is constituted in a sustainable way. The urban space a public transport takes is smaller than that
motorways take if the demand is large. The same is true for CO2 emission. On the other hand, if the
demand is small, the cost and CO2 emission per travel of the whole system including construction
for the public transport will be higher than that for roads and private cars. There expected to be
the best combination of road transport and other modes depending on the level of demand or more
precisely the level of demand density.
Among various road-based transport modes also, there are differences in carrying capacity per lane,
costs and CO2 emission. Local bus, express bus, BRT, HOT and LRT on streets will be integrated into
the best mix to utilize the existing road network infrastructure most efficiently.
13
Multimodal urban transportation systems with multimodal stations are considered as prospective
sustainable systems which maximize the use of existing transportation infrastructure through the
best mix of various transport modes. In this way, maximum use of existing road network
infrastructure is also ensured, thus improving the services of the existing road network.
1.3.3. Conceptual framework
Achievement of the best transportation mode-mix depends on the people’s choice of modes. It is
necessary to fully understand the relations between the levels of transportation service, people’s
choice, service provision strategies and constraints on them. These relations are presented as a
conceptual framework in order to facilitate the work on the three issues of the terms of reference.
For the Issue B.3.1, we need to compare efficiency of different multimodal urban transportation
policies and strategies. Metropolitan areas have prepared their strategies aiming at achieving
higher performance under their given conditions or constraints. Therefore, the policies and
strategies themselves are also quite diverse. In order to understand the diverse policies and
strategies, we need to have a conceptual framework for sustainable urban mobility where all the
relevant elements and their mutual relations are illustrated.
The figure below is a framework worked out by the TC. The central rectangular area with round
corners indicates a transportation market. This market has close relations with peoples’ lives and
economic activities. The market is influenced by the location and density of residential areas and
destination facilities. Strategies can influence the market through strategic measures such as
maximum use of road space, transit-oriented development (TOD), active modes promotion,
multimodal solution, HOV/HOT, BRT and LRT on streets.
TOD changes the location and density of residential areas relative to a transit network. It also
provides public transport services. Maximum use of road space provides road space for pedestrians
and bicycles so as to encourage short trips and reduce private car movement. It also provides space
for multimodal solution, HOV/HOT, BRT and LRT. The strategic measures should be appropriately
combined under the constraints given to a specific urban area so as to form a best mix.
As a bottom line, sustainability is evaluated with social, economic and environmental dimensions
based on the transportation service performance of the urban area. Transportation service
performance is measured outcome-based and corresponding to the challenges faced by the urban
transportation system. For example, accessibility is an important indicator for so-called
transportation poor such as elderly or handicapped people in rapidly ageing societies. Level of
service indicators should also be multifaceted reflecting the needs of diverse people.
14
Figure 8 The conceptual frame

15
2. MULTIMODAL URBAN TRANSPORTATION POLICIES AND

STRATEGIES
2.1. OVERVIEW
More and more population have moved into the cities. Urbanization is dominant key trends
presented all across the world. “Globally, more people live in urban areas than in rural areas, with
55 % of the world’s population residing in urban areas in 2018. In 1950, 30 % of the world’s
population was urban, and by 2050, 68 % of the world’s population is projected to be urban” (UN
DESA, 2018). Under this condition, people living in urban areas face congestion and significant
commuting time for their daily travel to works. According to Holmes (2017), out of 52 countries
surveryed, commuters in 41 countries reported that their commuting hours are over an hour. These
challenges have become more serious with growing urban area and insufficient transport
infrastructures, especially in developing countries.
Figure 9 : Source: ILO (2018: 8)

16
Figure 10: Source: Holmes (2017)

With the increase in the scale and density of the urban regions, urban mobility has become more
crutial part of people’s daily life. In parallel with this trend, what transport agencies pursue has
been widened from transport service for car itself to that for the entire transport network users
17
using different types of transport modes. Traditionally, road is the only interest to measure
performance of the transport service. But, while reaching a consensus that sustainable and inclusive
development matters for the community, ensurng equal transport service for all travelers using
sustaianble transport modes, such as bicycle or walking are highlighted, and mutlimdal level of
service (MMLOS) has been adopted as a new measurement for transport performance in some
transport agencies in developed countries.
Figure 11: Source: Pourbaix, Steriu & Saeidizand (2015: 2)
Mobility is not the only concern for urban transport policies and strategies. In the user perspective,
travel is derivative demands occurring on the way to destinations. Thus, whether transport service
has been provided people with the ease to move (mobility) as well as the ease in meeting one’s
needs (accessibility) should be assessed. Historically, the most primary definition of accessibility is
Hansen’s, which defines accessibility as potential of opportunities for interaction (1959: 4). Cascetta,
Cartenì & Montanino (2013) pointed that, in this view, accessibility is subject to the socio-economic
conditions of a person involved; quantity and quality of opportunities considered (activity); and the
level of service (LOS) attributes and quality of travel. In this respect, accessibility is a concept closed
related with mobility, but its perspective is rather user-oriented and wider scopic than mobility in
that it deals with multi-layer issues such as socio-economic characteristics of persons, land-use and
LOS of transport facilities. Likewise, to ensure equitable accessibility for all, including the people
with limited mobility (PLM), multi-layer conditions of accessibility should be taken into account.
One of the simplest solutions is to regulate transport operators to deliver the facilities following
universal design guidelines. Yet, as ensuring all transport facilities to meet universal design
principles is a costly approach, it is necessary to open other possible alternatives for PLM by
examining low-cost accessibility improvement practices.
18
2.2. WHAT ARE THE DAILY NEEDS OF THE INHABITANTS?

2.2.1. Introduction
We are considering the inhabitants of the commuting area, and as a consequence we will have to
consider the daily needs of people living in very different communities (City centre, suburbs, rural
villages).
Generally speaking we can consider three types of trips:

1. Short trips (a few km) for purposes such as going to school, to work, purchase or leisure.
2. Intermediate trips (between ten and one hundred km).
3. Long trips (more than 100 km). Generally those trips are not daily trips and we did not study
them.
The distinction between “short” and “intermediate” trips in length is important because they are
not addressed by the same type of public transport : as an example urban buses can address
correctly trips of a few km but they are not adequate for trips of 30 or 50 km, suburban trains and
bus rapid transit are some right answers.
2.2.2. Focus on the commuting trips : the French case
Surveys give the length of daily trips for each purpose, and for different municipalities of an urban
area. As an example the average length as a function of the distance from the city centre of Paris
are the following:
Figure 12:average length oftripsfor each purpose as a function of how far people livefrom the
center : as en example people living between 30 and 35 km from Paris do in average 3km to go to
school, but 15 km to go to their job
It appears clearly that for purposes such as going to school the distances are short and they remain
short even for people living in rural areas far from Paris.
19
On the contrary the length of commuting trips is much longer and that lenght is an increasing
function of the distance from the city center. So it was decided on that case study to focus on
commuting trips
2.2.2.1. Comments
In most developed countries public services such as schools, are quite well distributed in all
territories. Therefore the distance and the time needed to go to those amenities is low. This is not
the case for all the countries, and similar surveys should be done in order to understand what are
the purposes for long and short trips in emerging countries.
The expansion of the commuting area was studied on cycle 2008 – 2011 by PIARC TCB.3.2 and we
get similar findings concerning the length of commuting trips :
In Helsinki the commutiong area has steadily expanded covering now an area with a radius of
almost 100km (“Urban Form and Transportation System – the Helsinki Case” by Rita Piirainen
Uusimaa Centre for Economic Development, Transport and the Environment and Petri Jalasto
Ministry of Transport and Communications Finland)
Figure 13: Commuting area in Helsinki 2006

2.2.2.2. Census results
In France the 2013 census gives the following results:

1. Out of 24 million workers 16.7 million have their job outside of the community where they live,
and that ratio of two thirds is increasing every year.
2. Among the 16.7 million commuters half of them have to do more than 15 km to go to their job,
and that distance is increasing every year.
3. 80 % of commuters are using their car to go to their job. In Paris Region due to the importance
of the rail network the modal split for commuting trips is of 55% by car. But in the rest of France
the modal split is of 92% by car.
20
2.2.2.3. The trends
If we look at how was the average length of commuting trips since 1968 census (fig 14) we can
notice that that length was quite small forty yeas ago, and it has increased a lot since then
particularly in the second ring of the Paris Region
Figure 14: average length of commuting trips since 1968 in Paris Region.
As an exemple : in 1968 people living between 45 and 50 km from Paris were doing in average
7km to reach their place of work, and in 2008 they were doing more or less 20 km.
Similar trends were found in the Helsinki case study.
The growth of the average length of trips is not only due to the growth in population, it is also due
to a “disconnection” between places of living and places of working.
Figure 15: Expansion of the commuting area in Helsinki

21
2.2.2.4. The case of new towns
To cope with urban sprawl after world war two, new towns were created around Paris, with
dedicated transportation services (mass rapid transit “RER” and highways). For those towns the
number of jobs is quite close to the number of employees living in the city but 40 years later it
appears that despite this equilibrium we are facing the same phenomenon of “disconnection”
between places of living and places of working.
Figure 16: Paris and the new towns : new towns were created around Paris at about 20 to 40 km
As an example data concerning the new town “Marnes la Vallée” are the following : there is 130
thousand working people in that town and 110 thousand jobs, but only 40 thousand jobs are
occupied by people living in that town. So despite a quite good equilibrium between jobs and
employees, a lot of employees are coming from a lot of different municipalities and as a
consequence it is very difficult to provide public transport for them.
Figure 17: Commuting trips for the new town of “Marnes la Vallée” :
This town is located at about 25 km in the estern part of Paris. The map gives the number of
commuters going every day to that town.
22
2.2.3. Case study on 15 French cities
A study has been done on 15 French cities with a population between 200 000 and 1 500 000. The
main results are the following:
Data for a typical medium size city and the different rings and areas :
City Area (km²) 45

Residents 200 000
Jobs 130 000
First ring (suburbs) Area (km²) 485
Residents 370 000
Jobs 160 000
Urban area Area (km²) 530
("pole urbain" in French) Residents 570 000
Jobs 290 000
Second ring Area (km²) 2 470
Residents 230 000
Jobs 50 000
Commuting area Area (km²) 3 000
Residents 800 000
Jobs 340 000
Figure 18: Main data for 15 french cities
All those cities have the same pattern of density with a core city around 5000 inhabitants per km²,
a first ring (suburbs) with a density around 700 inhabitants per km², and a second ring with a density
of around 100 inhabitants per km².
The number of active people is always around 50% of the inhabitants. Therefore we can notice that
jobs are in excess in most of the cities, in the first ring and in the urban areas. But there is a lack of
jobs in the second ring.
What are the main commuter’s trips? : the average city case
Among 130 000 jobs in the city: 40 000 are occupied by people coming from the first ring, 19 000
coming from the second ring, and 15 000 coming from very far (third ring). The total of trips coming
from outside of the City is of 74 000 or 57%.
Among 160 000 jobs located in the first ring: 22 000 are occupied by people coming from the City,
25 000 coming from the second ring and 16 000 coming from the third ring.
Where do they work ? City First ring Second ring Total

City 22 000 3 000 25 000
they live ?
Where do
First ring 40 000 56 000 6 000 102 000

Second ring 19 000 25 000 17 000 61 000
Third ring 15 000 16 000 31 000
Total 74 000 119 000 26 000 219 000
Figure 19: Commuting trips between the City and the different rings (average data for 15 french
cities)
23
If we focus on the urban areas (City + first ring) the figures are the following: for 290 000 jobs 44 000
are coming from the second ring and 31 000 are coming from the third ring. Therefore 75 000 are
coming from the outside that is to say 26% of the number of jobs.
We can get from that study of a panel of French Cities the following results:
• Dispite a quite good equilibrium between jobs and working people we have in all the
cities the same phenomenon of disconnection between places of living and places of
working : There is a lot of commuting trips between the urban area and the rest of the
commuting area : Commuting areas are integrated labour markets
• Urban areas are also attracting a significant number of employees living outside of the
commuting area
• In average in a French City 57% of the jobs of the City are occupied by people living
outside of the City. This figure gives an idea of the transportation needs on the radial
roads and railways in the peak hour.
2.2.4. Comments concerning the transportation demand

1. Comprehensive transportation demand data is needed to understand commuting patterns and
trends. Such data should capture the geographical characteristics and structure of a given
urban area (including population and employment data, densities, mix of uses, etc.) and
detailed commuting information (number of trips, purpose (school, work, etc.), distance
travelled and duration, as well as choice of transportation mode).
2. For large urban areas transportation demand data should be collected in a large area, bigger
than the commuting area. Case studies show that the labour market of an urban area can
extend up to 100 km from the City center.
3. Monitoring of trends is required to determine if changes in infrastructure have altered travel
behaviour, in favour of more sustainable transportation modes (public transportation,
carpooling, walking and biking).
4. Analyses of data should take into account at least two types of needs:
a) Mobility needs related to local activities
b) Mobility needs related to activities which need intermediate trips in length
(accessibility to jobs, universities, health services, …), with a special focus on
commuting trips
2.3. CONSEQUENCES OF TRANSPORT DEMAND ON TRANSPORTATION STRATÉGIES AND

POLICIES
We have seen that for each municipality or community of the urban region we have two types of
trips in length : local short trips of a few kilometers in length, and quite longs trips for example for
commuters.
Commuters (but also students) living in urban regions, and mainly those living outside of the city
cores, are facing long distance trips, a lack of good public transport, and congested roads. That
phenomemon is quite recent, it started with urban sprawl and periurbanisation a few decades ago.
But the expansion of the commuting area is not only due to urban sprawl, it is also due to human
behavior and it leads to a significant and continuous increase of the average trip length, up to 100
km in many countries. It affects the daily lives of millions of inhabitants as well as the economic
dynamism of the metropolis, and also of medium size cities.
24
Short trips take place in a small community (village, suburb, quarter) and the corresponding
transportation services are generally well organised by local authorities.
Transportation services for long distance daily trips are difficult to organize. Here are some
difficulties : long trips are not well known because surveys are generally designed to adresse local
needs. They need a strong coordination between different communities and different levels of
transportation agencies.
We found some good transportation strategies and policies to address those particular trips :
2.3.1. Case Studies on the transport demand strategies and policies

2.3.1.1. Buenos Aires (Argentina)
The metropolitan area of BA has a population of 13 million inhabitants and a surface of 15 500 km².
Long distance commuting trips are addressed by rail lines, bus express lines, and shuttles
transportation services.
Bus express lines and shuttles transportation services lines have length of 50 to 110 km. Time
duration for thelongest trips is between 1h20 and 3h for buses but of 1h15 to 1h45 for shuttles.
SERVICIO DE TRANSPORTE CABA Y ÁREA METROPOLITAN DE BUENOS AIRES
Bus & Shuttle Service (until 110 km from Buenos Aires)
COMISIÓN NACIONAL REGULACIÓN DEL TRANSPORTE (National Commission of Transport Regulation)
Total Time (Hours) Price U$S
Distance
By Bus
Beginning & end of Itinerary Km. By By Comments
By Bus
Bus / Shuttle Passenge with Shuttle
Shuttle r Price Subsidy
Plaza Italia /Down Town (Plaza
de la República) - Pilar City
53 / 57 km. 1,20 hs. 1,15 hs. 1,85 3,7 8,3 Express Service
Plaza Italia /Down Town (Plaza
de la República) - Luján City
85 / 78 km. 1,30 hs. 1,25 hs. 2,75 5,5 8,6 Express Service
Plaza Once / Plaza de la Semi Express &
República - Cañuelas City
62 / 66 km. 2,10 hs. 1,10 hs. 1,69 3,38 11,1
Express Services
Plaza Once / Plaza de la 108 / 112 Semi Express &
República - Monte City
2,30 hs. 1,45 hs. 3,79 7,58 12,57
km. Express Services
Plaza Once / Plaza Congreso - Normal Bus &
Lobos City
97 / 101 km. 2,55 hs. 1,35 hs. 2,23 4,46 14,3
Express Services
Figure 20: long distance services for commuters in Buenos Aires region
Those express lines are connected with the public transportation system of the core city.
Figure 21: Shuttle terminal “Obelisco”, this terminal is close to a BRT station of “Metrobus”
25
2.3.1.2. Sendai (Japan)
The metropiolitan area of Sendai (Japan) has a population of 1,5 million inhabitants and a surface
of 1648 km².
Medium-distance expressway bus routes from Sendai to cities such as Yamagata, Fukushima,
Ishinomaki, etc. are widely used daily for the purposes of commute, business, etc. Those bus routes
are connected to the JR Sendai railway station. Meanwhile, as travel time of those expressway
buses is almost same as those for railways, expressway bus operators try to improve services by
increasing frequency, picking up passengers at major locations in city center.
Figure 22: Comparison services of typical medium distance expressway bus and railway (JR)
in Sendai Metropolitan Area
One interesting point was noticed in the Sendai case : In the Great East Japan Earthquake in 2011,
expressway buses between Sendai and Yamagata resumed service 2 days after the struck. In the
situations that transport means such as railways and airplanes were unable to resume operation,
those express buses were used for transporting people from outside the Sendai Metropolitan Area
(ex. Tokyo, Osaka, etc.) returning home, and for assisting disaster victims.
Many of other expressway bus routes were designated for transporting emergency vehicles and
resumed operation in the earlier stages, and thus, they served as critical transport means for
disaster victim assistance and for reconstruction
Figure 23: Expressway buses resumed operation immediately after the Earthquake
(Bus stop at the prefectural office & City Hall).
2.3.1.3. USA
Transportation policies in United States took into account the commuters needs since a long time
by developing dedicated lanes (High Occupancy Vehicle lanes) to encourage car pooling. Since
around twenty years the have develop a broad understanding of congestion pricing capabilities,
26
limitations, and challenges in order to preserves or improves vehicle speeds and trip reliability in
the peripheries of cities.
Figure 24 Perspective on integration of transportation and land use planning in the United States,
Paula HAMMOND, Washington DoT, USA
Congestion pricing is the use of increased prices during peak usage to:
• Actively manage the flow of traffic
• Shift travel to other modes
• Shift travel to off-peak periods
Common users include : Transit buses (including deadheading buses),Vanpools, Private employer
shuttles, Low-emission and energy-efficient vehicles, Taxis, Motorcycles, HOVs (typically with two
or more or three or more persons per vehicle), Single-occupant vehicles (SOVs), Law enforcement
and emergency vehicles, Low-income travelers, Commercial vehicles and trucks.
27
Figure 25: Exemple of BRT lines on express lanes By Christopher Tomlinson Executive director of
State Road and Tollway Authority Atlanta at IBTTA 85th annual meeting and exhibition
28
2.3.1.4. Madrid (Spain)
Source : case study REPORT PIARC TCB.3.2 2005 - 2008 Urban Form and Transportation System “The
Madrid Case” by Soledad Pérez-Galdós Enríquez de Salamanca Road General Directorate -
Comunidad de Madrid (November 2010)
Madrid is a City of 608 km² and 3,2 million inhabitants. The region of Madrid has à surface of 8000
km² and a population of 6,4 million inhabitants
The public transport for the Madrid Region is a complex intermodal system consisting in various
modes of transport : metro, light rail and city buses rail services and suburban buses. There is two
large subsystems
• The urban area of the city of Madrid with around 200 city bus routes, 13 underground
metro lines and thirty suburban train stations
• The metropolitan area of the region with one hundred city bus routes, over 300 suburban
lines, four underground lines and three light rail lines
Both systems are connected by a serie of large interchanges that surround the central area of the
city of Madrid, channeling the radial long distance commuting mobility between the metropolitan
rings and the city.
The multimodal system has been developed thanks to a law “Ley 5/1985, de 16 de mayo, de
creación del Consorcio Regional de Transportes Públicos Regulares de Madrid”.
In addition there is suburban rail services.
The table gives the number of trips per year as well as the total passengers*kilometers. It is
interesting to note the following points:
• The service delivered (in passenger*km) by suburban buses is the same than the one
delivered by suburban rail
• Metro and urban buses are clearly dedicated to short distance trips (the average length
of trips are of 7 and 3,9 km), meanwhile the suburban buses and rail are both clearly
dedicated to intermediate distance trips
Figure 26: average length of trips by different public services in Madrid
The second ring (3 million inhabitants) has been divided into 8 corridors around 8 radial express
ways. All the municipalities of the second ring are connected to the city core trought around 300
suburban bus lines. Those lines have a feeder function at the beginning, and then a transit function
without any stop on the expressway. The expressway is connected to a Multimodal Transit Center
through a dedicated tunnel and suburban bus lines can enter the MTC directly. Around 400
thousand commuters take those bus lines avery day.
29
30
Figure 27: The organization of suburban bus lines in corridors and the distribution of annual
demand by corridor
2.3.1.5. Paris (France)
In the Paris region public transport for commuters is mainly addressed by railway system (both
trains and mass rapid transit “RER”). Due to the increasing demand a project called “Greater Paris
Express” has been decided. It consist in circular lines interconnecting the existing radial rail lines.
This project of about 200km and 70 stations is under construction.
Figure 28: Layout of the “Greater Paris Express” 200 km of express circular metro lines mainly in
tunnels.
Some Express bus lines are also in service in Paris region, they are similar to the Madrid Model.
31
Figure 29: Express bus line in the periphérie of Paris

The bus line is 34 km in length with only two intermediate stops. It starts at 50 km of the city center
and ends on a multimodal transit center with rapid metro rail, at around 15 km of the city center
A national debate has been organized in 2017 on daily transportation needs of inhabitants, with a
focus on people leaving outside of the cities. A law is under preparation, and it should focus on
multimodality, carpooling, car sharing, active modes and digital services. It should also improve the
organization of transportation authorities and their coordination althrough the country.
2.3.2. Comments and recommendations
Various ways of organizing the transportation services dedicated to commuters are observed, but
road solutions (BRT bus rapid transit) connected with the public transport network of the main city,
seems to be the most efficient solution to cope with low densities in the commuting areas. In case
of very low densities, policies in favor of carpooling can be interesting.
Policies considering the transportation networks as a whole (roads + rail networks) are necessary,
but they involve various transportation agencies and municipalities, and the implementation of
such a policy need a good cooperation between those agencies / municipalities. 1985 law by which
the transportation authority in the region of Madrid was created, is a good practice.
• “think at a large scale” : Transportation policies should be define at the right scale (ie at
least commuting area) taking into account the policy in the field of land occupation
(TOD).
• “provide good conditions for cooperation” : Multimodal policies at a large scale needs
co-operation between a numbers of different agencies, bus operators, highway
authorities, enforcement agencies, and licensing authorities. This also applies to busway
and HOV projects. These different agencies tend to have different objectives and
differing opinions about the appropriate way to deal with transportation problems.
Some schemes have not been as successful as they might have been, because of lack of
cooperation between different organisations concerned. It is important to consider how
to overcome institutional barriers to deal more effectively with inhabitants needs.
Institutional questions are fundamental and the transportation policy should be decided
by law.
32
• “Seamless services” If we want to reduce the single occupant vehicles on roads, we must
provide to commuters doing every day long trips to go to their place of work, a very good
level of service. Trips on public transport systems should result in similar time duration.
Recommendations are the following :
• “Multimodal services” : a trip between low density rural areas and core cities imply the
use of a serie of different services. Therefore we need to organize multimodality not only
between fisical services but also on coordination of time tables, fares integration, users
information, ..
• “transit first” : suburban rail services or rapid bus services shoud as much as possible be
“express services”
• “High frequency” : as close as possible to one service every 5 mn. As a consequence
provide the right vehicle (tramway, bus, minibus, van, carpooling) according to the
importance of the demand in the peak hour
2.4. ROAD MULTIMODAL LEVEL OF SERVICE (RMMLOS)

2.4.1. Introduction
The road network is a system which allows for multiple users and modes of transport to operate
simultaneously. The need to provide for all users on the road network in an equitable and balanced
manner is particularly challenging in urban areas. Each user type has varying needs depending on
their mode of travel and at times these needs may conflict with one another (Austroads 2015).
In many urban areas there is a desire to evaluate the performance of a road network from a
multimodal perspective to better cater for all types of users. The most common form of performance
measurement used by jurisdictions historically has been the level of service (LOS) metric. ‘One
reason for the widespread adoption of the LOS concept by agencies is the concept's ability to
communicate roadway performance to nontechnical decision makers’, according to the HCM 2010.
The U.S Department of Transportation (2017) also believes that ‘LOS metrics can provide a useful
framework for understanding the operation of the system and its impacts on users.’
The transportation industry is constantly evolving and broadening goals beyond those commonly
used, with increasing attention toward public health, liveable communities, the environment, and
increased emphasis on the use of transit, walking and cycling. Cascade Bicycle Club (2011), outlines
that ‘the traditional approach to traffic operations analysis should no longer be viewed as effective.’
This has lead transportation agencies to re-evaluate how they use LOS to aid decision making.
In recent years, there has been a shift away from considering the automobile as the primary mode
of travel when designing urban streets, with more attention being placed on road designs that
accommodate all users. The interest of road agencies now lies in acquiring the ability to estimate
and forecast road multimodal level of service (RMMLOS). Moving toward a RMMLOS framework is
becoming increasingly important as communities seek a more balanced and sustainable
transportation system (Cascade Bicycle Club 2011).
RMMLOS is still a relatively new concept in comparison to the traditional LOS measure first
published in the 1965 edition of the Highway Capacity Manual. In addition to measuring the LOS
for automobile users (historically the main focus), RMMLOS also measures LOS for transit (public
transport), pedestrians and cyclists, and in some instances, freight. According to the U.S
Department of Transportation (2017), if the issue of comparability of results across modes can be
achieved it will shape the design and operation of roadways now and into the future
33
This paper provides an overview of the frameworks/manuals currently used worldwide to define
RMMLOS. It also highlights the benefits and shortfalls of these uses.
2.4.2. What is Multimodal Level of Service (RMMLOS)
Multimodal level of service, as defined in the Highway Capacity Manual 2010, ‘measures the degree
to which the urban street design and operations meets the needs of each mode’s users.’ FDOT
(2009) defines RMMLOS as a ‘rating system that evaluates various transportation modes and
impacts.’ Either way it is defined, the most common differentiation from traditional LOS usage is
that RMMLOS focuses heavily on measuring person-throughput rather than automobile-capacity of
a roadway. It also provides an analytical tool to look at tradeoffs for each transport mode user
group along a roadway (Cascade Bicycle Club 2011).
The Cascade Bicycle Club (2011), states that ‘efforts to improve LOS for vehicles might mean adding
capacity in the form of additional vehicle lanes and wider intersections. This increase in the number
of lanes generally leads to an air draught and therefore an increase in road traffic. In addition, wider
intersections discourage the use of active modes and encourage the use of private cars, which no
longer have a relevant competitive offer. In the long term, these two combined effects
systematically lead to increased congestion.
Being able to determine the impacts to other modes through a multimodal LOS calculation might
indicate to the decision makers that adding automobile capacity is not the best solution to support
the community’s vision.’ Furthermore, adopting a RMMLOS framework, can provide road agencies
and/or communities with the data required to make informed decisions about modal impacts when
evaluating different road designs.
Measuring RMMLOS can be a complex process when there are competing priorities and a high
degree of interaction between transport modes. There is also the issue of the different letter grades
for various modes having different meanings. For example LOS D is considered satisfactory by many
agencies for automobiles but not for cyclists. This LOS grade may mean that only very experienced
cyclists use the facility (NCHRP 2008).
Various frameworks and models have been developed to assist public agencies in calculating
RMMLOS (Cascade Bicycle Club 2011). The most widely utilised frameworks are presented in more
detail in the following chapters.
2.4.3. Framework Comparison
A state of the practice survey was conducted in the United States in regards to using RMMLOS
analysis to determine how public agencies currently use the measure. The survey undertaken by
the TRB (2008) identified frameworks being utilised was typically referenced from two major
manuals, namely:
• Highway Capacity Manual (HCM);
• Florida’s Quality/Level of Service Handbook.
In Australia, the measurement of LOS that has been adopted by a number of jurisdictions is the tool
SmartRoads, developed by VicRoads. Building on the tool developed by VicRoads, Austroads has
undertaken further research to develop a LOS framework from the perspectives of all road users.
The aim of this is to supplement rather than replace.
34
Table 1 provides a comparison of the abovementioned frameworks from the United States and
Australia, and the breakdown of the LOS measures they include.
Table 1: Framework comparison of LOS by mode comparison
Level of Service
Manual
Auto Transit Bicycle Pedestrian Freight
Highway Capacity
x x x x -
Manual
Florida’s Quality/Level
x x x x -
of Service Handbook
SmartRoads x x x x x
Austroads - Level of
x x x x x
Service Metrics
The TCQSM is designed to be applied for transit only and hence will not be looked at in further
detail throughout this report. The HCM, Florida Quality/Level of Service Handbook, SmartRoads and
Austroads frameworks all examine the road network from a multimodal perspective and are
described in further detail in appendices #1.
The LOS frameworks outlined in the previous sections can generally be applied on a national level
and are all applicable for analysing MMLOS for urban streets. None of the frameworks provide
comparable LOS results across modes due to different measurements used by the various manuals
for each mode. Table 2 provides a summary of some of the key areas of comparison between the
manuals.
Table 2: Framework comparison measure
Measure HCM FDOT Q/LOS SmartRoads Austroads
National
Yes No, State only Yes Yes
application
Applicable to
Yes Yes Yes Yes
urban streets
Comparable modal
No No No No
LOS
Averaging across
No No No No
modes
2.4.4. Using Multimodal Level of Service
RMMLOS provides a methodology sensitive to changes to specific parts of roadway facilities and ‘is
useful in comparing project alternatives within a specific study area to assess trade-offs between
modes’, according to Kittelson & Associates, Inc (2014)
35
Each of the frameworks discussed above is designed differently and hence used in different ways.
The following information outlines how each is typically used to assist agencies in selecting the right
framework to reach the desired outcome.
Highway Capacity Manual 2010
RMMLOS usage included in the HCM 2010 includes analysis on three different levels:
1. Operational;
2. Design; and
3. Planning and preliminary engineering.
The operational analysis is the most detailed application and requires the greatest level of
information to calculate (Cascade Bicycle Club 2011). The HCM 2010 outlines that the ‘design
analysis also requires detailed information... the analysis then seeks to determine reasonable
values for the conditions not provided. Whereas, the planning and preliminary engineering analysis
requires only the most fundamental types of information (HCM 2010).
Florida’s Quality/Level of Service Handbook
Cascade Bicycle Club (2011) describes unique provision for planning in this handbook which includes
‘a generalized planning analysis and “conceptual planning analysis.’ Generalized planning analysis
is used for state-wide analyses to identify initial problems and estimate performance in future
years. Whereas, conceptual planning analysis should be applied to support design decisions
(Cascade Bicycle Club 2011).
SmartRoads
SmartRoads is an innovative process for managing, planning and operating transport networks and
is being increasingly adopted by jurisdictions. It was originally developed by VicRoads to assist in
the application of network operation planning. The approach used in an urban environment is to
seek a balance between competing interests of road users to support a more multimodal and
sustainable transport network. The tool assesses general traffic, public transport, freight,
pedestrians and cyclists (Austroads 2016).
Although SmartRoads adopts the LOS concept, the criteria used are unique in that they focus on the
user of each mode (VicRoads 2015).
36
Figure 30: LOS descriptions - source: VicRoads (2015)

Austroads Level of Service Metrics
The LOS framework in its current form should be applied at a link level to assist in gaining a better
understanding of what LOS grade is appropriate for each mode. Austroads (2015) states, it can also
‘be used to identify the functional objectives of a link... which may then influence decisions by users
as to the mode of travel.’ The use of this framework ‘does not change the need for use of detailed
computer modelling analysis tools used to verify the impacts of proposed changes’, according to
Austroads (2015).
After the design and even construction of a project the framework can be used as a checklist to
ensure that the project objectives were met (Austroads 2015).
Through the case studies outlined in the Level of Service Metrics (for Network Operations Planning),
users found it can be:
• easily applied without the need for data;
• used to highlight trade-offs between users and transport needs;
• used to identify what issues should be considered and the design aspects that should be
incorporated (Austroads 2015).
2.4.5. Conclusion
Kittelson & Associates, Inc (2014) indicates that in order for a RMMLOS analysis to be successful,
agencies must ‘set clear needs, goals and priorities; select measures to reflect the needs and goals;
and then weight them according to priorities.
Many jurisdictions still primarily focus on moving cars and this has implications for places that adopt
a multimodal LOS with the hope that it will lead to true reform according to Henderson (2011). The
timing for the adoption of RMMLOS metrics across jurisdictions will differ. It is dependent on
37
whether transportation agencies are willing to accept a lower automobile LOS in order to reach an
acceptable LOS for cyclists, pedestrians, or transit (Henderson 2011). Cascade Bicycle Club (2011)
believes that the community has a significant role to play in changing this thinking and to decide
what’s acceptable in terms of LOS standards for each mode.
What is evident through the use of RMMLOS to date is that metrics for RMMLOS should not be
aggregated, supported by both the TRB in the HCM 2010, and FDOT in the Quality/Level of Service
Manual. The main reasoning is that there is no professionally recognised technique for combining
LOS and issues around the weighting of different modes (Cascade Bicycle Club 2011). However,
recent research undertaken by Austroads outlined in Level of Service Metrics (for Network
Operations Planning) recommends further work be undertaken to obtain one LOS rating per link.
Austroads does acknowledge that this requires the application of weightings to each mode and
guidelines are required to assist in the application.
Combining data for different modes into one overall rating/score can overlook deficiencies in the
LOS of individual modes. Each mode of transport has different needs and perspectives and these
may not be addressed through a blended approach. Analysing each mode separately, and allocating
individual ratings, allows jurisdictions to alter space within the roadway and test which transport
mode LOS improves or declines as a result of the change.
There are various frameworks/methodologies being used for establishing RMMLOS but in its
current state, according to Henderson (2011), RMMLOS ‘will not revolutionize urban
transportation planning’. Puget Sound Regional Council (2014) states that there is ‘no one-size-
fits-all methodology for measuring RMMLOS, and jurisdictions should tailor existing
methodologies to local land use goals and infrastructure needs to ensure it can be successfully
applied.’
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3. ROAD BASED MOBILITY SOLUTIONS INCLUDING

MULTIMODAL INTERCHANGES AND NEW ROAD MOBILITY
3.1. OVERVIEW
For decades, urban regions have been built on the principle that their economic attractiveness
necessarily depended on their accessibility and more particularly on the transport time linking them
to the surrounding territories. Thus they have developed in an almost exclusive logic of a road
network, attributing the majority of public space to the private car. In the past, when the
automobile was synonymous with modernity and freedom, this has resulted in an increase in traffic,
and consequently in congestion on the main structural roads... so an effect opposite to that sought!
Moreover, it has been a few years now since we have entered a situation where all kinds of
constraints are increasingly weighing on transport systems: declining investment resources, difficult
budgetary balances, ageing infrastructure, structurally rising demand...
Based on this experience, this chapter on new road mobility solutions provides an overview of good
practices and innovations in order to find viable responses to the development of urban regions.
These solutions propose new approaches, which think of mobility as a whole and no longer just in
terms of "pipes" or "modes". They also integrate a sustainable dimension by prioritizing the
optimization of existing infrastructures and services. This is reflected in the sharing of roads (lanes
reserved for public transport or carpooling,...), or vehicles (carpooling, carsharing,...) and an
intensification of the importance given to connection points (multimodal transit centres)
The concept of "new mobility" must therefore not be taken in the narrow sense of novelties, but
rather in the sense of a broad focus on all the elements at work, or emerging, that can impact
people's urban mobility, according to two dimensions: the transport offer and changes in travel
practices.
When we think of more virtuous mobility, we generally have in mind the solutions involving public
transport. On this point, the report of the past cycle has largely developed the advantages of the
Bus Rapid Transit concept. The BRT is a high level, environmentally friendly, high quality public
transport mode that offers a solution to mobility problems for reduced infrastructure and operating
costs. In this new report, accompanying solutions are presented to promote the circulation of BRTs,
or more generally to improve the performance of this transport system. These recommendations
can be applied to any public transit system by adapting and weighing them according to the context
and issues.
Carpooling is currently growing very strongly all over the world. On the one hand, it allows
individuals to propose a new mobility solution and/or make financial savings, and on the other
hand, it reduces the number of vehicles in circulation and thereby congestion and the
environmental impact of road traffic. This practice is sometimes organized through contact
platforms, or even encouraged by public authorities. This is the case in North America, where some
traffic lanes are reserved for carpoolers to facilitate their traffic. In order to optimise infrastructure
and finances, some carpool lanes have been opened to solo car users in return for a toll. This has
made it possible to finance new developments and to have complete networks with reserved lanes,
which allow the road operator to manage traffic priorities on an urban region scale in real time.
39
These individual or collective transport solutions must not be in opposition. The objective is to
respond as widely as possible to the needs of users. Ideally, each trip should be carefully considered
and chosen according to the needs to be met. To do this, it is essential that the offers cross and that
the user is at the heart of the system. This is the ambition of multimodal transit centre. This
development is a place where the different modes of transport are articulated: walking, two-
wheelers, public transport, trains, taxis, etc. It is designed as a platform on which all modes of
transport converge and thus allows users to have a choice of their mode of transport. The report
presents the challenges and operating methods associated with multimodal transit centres
according to the context.
In addition, the layout solutions presented above must be scalable in order to be able to adapt to
ongoing changes in mobility. Indeed, our way of moving has begun to change in recent years and
should change considerably. The digital boom is bringing new mobility players to the forefront, and
we are beginning to see autonomous vehicles on the road. The new possibilities thus offered reduce
our dependence on "individual" cars. These initiatives, which stem from the collaborative economy,
are based on the sharing of goods and services among citizens, grouped into networks or
communities. There are all kinds of them, from carpooling to parcel transport by private individuals,
more or less known and which can meet a large part of our needs. This report presents an overview
of new shared mobility. It lists the challenges inherent in these changes and makes
recommendations to address these developments.
Thus, the travel policies of the previous century did not make it possible to respond to all mobility
problems. Today, traffic jams, the demand for ecological and sustainable solutions and the need to
take well-considered initiatives at the budgetary level are driving the development of innovative
transport concepts. These concepts have in common the notion of sharing, either by separation like
for the development of reserved lanes or with the pooling of transport supplies. The optimization
of existing infrastructure has replaced the creation of additional lanes. It is essential to change the
planning paradigms of industrialized countries and to provide efficient recommendations for
developing countries.
"Thinking that you can relieve congestion by creating an extra lane is like believing that you can
solve obesity by adding a hole in the belt"
3.2. BUS PRIORITY & BRT MANUAL

3.2.1. Introduction
In this document, a proposal is evaluated to adapt the actions for the development of new systems
for the prioritization of the urban transport of passengers in vehicles - Bus different models - that
are frequently used in the world for the provision of this important public service.
What is discussed here complements and perfects the Study carried out in the previous period of
the Sustainable Mobility Committee T.C.2.2 in the period 2011-2015, specifically in relation to the
BRT Systems. From the documentation mentioned in the Bibliography Detail used, it’s possible to
consult a large set of Studies that have been prepared in various specialized Institutes, so in this
Technical Report, we will limit ourselves to present, according to the experience gathered, a
Proposal of Good Practices for the execution of transport prioritization systems of this type.
40
In the aforementioned Report, various theoretical concepts are analyzed in relation to the TOD as
a strategy of inter modality and the link between land use and transport, and numerous examples
of application are studied in large cities where the benefits of this can be appreciated. in relation
to rail transit, with BRT systems and with the use of bicycles as a means of transport..
Within these concepts, BRT systems that are being widely used are based on the benefits obtained
in a better provision of the public service, reduce travel times and improved travel reliability.
However, these types of projects must be carefully evaluated because, beyond the political impact
of their implementation, they can increase congestion to an extent that is unacceptable to the
population. Indeed, the lack of space for their construction often requires the recovery of a route
from general traffic. This track recovery can significantly increase congestion when separate traffic
lanes do not have the capacity necessary to satisfy all demand with an acceptable level of service.
That is why it is insisted that the proposal as a global strategy is the prioritization of public transport
and within it, to privilege the displacement in urban networks of the traditional Bus, but given that
there are multiple solutions for this, it is understood that it should be considered in each case that
best fits each situation.
The reputation and effectiveness of BRTs is well established. The report of the previous cycle
focused on this at length and highlighted:
• the objective of this rapid transport system, which aims at the quality of service of rail
modes with the flexibility of buses
• its key performance indicators, namely punctuality/regularity, frequency and speed
(competitive journey time of other modes)
• the importance, in the design processes, of the system approach based on the
infrastructure/material/operation triptych
The report also pointed out that BRT systems could take different forms around the world and
sometimes even change their names. Thus, American or Asian developments retain the common
name of BRT while those found in Europe are called Bus with High Level of Service (BHLS). BRT and
BHLS differ significantly, reflecting contrasting urban contexts in which transport systems have
developed each with their own objectives and at their own pace. From these similarities and
differences, it is interesting to draw some useful lessons for the choice of the most suitable system
for serving the territories.
The term Bus Rapid Transit has been used since the 1970s to describe how to improve bus services.
The BRT concept is graduated according to a very wide scale of realization:
• from the BRT-Lite, which is the first step in improving a bus line and makes it possible to
set the "lower limit" of the BRT concept (large inter-station distances, implementation of
some priorities at traffic lights, increase in transit frequencies and service time), see Los
Angeles
• up to Full-BRT aimed at offering the same performances and characteristics as those of
the metro (fully dedicated roadway, totally separate platform, uneven intersections,
payment before boarding, clean and modern vehicles, strong identity) cf. Bogota
(Colombia)
The concept of BHLS emerged in Europe in the 2000s, following three decades in which public road
transport was abandoned to the detriment of private cars and tramways. The idea then emerged
41
that the bus could offer much better performance and image than it had, particularly with regard
to the South American examples.
In terms of common points, BRT and BHLS have the same objective of making the most of an
economic system based on bus equipment, using "ingredients" of heavier systems whose
performance is recognised. In addition, they have an approach that adapts to the constraints and
contexts of cities. Thus, we can find BRT/BHLS systems that complement a public transport offer
already organised around a heavy mode (such as metro) in large urban areas or that structure the
public transport infrastructure in an intermediate city. In both cases, the infrastructure focuses
attention on the systematic search for an integral exclusive right-of-way, and in the case of
constrained areas, specific operating measures (e. g. occasional mixing with other modes) are
considered in order to obtain the best compromise between the performance of the project and
the constraints on other users.
From the point of view of oppositions, it should be noted:

• A difference in the design of urban transport systems marked by urban planning culture.
The BRT essentially meets the needs of commuters travelling to the city centre (very
dense), from very dispersed and often distant origins. In the case of BHLS, urban
functions are less separated (greater functional mix of European cities), so that public
transport is used both for commuting at peak times and for secondary reasons at off-
peak times.
• Different insertion choices. Indeed, since European cities often have historic centres or
classified districts with narrow streets, BHLS projects must respond to greater integration
constraints and sometimes prioritise regularity rather than travel time.
• Different histories and cultures that influence how the transport system is approached
as a tool of urban policy. European countries have made a significant contribution to the
development of the tramway as an "ideal" mode and have taken advantage of its positive
perception to make it a tool for urban redevelopment. BRT systems do not generally have
this dimension.
This report will use the generic term BRT in the following pages to refer to both BRT and BHLS
systems.
3.2.2. Background Evaluation
It’s important to develop the experience about the implementation of the Systems generally named
of Bus Priority, with the integration of best practices to avoid different problems that normally are
seen in these transportation projects.
Sometimes political decisions of the cities authorities imply traffic problems in urban areas, despite
the good intention of solving it.
In regard to the first issue, the objective was to find out how policies regarding transportation
strategies, methods, and operations are decided and implemented by the authorities in an effort
to solve current transportation challenges such as traffic congestion, ever changing population
demographics, and environmental impacts. In order to benchmark system performance, mobility
data at a metropolitan level was collected and analyzed.
42
The first classification about these systems is taking in account the methodology in the operation
of the transportation lanes, the technical characters of them, the area where they work (urban or
suburban regions), etc.
A. - Classification by Region
• Urban area
• Suburban area
B. - Type of segregated lanes

• Lanes in the shoulder of a Highway
• Lanes in the middle of Highway separated of the normal traffic by barriers type New
Jersey.
• Lanes in urban areas of exclusive use for buses depending or not of a time table or a daily
agenda.
• BRT lanes operating with open methodology.
• Typical BRT Systems operating with shut lanes.
C. - Methodology of fare paying of the trip.

• Fare payment at the station
• Fare payment on the Bus with different way of practices in transport Buses
D. – General characteristics of BRT Corridors
The system can be classified according to the following operational characteristics:

• Infrastructure:
• Service planning:
• Stations and Vehicles:
• Accessibility and Intermodality:
• Communication: criteria specific to network information and image;
• Performance.
3.2.3. Overview of Various Bus Priority Systems

3.2.3.1. Dedicated Right of way lanes
A dedicated right-of-way is vital to ensuring that buses can move quickly and unimpeded by
congestion.
Dedicated lanes can be segregated from other vehicles in different ways and can have varying
degrees of permeability (e.g., fences, curbs, delineators, electronic bollards, car traps, colorized
pavement, and camera enforcement) but physical separation typically results in the best
compliance and the easiest enforcement.
It has been established as a general criterion that for a transport prioritization corridor to be defined
as a BRT System, it must have a minimum extension of three kilometers of segregated lanes.
However, other systems with shorter lengths may be accepted within this classification, whose
design has had to be adjusted to the possibilities of the public space available, as well as other
special arrangements such as that of a corridor, where segregated lanes alternate with sections of
shared use of the roads, with general traffic.
43
We can consider different organizations in this System:

• Single segregated lane and double segregated lanes
In this case it is established that the lanes, one or two of the right of the street, that are of exclusive
use for the circulation of the Buses, by means of the demarcation painted on the roadways and
complemented with the respective signs.
Figure 31 : Bus Priority with one and two lanes in streets of urban areas
• Bus priority along the second lane only segregated by pavement paint of the separation
lines
Unlike the previous case, the exclusive use for the bus of only the second lane is established, so the
other vehicles will not be able to drive through it but will eventually carry out crossing maneuvers
without priority.
44
Figure 32 : Bus Priority only in the second lane in streets of urban areas
The bus way is best located where conflicts with other traffic can be minimized, especially from
turning movements from mixed-traffic lanes. In most cases, a busway in the central verge of a
roadway encounters fewer conflicts with turning vehicles than those closer to the curb due to
alleys, parking lots, etc.
Additionally, while delivery vehicles and taxis generally require access to the curb, the central verge
of the road usually remains free of such obstructions. All of the design configuration
recommendations detailed below are related to minimizing the risk of delays caused by turning
conflicts and curb side access.
The circulation of the buses in the left lane has the additional advantage that the displacement of
the buses is not affected by the turns to the right of the general traffic.
• Bus priority in roads and highways
Dedicated lanes can be segregated in the right lane of a Road or on the shoulder of a highway
Many countries in Europe (Belgium, France,etc.) and North America (Canada, United States) have
transformed some sections of their hard shoulder into reserved lanes to facilitate public transport
traffic. The first experiments date back to the 1970s in Seattle and the 1990s in the Netherlands
before undergoing strong development since the 2000s and now reaching some 50 sites in
operation. The projects undertaken have been very successful wherever they have been carried
out. The benefits of these developments are internationally shared and include:
• a saving of time and regularity for public transport
• no impact on other users (in terms of travel time and safety)
• ease of implementation and reduced cost due to the absence of enlargement and the
limited scope of the work
Figure 33 : Bus Priority lane on both shoulders of a highway

However, this type of arrangement requires specific measures because it must maintain the
essential capacity and safety functions of the hard shoulder. In particular, the construction of a
reserved lane in place of a hard shoulder must:
• can be recovered as an additional track in the event of work, maintenance or incidents,
• maintain a lateral clearance that constitutes a recovery or obstacle avoidance area
45
• ensure the safety of motorists who have broken down, in particular by offering
emergency stop options
• and provide a high level of service to its users
To achieve these performances it is essential to respect certain conditions that are almost always
found in a similar way on all projects. These conditions relate to the three design principles that
are:
• Geometry - the hard shoulder space is expanded to a value between 3.50m and 4.00m.
Depending on the context, this widening is done either by reducing the widths of the
other lanes and lowering the maximum authorised speed on the section or by increasing
the roadbed. In addition, the pavement structure is reinforced to support regular trafic
• Signalling - specific static signalling is implemented on the shoulder, it is generally very
limited. Some countries such as France recommend adding a ground marking (such as a
"BUS" logo)
• Operation - the reserved lanes developed on hard shoulder are reserved exclusively for
public transport (in particular, there is no development open to taxis). The maximum
speed of traffic is reduced (between 50 and 70 km/h), which means that although the
lane remains open at all times, it is only used during periods of congestion. The speed
differential between buses on the reserved lane and general traffic users must remain
low (around 30 km/h), this is managed by means of a notice distributed to public
transport drivers in their operating regulations and not with dynamic equipment
The question of increasing the number of shelters on which international positions diverged seems
to be a matter of consensus today. Indeed, feedback and recent doctrines agree that this type of
development does not require additional shelters.
In view of these elements, the sections most suited to this transformation of the hard shoulder are
the urban highways. Indeed, these sites have both a hard shoulder due to the motorway design,
regular congestion due to their massive use to access urban center services, a high presence of
public transport linked to the urban perimeter and users making regular home-to-work trips.
Finally, the transformation of the hard shoulder should not be seen as an end in itself. It is essential
to ensure that public transport is effectively time-consuming on the sections to be developed. In
addition, a BRT approach can be developed on structuring lines using these infrastructures. Indeed,
in parallel with the optimization of the infrastructure, it is important on the one hand to work on
the equipment and operation of the line in order to increase the interest of the service and increase
the modal shift, and on the other hand to benefit as much as possible from this new road offer by
possibly reorganising the routes of the various services (which potentially did not previously use
this infrastructure due to congestion).
• Bus priority with segregated lanes in a highway
The illustration shows a circulatory scheme of a central lane on a highway for the exclusive use of
a BRT, with alternative advancement rating, according to the hours of the day with high demand.
Analyzed examples of the City of Buenos Aires (Argentina) and Houston (Texas USA)
46
Figure 34 : Diagram of Bus Priority reversible lane in a highway

The case studied has been a BRT System called Metrobus 25 de Mayo, built on an existing viaduct
of an urban highway in the City of Buenos Aires
Figure 35: Cross section 25 de Mayo Highway

The Ilustration shows the layout before and after the works. In broad outline, the criterion adopted
was to reduce the existing lanes from 3.50 to 3.00 meters for lightweight vehicles, and to 3.20
meters for heavyweight vehicles. The reduced lane width required adjusting the speed limit for
lightweight vehicles from 100 km/hour (design speed) to 80 km/hour.
The characteristics of this road configuration generally require that the accesses to the segregated
lanes are developed by the ends of the section considered, since the intermediate entries / exits
are very difficult and can mean situations of risk for the highway traffic.
47
Figure 36: BRT System (Metrobus 25 de Mayo) in a central lane of an urban highway
The Traffic Signs that are used for the organization of public transport prioritization systems can
be consulted in the Manual on Uniform traffic Control Devices.
3.2.3.2. Use of partial open BRT Systems
When we have some new open Systems of Bus priority, that it cannot be considered by its length
and its characteristics as BRT, it´s possible to evaluate them, as a good proposal. For example, if it´s
constructed only a Station in a middle of an avenue as a transfer hub, we have a solution for the
passengers and the buses after can continue operating normally along its route.
Similarly, the interchange among different ways used by the buses passing from traffic lanes to
segregated lanes only in a reduced distance; it can be a solution in a congestion area.
Figure 37: Example of an open BRT System

48
Figure 38 : Example of an open BRT System

49
Analysis of various infrastructure project criteria in the open systems of the BRT
1. In open systems, the buses can enter or leave the segregated lanes, in certain sections of the
route, so sectors must be projected for the exchange with general traffic. Eventually these
maneuvers can be developed at signalized intersections, so it is convenient to assign an
exclusive phase of advance to the priority of the bus
2. The fact of the shared use of the system by buses that partially use it, determines that the
number of lines that circulate in sections varies; this means that the number of transport
vehicles and the frequency of arrivals to the stations also vary, so they must adjust the length
of the platforms according to the number of stops.
3. Likewise, the simplest system of one lane in each direction, which is available when the
frequency of arrival of the buses is low, must be adjusted when the number of lines that are
circulating is greater, due to the delay problems that may be caused by the detention in the
stations for passenger ascent and descent.
4. One of the most efficient systems to solve this problem is the incorporation of a second lane in
front of the platform, to overcome the stopped buses. In this case, to make the use of space
more efficient, it is to move the platforms in such a way that in practice only a third lane is
added as shown in the Illustration.
Figure 39 : Intersection with asymmetric distribution of lanes in front of Station platforms

50
Figure 40 : BRT Station with asymmetric distribution of lanes

5. In the closed systems project, that is, in those buses that circulate through the exclusive lanes
without leaving the entire route assigned to the passenger transport lines, it is more efficient
to have a single central platform, for both directions, since less public space is occupied in the
center of the road. In this design, buses must have side doors for access on the left of the
vehicle, so they can operate only within the system. This means that buses must be built for
this sole purpose, so the existing transport infrastructure must affect other routes or eventually
circulate with general traffic.
(Note: everything stated in this report refers to countries where traffic circulates on the right).
6. This problem is in general, the reason for many disputes, especially with the companies that
already exploit the service, prior to the implementation of the BRT. Given that the construction
of these new systems is usually carried out progressively according to financial possibilities or
only by sections, depending on the availability of space, the majority has opted for the type of
open layout in the circulation and platforms with access on the right side.
Figure 41 : Station with platforsm for access to the bus by left door
51
7. It is interesting the solution that has been implemented in the BRT Metrobus 9 de Julio in the
City of Buenos Aires, where an open system was built where numerous transport lines converge
to the sector where the System was developed, but for architectural reasons they built central
single platforms. In this case the bus traffic develops on the left in a segregated manner with
passenger access through the right door. For this, an infrastructure was built in the headers of
the special system for the crossing of the buses (in one of the ends there were two tunnels and
in the other the movements were controlled by traffic lights.
Figure 42 : Metrobus 9 de Julio. Buses circulating on the left lane and access doors on the right side
3.2.4. Best Practices
3.2.4.1. Previous Feasibility studies, evaluation and Selection of the Transport Priorization
System to be used
In the proposal to address actions that lead to the solution of the various problems presented by
urban transport, it is essential to carry out a prior assessment of the existing situation in the sector
to intervene, based on the available statistical information and complementary studies to carry out,
in such a way as to establish the best intervention in the public road that provides a response to
the requirements, optimizing the resources available from the choice of the best technical
alternatives. With regard to urban transport prioritization systems, it is necessary to avoid using the
usual formula of choosing, for example, a BRT System, even in small sections of the route of the
lines in operation in a city, when viable alternatives may exist and that they do not increase or
worsen in general, the traffic congestion situations
This proposal leads to establish a balance between the need to prioritize transport and the road
users are not obliged to circulate with a level of service that implies reaching an irreversible
saturation.
This is fundamental since buses usually circulate throughout the urban area, generally sharing the
roads with the other vehicles and access a transport prioritization area at a certain point, although
this improved area can transfer the congestion disturbance, worsening the displacement including
buses
This leads us to remember the following axiom:
"If at a point in an urban region, some works are carried out with a clear reduction in roadway
capacity and limitations in vehicular circulation, an improvement in the service level and a reduction
in the pre-existing congestion of the section intervened will be obtained. But if the global level of
52
vehicular demand is maintained, the problem is transferred to nearby accesses and congestion
increases, further worsening the transit of the entire region. "
In summary, the first best practice proposed is a detailed and complete study prior to the
development of the works.
The initial evaluation can be approached with some weighting methodology of the improvements
that are foreseen with the new project, in order to compare them with the final results obtained.
It is noteworthy that in this respect, the interesting proposals presented by the Institute for
Transportation and Development Policy (ITDP) USA and by the Chinese Transportation Ministry ,
whose scope are summarized in Point N° 3.4.5. of this Report, with the final evaluation of the
results.
In the preceding section, the various systems that are used for the priority circulation of transport
in urban areas were analyzed, with the advantages offered by their use, depending on the
environmental factors that condition their operations. It is advisable to use each type of system
according to the respective traffic engineering studies and the economic resources available.
It is important for example that the improvement of the route of a line or more lines of transport is
analyzed in its entirety and intervenes mainly in the sections that present difficulties that impair its
commercial speed. From this, it can be determined that in one section a BRT system is chosen,
where several transport services are integrated into main arteries with road geometry that allows
this provision of public space. In other sections, other solutions can be addressed or complementary
improvements introduced, such as the case of traffic arrangements with the formation of pairs of
streets with unique hand circulation, construction of new flooring pavements, re-ordering of bus
stops, etc.
3.2.4.2. Public transport Stops and transfert stations
An aspect that can be considered simple, but is a good example of a priority practice and it is
applicable in all transport systems, such as the Passenger Waiting Stop.
See that in each of these sites, all the people who wait, must spend a part of the total time of the
trip, outdoors, supporting all kinds of weather conditions and exposed according to the
circumstances and schedules, to situations of coexistence, that even they can affect public safety.
Undoubtedly, even this proposal seems redundant, for developed cities but a good practice is to
improve this public space by installing shelter structures, with benches to use them in waiting, etc.
Something that should also be taken into account is the movements of ascent and descent of people
that must be facilitated, for which they should stop by the cord, a circumstance that is often
hampered by the bad parking of cars in the vicinity. For this, an initiative that has shown its
efficiency is simply to extend the sidewalk by running the cord in the area of the stop as shown in
the attached figure.
53
Figure 43 : Examples of Passenger waiting Stops

The solutions proposed in the resolution of the passenger transfer Centers, are varied, from those
that have a configuration similar to the intermediate Stations of a BRT System, as well as others
that have a wide development with roadways that contemplate the displacements of the numerous
lines of buses and facilitate the mobility of the passengers, complementing themselves in case of
exchange with other means, for example railway stations, with different levels of circulation
footbridges, etc.
A specific chapter on transit centres, which the reader can find in following pages, develops in
particular the specific issues involved in the development of these multimodal trade hub.
Figure 44 : Example of an Intermodal Exchange Center for passenger transport

3.2.4.3. BRT Systems
This Transport System has currently become one of the most efficient at the road level and its
importance is evidenced by its massive implementation in urban centers around the world. As has
been said, this issue has been dealt with extensively, in the Sustainable Mobility Committee
Document of the previous period with the survey of experiences of this type of undertakings in
important cities in a generalized manner in the five Continents.
54
In this document, we will limit ourselves to proposing various concepts that are understood as best
practices in the matter, without this means a complete analysis of the exposed topics.
Characteristics of the System Design.
The location of the road map of the BRT in the Center of the Road of an urban Avenue must be
justified in that this initiative leads to a significant improvement in Transportation, which in turn is
related to the number of buses that circulate and the number of passengers transported in relation
to the general traffic volumes. It is logical to assume that as a consequence of this intervention, the
reduction of road capacity does not lead to unacceptable levels of congestion.
On the other hand, the number of lanes assigned to transport is a variable conditioned to the
capacity of the road, the number of units circulating and the number of different lines or companies
in operation. In the case of having only one lane in each direction, without overpasses, it can happen
that during bus stops in the stations, bus queues are formed, so it is essential to reduce these times
as much as possible with Fare payment at the station.
A provision that has proven its efficiency is the proposal of a third lane in front of the station, which
is transferred to the platform of the other hand as shown in the attached map. This implies the
shared use of the additional lane only in the sector of the stations, returning to the geometry of
two in the circulation paths. That is to say, that there can be several stopping points of Buses in a
shared platform, with a better distribution of the passengers that wait in the place and thus allow
the overcoming of the vehicles that have already completed the load and must continue their
march.
Finally, the proposal to have two lanes per hand in the entire route of the BRT is a high capacity
design, only possible in cases where there are roads with space availability. An example of this is
the so-called Metrobus 9 de Julio in the City of Buenos Aires.
Traffic Lights control
The control systems using traffic light, are an important part of the operational infrastructure of
the BRT transport corridors. In general, the established strategy is that buses, must undoubtedly
have priority in circulation to optimize the commercial speeds of the lines.
However, the programming of the control technology must be approached carefully through
previous studies of Traffic Engineering. For this, it is advisable to evaluate the geographical
characteristics of the development of segregated lanes within the existing urban network, where
the traffic lights operate according to the following schemes:
• If the intersections are separated from each other, the operation of the traffic lights is
isolated, that is, they do not integrate synchronized systems, the intersections must be
programmed with priority in the dynamic phases, that is to say, with approach demand
of the vehicle.
• If the intersections due to their proximity integrate synchronized systems, the priority is
established with fixed phases that is programmed in the local controller.
• If the corridor integrates a complex urban network of avenues with numerous
synchronized crossings, the traffic lights will operate taking into account the traffic
operation of traffic in general. Here it is important that the priority be established in the
55
study of the green waves of the coordination of the corridor, especially considering the
times of stop of the buses on the platforms of the stations.
• At the points of entry and exit of the buses in the open systems of BRT, phases acted with
the presence of vehicles must be programmed for their exclusive habilitation in order to
improve the service level of the accesses to these demanded crossings.
• Finally, BRT control systems must have modern ITS control technology. That is to say that
control systems that act by supervising the automatic operation of the traffic lights can
be used, measuring the vehicular volumes of the network and acting online for the
selection of the traffic programs. Likewise, this selection can also be approached with
higher-level controls such as algorithms of the adaptive type.
Road Signs
This topic is widely treated in the varied documentation consulted, both in regard to the Horizontal
Demarcation and the traffic signs, so it is understood that its analysis is not necessary, with the
exception of everything referred to the Luminous Signs, which is one of the main aspects to take
into account to obtain an efficient operation of the systems. See that in the before and after
implementation of a BRT, crossings with traffic lights have become more complex, implying in
practice that this problem must be addressed with great care, especially to provide security for both
vehicles and pedestrians who must access the new facilities.
It seems unnecessary to say that traffic lights have systems that guarantee the synchronization of
green waves, but in particular this is the fundamental basis for obtaining acceptable results in terms
of operational efficiency. The synchronization ensures that the displacement of vehicles in general
and the buses in particular can advance within green waves at programmed speeds, as well as that
the displacement of cross traffic at crossings is safe, preventing cars from being stopped at the
intersections.
In general the current technology has modern tools to be used in these cases, interconnecting the
equipment of the public road with control centers operated automatically with transit computers.
However, it is sometimes verified that the links between local equipment are cut for various reasons
and may leave the System functioning in poor conditions. In this case, it is insisted that the control
systems must be redundant, that is to say, when faced with a difficulty such as the one mentioned,
the equipment will be synchronized with alternative technology (example with GPS satellite
connection).
Circulatory Regulations
As it has been exposed the level crossings, traffic lights present numerous problems with the
construction of a BRT, so it is advisable to carefully study the vehicular circulation of the vicinity of
each intersection. It is important to bear in mind that, with regard to the new road infrastructure,
part of the urban area is affected by the elimination of numerous crossings, so that traffic is
oriented and accumulated in those areas.
In order to solve some of the problems that are usually generated, it is particularly important to
reorder the network of urban streets, assigning unique sense of circulation. All this also affects
transport lines with transversal displacement to the segregated main road
56
In summary, we cannot say more about it since each particular case must be studied, so it is not
convenient to raise general concepts. In a System Planning Guide BRT (Rapid Transit Bus), it is
advised that the left turns for general transit at System junctions should be eliminated. This may be
acceptable, but there may be reasons that prevent this restriction from being implemented, so this
problem can be solved with a proper programming of the traffic lights.
It´s important to remember that prohibiting turns for traffic across the bus lane, reduces delays
caused to buses by turning traffic. Prohibiting such turns is the most important measure for moving
buses through intersections – more important even than signal priority.
Platform-level Boarding
The station should be at level with the bus for quick and easy boarding. This also makes it fully
accessible for wheelchairs, disabled passengers, strollers and carts with minimal delays.
3.2.4.4. Trunk Lines Strategies and Feeding Branches.
The organizations that are established for the efficient operation of passenger transport are varied,
so that this service reaches all the urbanizations of a Locality, especially those furthest from the
central axes through which the BRT circulates. In those cities where there are already networks of
links with Transport Lines, the implementation of a new system presents difficulties for possible
adjustments, so this must be studied adequately in order not to affect the commercial interests of
the concession companies. It is always feasible to establish regulation centers for the existing
branches, so the transshipment centers have an important operational function, which can be
implemented in the vicinity, where exchanges with other means are also available, such as the
railway stations.
On the other hand, with a new transport system as BRT, the organization of the trunk lines with the
feeder branches can be approached with a greater degree of freedom in order to find an adequate
strategy in particular with regard to closed systems. (See two examples In n°3.2.3.2. Use of partial
open BRT System Figure - 37 / 38)
3.2.4.5. Analysis of different Types of Transport Services
It is noteworthy that in any project to be evaluated, the type of service that each Bus lines provides
to passengers must be considered, according to the characteristics of its route, its extension and
operation and the geography of the areas it crosses in urban and periurban regions.
For this reason, it is possible to differentiate the Bus lines that move within the boundaries of
localities and which communicate several of these nearby, as well as those that travel distant cities
but at medium distances. Long-distance transports that have another configuration are not
considered for this analysis. It is common in these groupings, the concurrence of several
jurisdictions for the regulation of services, such that the former are supervised by the communes,
while the inter jurisdictional by the Government of the Province or Department, while the long
distance lines are controlled by the authorities at the national level. In other examples, the
existence of a Regulatory Authority that operates with all services can be determined.
This in turn determines, that the operation of the buses varies, since the local or short distance,
generally have separate stops distances between 300 to 500 meters, while medium-distance
services usually called express, stop only at important points of travel, in order to have a
57
commercial speed that does not unnecessarily prolong travel times. These circumstances condition
the project of the distribution of the stopping points on the platforms according to the demand of
the transport vehicles and that the general circulation of the traffic is not impaired.
This is especially important in the BRT Systems, where the platforms should be projected
considering the number of lines, the frequencies of the arrivals and that their location take into
account that at the same point, the stops of the lines that have a superimposed route co-exist, in
such a way as to make it easier for the passengers to use them alternately without having to move
within the platform.
Neither is considered here, a mode of transport that has medium-distance routes in vehicles of
lower transport capacity (Van type), which operate point-to-point without intermediate stops, hat
are enabled to circulate with the other lines through the same segregated lanes
To complete the above, it can be added that the transport lines organize their operations according
to demand but the characteristics of the territory also have special relevance, whether the
extension of the routes reaches the suburbs of the city, the peri-urban area or the rural one. In the
latter case where precisely the demand is generally low level, the publication at stops of transport
schedules and compliance with them, to optimize passengers waiting times.
3.2.4.6. Other advantages of BRT
These BRT systems are identified in some regions with other denominations (eg Argentina:
Metrobus), since their characteristics deviate from the basic guidelines established for this
organization as already discussed above, however their efficient operation is based precisely
because it fits the particular needs of transport. The open concept is used here both for the freedom
of entry to the segregated lanes of the buses, as well as the access to the passengers to the
platforms of the stations with deferred payment of the tickets.
In this scheme, it is possible to observe that the lines do not necessarily make use of the segregated
roadways in the entire extension of the system, but that the vehicles enter and exit from it
according to the established routes.
It is necessary to analyze here other aspects that make the basis of this scheme, as it is the collection
of the ticket that can be made before the passenger's ascent or on the contrary inside the vehicle.
Undoubtedly, the saving of time in stopping the Bus in the Station is important in the first case, with
respect to the second, but this simplification leads to multiple problems that in an open system it
is convenient to avoid:
• The companies providing the service, among several alternatives, can be administered
by the Government or belong to the private sector with or without external subsidy. In
the latter case, they may constitute a single organization or operate independently from
each other; if so, the collection of the ticket is perceived directly when the payment is
made precisely into the bus.
• Entrance to the platforms is free and there are no barriers that confine the passengers;
this can affect their physical safety in areas with antisocial behavior and on the other is
verifiable in many examples where the crowding of the passengers constitutes situations
in itself, undesirable for an adequate provision of public service.
• However, the Fare payment at the station, instead of the bus, eliminates the delay
caused by passengers waiting to pay on board.
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• The maintenance of the infrastructure of doors and turn styles of access control can be
quite problematic in certain places.
• In general, when the stations are closed, they are operated with central platforms and
the buses have access doors on the left of the vehicle. This in general is not possible with
existing units in several countries, because they already have a provision with doors on
the right side. This inconvenience In the case of 9 de Julio Ave., in the City of Buenos
Aires, was saved by circulating vehicles on the left.
3.2.5. System’s Analysis & Scoring

3.2.5.1. General approach
To better characterize BRT performance, two evaluation grids designed for international
comparison have been analyzed:
• The "BRT standard" issued by the Transportation and Development Policy Institute
(ITDP)4, based on best international practices;
• The report entitled "Evaluation criteria for operating the BRT system", released by the
Chinese Transportation Ministry, clearly specifying both the parameters and evaluation
methodology.
While the two grids are similar, they do provide complementarity with the BRT Standard through
an extensive level of detail thanks to a greater number of indicators, in addition to the fact that the
Chinese grid features a more accurate rating system (since it is based on a continuum and not
discrete increments). Let's also note that the parametric evaluations inherent in these grids rely on
observable criteria rather than measurable field data. At present, this rating mechanism stands as
the most reliable and impartial given that:
• It may be applied during the project phase: these grids are intended to guide design
choices prior to implementing system upgrades;
• Any relevant measurements are in fact infrequent, costly, long to record and quite often
nearly impossible to corroborate independently.
For the needs of the present analysis, the broad array of rating criteria in each grid had to be
reclassified into 6 families, namely:
• Infrastructure: criteria based on the design scale of the system's structural components;
• Service planning: criteria relying on the choice of network operations and organization;
• Stations and Vehicles: criteria related to the BRT network's stations and vehicles;
• Accessibility and Intermodality: criteria qualifying the BRT interconnection with the
other transportation modes, plus a measure of universal accessibility;
• Communication: criteria specific to network information and image;
• Performance: criteria pertaining to the set of results obtained that entail measurements
conducted following project deployment.
4 The ITDP Institute, responsible for producing this grid, is a worldwide nonprofit organization
offering technical expertise on transportation systems.
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Table 3: Comparison of criteria entered into both the ITDP and Chinese Ministry grids
C l a ssi fi ed
ITDP Sta nda r d C hi nese eva l ua ti on g r i d
Aspects
- I na de qua t e com m e rci a l s pe e d ( - 10) - Pe a k hour t ra ve l s pe e d ( 9)
- Se rvi ce opt i m i z a t i on ( - 6) - Pa s s e ng e r de ns i t y ( 7)
- U s e of de di ca t e d ri g ht - of - wa y by t he ot he r l i ne s ( 4) - O pe ra t i ons a s s i s t a nce s ys t e m ( 6)
- T ype s of s e rvi ce ( 3) - Pe a k hour l oa d ( 3)
- Sa f e t y- re l a t e d s e rvi ce s ( 3)
- Se rvi ce de m a nd prof i l e ( 3)
Ser vi ce pl a nni ng
- Low pe a k f re que ncy ( - 3)
- Low f re que ncy ( of f - pe a k) ( - 2)
- Pri m a ry t ra ns port a t i on corri dor ( 2)
- Hours of s e rvi ce ope ra t i ons ( 2)
- E vol ut i on i n us e of t he corri dor ( 2)
- U ns a f e s ha ri ng wi t h cycl i s t s ( - 2)
Tota l 4 2 p o i n ts / 1 6 3 2 5 p o i n ts / 1 0 0
- De di ca t e d ri g ht - of - wa y ( 8) - Proport i on of re s e rve d l a ne s ( 12)
- Bus wa y a l i g nm e nt ( 8) - Pri ori t y a t i nt e rs e ct i ons ( 7)
- I nt e rs e ct i on t re a t m e nt ( 7) - Surf a ce a re a a l l oca t e d f or bus m a i nt e na nce ( 3)
Infr a str uctur e - Pa s s i ng l a ne a t s t a t i ons ( 3)
- St a t i on s e t ba ck f rom t he i nt e rs e ct i ons ( 3)
- Ce nt ra l s t a t i on pos i t i on be t we e n t he t wo l a ne s ( 2)
- Pa ve m e nt qua l i t y ( 2)
Tota l 3 3 p o i n ts / 1 6 3 2 2 p o i n ts / 100
- T i cke t i ng s ys t e m ( 8) - T i cke t i ng s ys t e m ( 7)
- Boa rdi ng pl a t f orm ( 7) - Spa ci ng be t we e n bus a nd pl a t f orm ( 7)
- Di s t a nce be t we e n bus a nd pl a t f orm ( 5) - Ra t i o of cl e a n ve hi cl e s ( 2)
- N um be r of bus doors ( 3)
Sta ti ons/B uses - St a t i on s a f e t y a nd com f ort ( 3)
- Pol l ut a nt e m i s s i ons f rom bus e s ( 3)
- Di s t a nce be t we e n s t a t i ons ( 2)
- Docki ng ba ys ( 1)
- Sl i di ng doors t o a cce s s bus e s ( 1)
- Bra nd i m a g e ( 3)
C om m uni ca ti on - I nf orm a t i on s ys t e m ( 6)
- Pa s s e ng e r i nf orm a t i on ( 2)
Tota l 5 p o i n ts / 1 6 3 6 p o i n ts / 100
- N e t work i nt e g ra t i on wi t h ot he r t ra ns port a t i on m ode s ( 4) - I nt e rconne ct i on wi t h t he s t a t i ons ( 7)
- U ni ve rs a l a cce s s ( 3) - Publ i c t ra ns i t ne t work cove ra g e ( 5)

Accessi bi l i ty a nd
- Pe de s t ri a n a cce s s a nd s a f e t y ( 3)
i nter m oda l i ty
- Bi cycl e l a ne s a nd bi cycl e s ha ri ng prog ra m s ( 3)
- Se cure d bi cycl e pa rki ng ( 2)
- Poor m a i nt e na nce ( - 14) - Pa s s e ng e r s a t i s f a ct i on ( 7)
- Low num be r of pa s s e ng e rs ( - 5) - Ra t e of punct ua l i t y ( 6)
- Pa s s e ng e r ove rl oa d ( com f ort ) ( - 5) - A cci de nt ra t i o ( 3)

Per for m a nce
- E ncroa chm e nt of t he re s e rve d l a ne by ot he r us e rs ( - 5) - Pe r- s t a t i on de ns i t y ( 3)
- Bunche d bus e s ( re g ul a ri t y) ( - 4)
- La ck of s a f e t y- re l a t e d da t a ( - 2)
Total score 163 points 100 points

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This classification step yields a highly similar hierarchy and weighting of the six families between
the two grids analyzed, while still highlighting two distinct groups.
Comparison of evaluation family weightings between the ITDP

and Chinese Ministry grids
Level of service
Infrastructure
Performance
Station&Vehicle
Accessibility/Intermodality
ITDP standard
Communication
Chinese ministry grid
0% 5% 10% 15% 20% 25% 30%
Figure 45 : Relative weighting of the families of criteria in the BRT evaluation grids
The figure 45 shows that Comparison of evaluation family weightings between the ITDP and Chinese
Ministry grids - Service planning - Infrastructure - Performance - Stations and Vehicles - Accessibility
/ Intermodality - Communication - ITDP Standard - Chinese grid.
The first group consists of families with a significant influence on the cumulative rating (>15%),
namely service planning, infrastructure, performance, and stations and vehicles. The second group
singles out accessibility/intermodality and communication, considered by both grids as being less
critical. Each family is composed of powerful criteria, defined as characterizing over 4% of the
overall score, and weak criteria. The powerful criteria account for 61% of the overall tally in the
ITDP grid and 86% in the Chinese Ministry grid. In an effort to improve efficiency, the remainder of
the present analysis will focus on these top-priority criteria in any BRT project, by providing a
detailed breakdown of each of the four most prominent families.
3.2.5.2. Analysis of the “Infrastructure” component
The criteria relative to infrastructure are vital to qualifying a BRT; they exert an indirect impact on
the outcome of many other criteria.
A dedicated right-of-way appears to be the essential underpinning of any project. Such an amenity
provides for unrestricted bus circulation, in minimizing interactions with the other transportation
modes. A BRT trip actually becomes faster than the same trip in a private car, which continues to
navigate through road congestion. Both grids ascribe the same level of importance to the
availability of such rights-of-way, though the two approaches adopted differ. The ITDP grid imposes
introducing a physical separation of the lanes, whereas the Chinese grid allows for an alternative,
with a reserved lane adjacent to the general traffic lanes, while equipped with a video monitoring
system.
Busway alignment on the pavement is another key factor for a successful BRT network. A bus lane
running through the middle of the roadway encounters less friction with the other vehicles at
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intersections, thereby shortening the delays experienced at road junctions. On the other hand, such
a central position necessitates a custom station design.
In order to considerably reduce the time lost when roads cross, the BRT needs to be given priority
at all intersections. Such treatment serves to avoid stops at traffic lights while increasing both
commercial speeds and transportation system regularity.
Infrastructure is the visible part of a BRT network. It reflects the intention of public authorities to
improve day-to-day life and moreover must inspire local residents to change their trip-making
habits. Infrastructure building costs however run extremely high, and public sector budgets are
often limited. It thus proves necessary to strike a compromise between enhanced access to local
populations and the constraints of urban implementation, with priorities needing to be phased in
over time as applicable. The urban improvements must also be adapted to an identified need, which
would entail potentially leaving BRT vehicles to mix with the general traffic in congestion-free
sectors. Lastly, aside from its expense, infrastructure investment is typically irreversible and must
therefore be planned over the long term, in a manner consistent with the city's development policy.
Figure 46 : BRT system operating in Belo Horizonte (Brazil)

3.2.5.3. Analysis of the “stations and Vehicles” component
The other visible part of a BRT network encompasses its stations and vehicles. The installation of
high-quality stations constitutes an incentive to making greater use of the public transit network.
Station layout is strategic to a BRT project since station placement exerts a direct impact on busway
lane alignment. Though it may be preferable for the dedicated lane to be positioned in the middle
of the pavement (for performance reasons), such is not the case with stations. Specifically, a station
located along the pavement curb facilitates pedestrian access given the proximity to buildings;
while stations placed in the middle of a thoroughfare (so-called median stations) create access
difficulties (in terms of both the time and danger involved when crossing the road).
Should a median station be decided, local transit authorities would have to set up facilities
simplifying station access (underground passage, footbridge, etc.) that are just as quick as a direct
surface crossing; otherwise, dangerous attempts will be made to reach the median strip despite
being prohibited. Moreover, a layout along each side of the pavement implies doubling upgrades
to service each traffic direction, whereas station amenities along a median strip accommodate both
sides.
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Station accessibility is another crucial factor facilitating transit vehicle boarding and alighting. A
small spacing (horizontal and vertical) can broaden accessibility and ensure all users (including the
mobility impaired) are able to enjoy bus system use in complete safety. Reducing this spacing
might however engender the risk of a minor collision between the bus and the station, thus
requiring accompanying measures, such as additional driver training and/or onboard technologies
to assist drivers when docking.
Figure 47 : Optical guidance at a stop within the TEOR system in Rouen

In addition, the BRT network must offer an in-station ticketing system. Such a system saves drivers'
time and raises commercial speeds on the line. It must be designed so as to avoid network queues
(to match expected passenger density). In-station ticketing presents other advantages, as well, like
network revenue generation, operations data collection and a fraud dissuasion function.
Figure 48 : Queue forming at a stop along the Transmilenio line in Bogota (Colombia);
the ticketing system was not designed for such ridership
3.2.5.4. Analysis of the “Service Planning Vehicles” component
Service planning is the family of criteria ascribed the highest weighting (> 25%) in BRT project
ratings. To obtain satisfactory results, the BRT must target a high level of service, which will be
realized through a set of efficient actions aimed at more readily distinguishing the BRT offering from
standard bus lines.
The chief criterion within the service planning family is the bus commercial speed, which must be
quite high both to ensure that the BRT remains attractive relative to the other transportation modes
and to trigger a modal shift. The project needs to minimize time lost along the bus route. The
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evaluation of this criterion mainly relies on the type of infrastructure design (right-of-way, priority
at intersections, busway alignment), yet the station-specific criteria also continue to be very
important (accessibility, ticketing, etc.).
The other basic indicator is passenger flows (intended here to mean number of passengers per
vehicle). The system designer must dimension the service to comply with passenger density counts
as estimated from traffic studies, in opting for the best compromise between filling the transit
vehicles at close to capacity and ensuring a steady frequency on the BRT line. A suboptimal service
will be exhibited by overloaded buses or unnecessary expenditures. Transit authorities must
therefore adapt their operating resources (vehicles, etc.) to the specific nature of the demand.
To improve the public transit system overall and generate a positive return from infrastructure
investments, the project must seek to converge parallel standard bus lines onto the BRT
infrastructure. Such a configuration will make the system available to users living in areas not
covered by the BRT service over a portion of their trip and thereby shorten their travel time. A
balance must still be found for standard bus lines not to adversely affect BRT line performance.
Another factor capable of heavily influencing the quality of BRT network service planning is the
operations assistance system, which provides an overview of buses running throughout the
network. Control room operators are capable of seizing control at any time, in particular by
regulating the number of vehicles in circulation. This assistance function often feeds the passenger
information system, which in turn displays real-time updates (panels along the routes, web
information, etc.) and makes up a very large share of the "communication" family of criteria.
3.2.5.5. Analysis of the “Performance” component
Performance-related criteria can only be measured once a BRT system has been implemented.
Their rating is strictly correlated with the achievement of objectives cited in the previous criteria.
The fundamental criterion in a BRT system's performance is infrastructure maintenance. Passenger

safety must be ensured through vehicles, pavements and stations kept in good working order. To
maintain confidence in the high level of service offered by their BRT system, users cannot perceive
any drop in quality over time. In addition, infrastructure quality influences the potential formation
of bunched buses and, consequently, service regularity.
Illicit use of the reserved lane can also undermine the performance of a BRT network. Since non-
authorized users are capable of causing bottlenecks or accidents, powerful dissuasive measures
would need to be introduced. The success of this criterion depends directly on the choices of
infrastructure configuration (physical separation vs. control system).
The project must, without fail, avoid a flow of passengers that misses the design target by either
too few or too many. An overloaded network indicates that the supply is unable to meet user
needs and reduces their comfort level. On the other hand, inadequate flow numbers suggest a
flawed service and imply system inefficiencies. In this case, transit authorities must reorganize the
planning so as to enhance network attractiveness and satisfy the local population's needs.
Passenger satisfaction is also pivotal to the success of a BRT project. Favorable passenger responses
can raise the network's profile and increase its ridership or, when the response is unfavorable,
dissuade new passengers whether they be occasional or regular. It is important however to
measure this level of satisfaction in a representative manner. As a case in point from the
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Transmilenio example in Bogota, this network obtains barely an average rating among opinions
expressed on Google, whereas its BRT scores among the highest in the ITDP evaluation, especially
as regards performance criteria. This finding demonstrates that a simple technical perception can
significantly differ from that of users, thus making it necessary to collect user satisfaction and
expectations with great precision.
3.2.6. Case Study on the Bus Priority & BRT Manual
To complete the analysis of the studied cases, a BRT corridor developed in an European city will be
analyzed, where the lack of sufficient public space implies a problem for the construction of the
necessary infrastructure to provide an efficient service. This is the City of Eindhoven in Netherlands
with a population of approximately 220.000 inhabitants.
Due to the urban form of the European city, the developing of BRT corridor was quite a tough
challenge. The lack of street space available generated a lot of conflicts of different interest groups,
so various innovative planning solutions had to be employed to reallocate of space and to build
dedicated roadway. Also the measures such as green roof of the roadway are being tested to
support resilience to climatic changes.
Figure 49 : BRT Corridor in Eindhoven with new VDL e-Bus (Author: Ivo Dostàl)
Figure 50 : Green roof over the BRT roadway (Author: Ivo Dostàal)
This corridor, which has an extension of 15 km, was inaugurated in 2003, but an infrastructure of
the BRT type was recently established, and has a daily demand of 12.000 passengers.
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The system has been designed with platforms that enable access to transportation through the
right door, in a total of 32 stations. The position of the segregated lanes is in the center of the
circulation road.
Advanced articulated vehicles named Phileas were bought to serve newly established corridor. The
average speed of the Bus in the route is approximately 21 km / h and the traffic light control system
has intelligent technology. The priority of the bus is of the fixed type, that is to say it enables the
transport advance only in the programmed phases.
(Note: Phileas is called after Phileas Fogg, the protagonist in Around the World in Eighty Days by
Jules Verne because of the high speed and ability to be on time).
Figure 51 :New Fully articulated Bus

The Phileas vehicles were used until 11 December 2016, with interruptions due to technical
problems, until 43 brand new fully electric articulated buses with fast opportunity charging using
roof-mounted pantographs in operation were bought, making it one of largers e-bus fleets in
Europe. The biggest feature of the bus is the recharging of the battery by means of electromagnetic
induction; which means that the battery can be made much smaller, and thus less heavy and
environmentally damaging.
Figure 52 :Infrastructure of circulation roads adjusted to the limited space available in the parks
area
Finally this is a true example of an enterprise where the development of a modern public transport
organization is combined with an infrastructure that adapts perfectly to the scarce public space
available, an intelligent control system that adjusts the current ITS guidelines and the efficient use
of the electrical energy for the motor traction with the benefit of taking care of the environment.
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3.2.7. Conclusions
The prioritization of public transport in relation to sustainable mobility is essential in the strategy
to improve traffic circulation in urban areas.
In the studies that are being carried out on the subject, it should be based on a survey of the
transport services situation, through reliable statistics, their development in the established urban
region and the efficiency with which they are provided, as well as an evaluation of the problems
that must be corrected.
Once this base point of departure is available, the lines of action to be carried out can be developed
within the framework of the evaluation of an environmental impact or transit study. Within all of
this, low-cost actions must be prioritized in order to respond to the most urgent demands, while
taking care not to compromise the coherence of an overall project.
When subsequent proposals result in greater investments and impacts on the public space, it is
convenient to analyze several alternatives that result in solutions that optimize the operation of
the traffic and provide the best performance of the available resources.
The improvement of the transport service is a priority, however the negative impacts that they may
generate must be evaluated. Since sometimes the affectation of the public space leads to damages
or congestion to the remaining segregated traffic.
The BRT system has meant a very important advance in the modernization of urban transport. If in
its development, problems are observed that are generated in necessary reallocation of road space
in certain streets, or by the existence of a road infrastructure such as bridges, tunnels, railway
crossings, etc., which is not possible the segregation of traffic, the alternative of opening the system
for the shared use of the road space must be evaluated.
In relation with the transportation needs of large metropolitan areas, these will continue to expand
over the upcoming decades. Hence, the issues of urban sprawl, congestion and pollution will remain
acute in both urban and suburban settings. It is essential therefore to take action as of today on
behalf of local populations. The most effective current strategies pertain to optimizing existing
infrastructure coupled with modal shift to shared modes (public transit and carpooling). From this
perspective, laying out BRT systems offers a viable operational solution.
To implement an efficient project however, designers need to exhibit mastery over the main set of
criteria determining the success of these system upgrades. The analysis presented herein has
served to characterize the basic criteria dictating the success of a BRT network; these comprise the
project's technical aspects (namely infrastructure, service planning, stations and performance),
with the most influential factors having been exposed in detail. Nonetheless, the set of secondary
criteria also plays a role in attaining the assigned objectives. The acknowledgment of all these
elements is fundamental to developing a high-performance transportation system.
Yet the stakes involved in a BRT network extend beyond these considerations. The project must be
adapted to its host context. No single form of BRT is capable of being disseminated throughout the
world. As an illustration, in Europe's historic cities, it would be very complicated to insert a large-
scale project within the urban fabric. It becomes necessary to identify an adapted form capable of
satisfying a more dispersed demand, which implies a design team featuring a multidisciplinary skill
set along with close supervision over project management decisions.
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Like with any transportation project, a BRT requires a long-term view of regional planning.
Transportation policies are all too often limited to the scale of the project scope and tend to
emphasize partial facilities that fail to fully satisfy the needs (both current and future) of local
populations. The stakes are high and the urgency undisputed, meaning that the challenge must be
met with both ambition and competence!
Finally two methodologies have been described in this Report, to measure the results of the
implementation of a BRT Transport Service, which is a very effective tool to quantitatively evaluate
the performance of the infrastructure executed and the consequent operation of the System.
3.3. HOV HOT MANAGED LANES

This chapter comes in addition to the state of the art done in the past report “Key issues for
improving mobility Strategies in large urban areas” 4th of November 2015.
• HOV lane : High Occupancy Vehicle lanes. Those lanes are reserved for carpooling, and
not subject to toll
• HOT lanes : High Occupancy Toll lanes
3.3.1. Inventory of the managed lanes in the United-States

3.3.1.1. The HOV lanes
HOV lanes on motorways are the most developed in the USA, mostly used by carpoolers. These
HOV lanes have develop since 1973. Geographically, they are concentrated in larger urbanized
areas in 24 States representing 75 percent of the country's population and include more than 6,000
km of existing dedicated HOV lanes across the USA (Figure 53).
Figure 53: Location of major metropolitan areas where reserved lanes are located
(Source : US Federal Highway Administration)
The presence of HOV lanes is an important Transportation Demand Management (TDM) tool for
promoting ridesharing and transit, supporting a modal shift away from the single-occupant vehicle,
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reducing vehicle trips and, in turn, lowering traffic congestion and vehicle emissions. In addition,
HOV lanes – by moving high occupancy vehicles – can carry more passengers per hour than general
purpose highway lanes, increasing highway capacity. Table 2 gives the utilization data for some HOV
lanes located in major metropolitan areas in 2004.
Table 4: traffic volume on HOV lanes (peak hour)
Source : US Federal Highway Administration
Nb of lanes
Data on HOV lanes (average Total passengers
per Bus carpooling
values 2000 - 2004) direction
(Bus + Carpooling)
City HOV Vehicles Passengers Vehicles Passengers Total per lane
I-10 San Bernardino - LOS ANGELES 2 70 2750 1217 3840 6590 1648
I-394 - MINNEAPOLIS 1 79 1846 1403 2945 4791 2396
I-10 - HOUSTON 3 39 1445 1011 2264 3709 618
US 290 - HOUSTON 1 22 1095 1168 2450 3545 1773
I-45 - HOUSTON 1 58 2620 1160 2547 5167 2584
I-395 - NORTHERN VIRGINIA 2 118 3085 2654 8212 11297 2824
I-66 - NORTHERN VIRGINIA 2 16 484 3405 6486 6970 1743
I-80 - ALAMEDA COUNTY 3 83 2905 2306 7179 10084 1681
I-5 North - SEATTLE 1 64 2600 1170 3040 5640 2820
SR 520 - SEATTLE 1 56 3140 210 500 3640 1820
I-30 - DALLAS 1 24 370 946 1980 2350 1175
I-35E/US 67 - DALLAS 1 16 400 1205 2556 2956 1478
Despite their benefits in terms of number of passengers per hour and per lane, it appears that the
efficiency of HOV lanes could be optimized in terms of number of vehicles.
3.3.1.2. From HOV lanes to a variety of managed lanes
Over the past decade, the commercialization of new technologies has created new opportunities
to manage highways using age-old economic principles. The application of these innovative
concepts has demonstrated unequivocally that congested highways can be managed more
effectively and expand user choices. These applications come in a variety of names – managed
lanes, high occupancy toll (HOT) lanes, Express Lanes, and smart roads.
Tolling and pricing options have the potential to solve congestion problems as well as generate
revenue.
The words “tolling,” “pricing,” “value pricing,” “congestion pricing” and others are sometimes used
interchangeably, but they have taken on subtly different meanings in the transportation
community.
• Tolling is a broad term that refers to any kind of direct user fee on highway
transportation. (though a variable toll can also have other policy goals).
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• Pricing, on the other hand, refers specifically to using the amount of the toll price to
achieve some other objective, usually congestion relief or reliable traffic flow.
Although the community of transportation analysts is coming to understand this distinction, this
subtlety is usually lost on the general public, who often react negatively to the idea of “pricing” to
do anything other than generate revenue.
3.3.1.3. HOT lanes
The conversion of HOV lanes to HOT lanes : The HOT lanes concept is a managed lane that combines
HOV with pricing strategies to improve facility operations. Unlike HOV lanes, HOT lanes allow for
single or lower occupant vehicles to buy into the High Occupancy Vehicle (HOV) lanes to optimize
the lanes’ capacity and make the entire facility operate more efficiently. Converting HOV lanes to
HOT lanes is relatively cheap to do but does not generate significant revenue. Frequently low-
emission vehicles are free as well.
HOT lanes can also be added to limited-access facilities. This can improve system performance and
potentially generates more revenue. However, these projects require capital construction and
therefore have larger capital costs than straight HOV to HOT conversions.
A key decision in how much revenue potential a HOT lane will have is what level of occupancy is
required to get a toll-free ride. As less capacity is available to be sold within the lane the
corresponding revenue potential of the lane declines.
3.3.1.4. Express lanes
Express lanes operate in the same corridor as unpriced general purpose lanes but charge a toll for
an uncongested trip. They do not have discounts for HOVs. They require a high level of congestion
in the “free” lanes” in order to generate significant amounts of revenue.
Figure 54: Express lanes in Georgia

3.3.1.5. A broad variety of lanes
In some cases those lanes are operated only during peak hours. We can also observed reversible
lanes, and by “Managed lanes” we will understand all those types of “free of congestion” lanes.
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Figure 55: Numerous projects of managed lanes are under development all across United States
3.3.2. From single projects to “free of congestion” networks
If we look at the sum of all those types of lanes it appears that many large urban ares in the United
States are planning and building large networks of connected HIOV/HOT/Express lanes facilities,
with the purpose of improving the transportation conditions between the urban aress and their
hinterland.
Seattle
Figure 56: The managed lanes networks in Los Angeles and Seattle are composed of different
types of lanes (HOT, HOT, Express,…)
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To increase the benefits of those managed lanes dedicated interchanges are provided
Figure 57: Dedicated interchange in Washington I 405

3.3.3. Conclusion
The managed lanes system has proved its efficiency and the Federal Policy has launched policies to
encourage its development. The FAST Act provides authority to toll and price motor vehicles
• To finance construction/reconstruction
• To promote efficient use of highways
• To reduce traffic congestion
• To improve air quality
Four different programs are available :

• Value Pricing Pilot Program (VPPP) : Provides authority, but no funding
• HOV/HOT Lanes (Section 166)
• General Toll Program (Section 129)
• Interstate System Reconstruction and Rehabilitation Pilot Program
o Allows up to three Interstates to be tolled, pending requirements and approval
o Slots currently held by North Carolina, Virginia, and Missouri
These programs can provide authority to implement congestion pricing if Federal-aid

transportation funds are supporting a project.
3.4. MULTIMODAL TRANSIT CENTRES

3.4.1. Introduction
Transportation agencies in cities have generally an approprite integration of public transportation

modes, with multimodal interchanges : the central railway station is connected to a metro station
and / or bus stations, metro stations are connected to bus stations. This type of integration is
generally taken into consideration by road agencies, but integration of transit transportation needs
between urban areas and their hinterland is more difficult, and TCB 3 decided to focus on it.
Large urban areas are facing increseaing traffic congestion on the highway networks and many
metropolis are trying to implement intermodal transport systems, with the purposez of reducing
car use, greenhhouse gas emissions, and local pollution.
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Modal integration plays a fundamental role, but as explain in the chapter “the demand” most of
the trafic congestion are due to long distance commuting trips between a urban area and his
hinterland; It is therefore necessary to coordinate public and private services, road and rail
transportation modes, and across various communities who are operating the transportation
networks. This gives an idea of the complexity of the modal integration.
3.4.1.1. Case studies
The following case studies were analyzed :

• 7 multimodal transit centers in Madrid (Spain)
• 1 multimodal transit centers in Sendai (Japan)
• 2 multimodal transit center in Seoul (South Korea)
• 1 multimodal transit centers in Toulouse (France)
Some exemples of parc and ride facilities on highways in rural areas are also given.
3.4.1.2. Remarks
In many European and Asian countries multimodal integration for “intermediate trips length” is
based on the following pattern :
• Suburban radial train lines with railway stations in small towns
• Feeder bus lines in small localities connected to the railway station (and / or bicycle
services)
This model needs a high frequency of services in the peak hour, and it can provide good results in
case of an important demand : this is the case in very big metropolitan areas like Tokyo or Paris.
But in medium size cities like the panel of French cities studied in chapter “the demand” it gives
limited results (modal split for commuting trips less than 10% for public transport)
3.4.2. Case Studies on the Multimodal Transit Centres

3.4.2.1. Madrid (Spain) case
Madrid is a City of 608 km² and 3,2 million inhabitants. The region of Madrid has à surface of 8000
km² and a population of 6,4 million inhabitants
In Madrid the regional transportation agency developped a “BRT and rail” model where Surburban
rail and road long distance public transport services are connected to the urban public transport
network .
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Figure 58: The Madrid “bus and rail model” consist in long distance suburban bus lines connected
to the urban bus and metro networks through Multimodal Transit Centers
This model of Multimodal Transit Center (MTC) is based on the coordination between the different
public transport network scales (urban, suburban, long distance…). Another important point is that
the MTC in Madrid are part of a public tranport system dedicated to inhabitants of the second ring
of the metropolitan area (refer to paragraph 2.3.3.4 on the transportation strategy of the Madrid
Region).
The main features of those MTC are summarized in illustration 29, and we can notice that 6 MTC
onto 7 are located onto a circular metro line. Of corse there is also railway stations connected to
the metro system, and par cans ride facilities, but those MTC are mainly dedicated to commuters
needs and cars and car parks are not the main access mode to these MTC.
They are also located near main highway considered like “corridors” where suburban and
interurban buses can go on. Dedicated lanes were forecast but only one is in operation. The MTC’s
access for buses (who can be hard with congestion in urban centers) is also considered, especially
for suburban lines, with the creation of tunnels from about 200 to 1200 meters connecting the
MTC and the highway entrance in order to prevent stops and optimize buses travel time.
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Figure 59: The Madrid transport interchange plan and the main caractéristics of the multimodal
transit centers(https://www.crtm.es/media/157716/wreference-2013nov-web.pdf)
The design of these MTC is made to optimize flows and make passengers tranfers mode to mode
easier. They are made of several levels underground with one mode per level : generally urban bus
lines are on the surface, suburban and long distance buses are at level -1 and metro at level -3
(Figure 60).
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Figure 60: Typical cross section of a Multimodal Transit Center in Madrid : metro lines at level -3,
suburban bus lines at level -1, and city bus lines on the ground
The main results of this type of MTC can be summarized as follow :
• A very high attendance : between 70 000 and 270 000 passengers / day.
• A very compact design : from 28 000 to 60 000 m²
• An important part of the attendance comes from long distance commuters : from 25%
to 42%
• An optimized design to reduce both transfer time from the highway to the MTC
(dedicated small tunnels), and transfer time for passengers from bus to metro.
In fact those Multimodal Transit Centers are part of a general policy on multimodality for the
regional area of Madrid (8 000 km² and 6 million inhabitants). As already said it was decided by law
in 1985.“Ley 5/1985, de 16 de mayo, de creación del Consorcio Regional de Transportes Públicos
Regulares de Madrid”.
In addition the Ministry of Public Works, Transportation and Environment published a new Road
Plan for the Metropolitan Region of Madrid in 1993. This includes bus and HOV priority measures
on radial freeways. The HOV facility on the N-VI motorway was the first of these measures and was
opened to the traffic in December 1994.
3.4.2.2. JR Sendai (Japan) case
The metropiolitan area of Sendai (Japan) has a population of 1,5 million inhabitants and a surface
of 1648 km².
Sendai Station was built in 1887 in the periphery of Sendai City center. Then, CBD was developed
around the city center and incorporating the current locations of Sendai Station, Miyagi prefectural
government, and the city hall in the area. Therefore, Sendai station is located in the periphery of
Sendai City.
A ring road network has been developed in Sendai Metropolitan Area (SMA). Sendai Station or
Sendai City center are connected with the dedicated automobile highway (Sendai-nishi road) with
the ring road (see Figure 61). It is approximately 6km (less than 10 minutes drive) from Sendai
Station to the ring road (Sendai-miyagi IC).
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Figure 61: Sendai area : the Sendai station is connected to a ring road
through the « Sendai Nishi Road »
Arranging bus terminals in the large-scale redevelopment of Sendai railway station is as follows:
• Urban transport: Aggregated in front of the Station considering the connection among
subway and railway (JR) as urban transport
• Long-distance transport (expressway bus): Brought together in the bus terminal to
access Sendai-nishi Road
• Medium-distance transport (expressway bus for approximately 1 to 1.5 hours of
travel): Arranged on regular streets taking into account of proximity to the Station,
access to Sendai-nishi Road, and bus operation route from the origin in CBD.
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Figure 62: Sendai central station : general layout

Sendai MTC model is close to Madrid’s one and belongs to the “Bus and Rail model”, with the
difference it is located close to the city center. It is Sendai’s central hub for public transports. With
only few parking slots (82 slots), this MTC is first an interface between the different public transport
networks (urban and suburban).
The MTC attendance is very important (over 250 000 pass / day) and many bus lines are connected
to the MTC (200 bus lines including 130 urban lines and around 70 suburban and interurban bus
lines). The railway station connects also MRT lines with Sendai City metro lines.
Unlike Madrid, Sendai MTC is not organised on different levels underground (one transport mode
per floor) but with several functionnal areas organized per transport mode (named “Plaza”, see
map below) : one station for urban buses (“West Station”), another for interurban lines, for taxis,
for the railway station… They are close to each other and connected with wide walking paths. But
unlike Madrid again, suburban and interurban bus lines are not fully organized around highway
corridors from the city center (no ring road and less highways in Japan than in Europe).
Accomodations, shops and services are included in the functionnal areas, espacially in the central
railway station.
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Figure 63: Sendai central station : detailled layout

Project steps :
1. Consolidate bus stops in the east and west sides of the station.
2. Mitigate congestion at terminal by separating traffic flow by vehicle type.
3. Consolidate stops of local bus routes in the expanded bus terminal.
4. Improve connections among transport modes.
5. Enhance Station Square’s functions at East Exit
3.4.2.3. Toulouse (France) Case
In French cities like Toulouse* the transportation agencies developped a “park-and-ride” model
wich acts as an interface between the private vehicle and the urban public transport network:
Nota * Toulouse is a core City of 120km² for 450 thousand inhabitants. “Toulouse Métropole” is a
metropolis of 460km² for 700 thousand inhabitants, and the commuting area has a surface of
5400km² for 1300 thousand inhabitants.
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Figure 64: The “park and ride model”

These types of multimodal interchanges are often composed of an important car park (up to 500 /
1000 parking lots) organized around a single tram / metro station (often the line terminus for the
most), and local bus services (around 5 to 10 bus lines). The goal for the authorities is to encourage
people to leave their cars in the city periphery and free the urban center from cars and congestion.
Facilities are provided for carpooling and active modes. The local bus network is also oriented to
these MI, the tram / metro line is the main access to the city center, and the private vehicule is the
main mode to go to the outer suburb and beyond. Here, the MI connects mainly private cars with
the urban public transport network.
In another French City (Bordeaux) there is a similar system but with tramways instead of Metro.
Parc and ride facilities in rural areas
Parc and Ride facilities are provided in the second ring of the commuting area quite far from the
city center (20 to 50km or more). They are generally located on radial highways and they can also
be connected to Bus Rapid Transit services. Atlanta system is a good example.
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Figure 65: Parc and Ride facilities in Atlanta are located at highway accesses
Figure 66: typical parc and ride in Atlanta commuting area

In some cases a suburban bus station can be implemented onto the current section of an highway
like in Paris. The bus station is located in a rural area at about 40 km of Paris. A parking facility is
provided close to the highway but there is no connection between the parking area and the highway
for cars :
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Figure 67: suburban bus station on a radial highway in Paris : general layout (IAURIF)
Figure 68: suburban bus station on a radial highway in Paris : detail

3.4.2.4. Seoul (South Korea) case
Gwangyo and Jamsil multimodal transit centers are first two underground multimodal transit
centers developed in Seoul metropolitan area.
Gwangyo multimodal transit center
Establishment: April 2016
Area : 165m long bus platform with two-way roads (max 8 buses can stop by for each way)
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Figure 69: Source : Jiyoung & Minwook (2016).

Structure: 3-story basement
• B1 : Bus terminal
• B2 : plaza, shopping mall, subway wating area (shinbundang line), taxi
• B3 : subway platform (shinbundang line)
Mixed-use
• Surrounded residential area: edu town (Xii Apts. : 1173 households, Hillstates Gwanggyo
Apts. : 559 households, LH 50 Apts. : 224 households)
• Surrounded commercial area: Avenue France, Lotte Outlet Gwanggyo branch and
Gyeonggido Provincial Government
Figure 70: Source : MOLIT (2016)

Effect :
Convenience transfer would be significantly promoted. Passengers alighted from Shinbundang line
at Gwanggyo Jungang station can move directly to underground bus platform using aisle blocked
by screendoor.
Jamsil multimodal transit center

• Establishment : November 2016
• Structure : 1-story basement
• Total ground area : 19,797 ㎡
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• Total length : 371m (Songpadaero 311m, Jamsil-gil 60m)

• Parking spaces : 31 bus parking slots
Figure 71: Jamsil multimodal transit center waiting room for subway line #2 and #8, bus stops and
bus waiting rooms - Source : Seoul city government (2018)
Transport modes to connect :
• Bus-subway
• bus-taxi
• bus-bicycle
Mixed-use :
• Surrounded residential area: Jamsil Jugong Apts
• Surrounded commercial area: Lotte World Tower, Lotte department store
Effects:
Transfer distance between bus and subway is reduced up to 540 meter, which promotes transfer
convenience of 11,000 travellers
Relocation of bus stops of 17 wide area bus routes from on the ground to the Jamsil multimodal
transit center, which serves for 25,000 travellers a day, would relieve traffic volumes on the ground.
3.4.3. How should Multimodal Transit Centres take into account the development of
carpooling, and autonomous shuttles ?
Different studies demonstrate that car sharing is a good substitute for private car ownership and
conduct to a rationalization of car use with an overall reduction in the numbers of kilometres
travelled. Moreover, car sharing also allows huge savings on parking space requirements. Because
a shared car is estimated to replace between five and eight private vehicles, and knowing that an
average on-street parking space means 10m2, potential saving are huge. That means that this free
space could be redistributed for others users especially for walk and bike.
Otherwise, several studies demonstrate that shared mobility has the potential to leverage metro
and rail ridership. In 2017, OECD published a report which examines how the optimised use of new
on-demand shared transport modes could change the future of mobility in the Helsinki
Metropolitan Area in Finland. Based on simulation, it provides indicators for the impact of shared
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mobility solutions on accessibility, metro/rail ridership, required parking space, congestion and CO2
emissions. This study demonstrated potential increases in demand for public services as well. This
will conduct to changes in the access to stations and trip patterns, and so, will likely imply redesign
of stations and associated parking/accesses.
That means that new mobility services will need to be accompanied by improvements in drop-off
and pick-up zones especially at rail or metro stations, on interchange platforms and at final
destinations with a concentration of opportunities (such as major employers or schools). The
number of boardings in some stations would increase sharply requiring operational changes.
Dynamic policies may be needed to manage more vehicles in the access links to terminals. The rail
and metro network may need additional capacity to cope with higher number of users.
3.4.4. Recommendations Concerning the Multimodal Transit Centres:

• “Locate MTC on nodes between main roads and mass rapid transit of the city” : MTC
should connect shorts distance transportation modes of the City, to long distance
transportation modes of the region. They should be located on “nodes” between rail and
road networks, therefore the design of main road and rail networks should be
coordinated.
• “reduce transfert time” : MTC design should take into account human needs and
behaviour to insure minimum walking distance and maximum comfort. Especially lost
gradients for pedestrians are not desirable.
• “Integrate MTC in Transport Oriented Devlopment stratégies” :
3.5. NEW SHARED MOBILITY SERVICES

3.5.1. Trend
Transport demand studies have revealed a certain trend towards a declining use of passenger cars
in developed countries, especially in Europe. Several factors are contributing to this trend:
• the general trend for people to live increasingly in cities. There is a direct correlation
between the percentage of the population living in conurbations and car ownership In
urban areas the car appears to be less necessary or indispensable, among other things
owing to the configuration of the territory and the availability of alternative modes;
• in particular, the younger generations are more inclined to live and especially stay in the
city when entering active life or building up a family. Now these younger generations,
particularly the Z generation, are less keen on owning than on using a car;
• car use is becoming increasingly under pressure in cities, with many and varied
restrictions on circulation and scarce parking spaces making the car mode less attractive;
• trip chains have become very complex and the traditional supply of transport, especially
public transport, can no longer meet the demands. New transport services, including
shared mobility (cf. graph hereafter), are developing thanks to ubiquitous internet access
or pervasive computing.
In this context, there has been a genuine craze for shared mobility over the past few years. This
concept fits in with the more general concept of “collaborative consumption” or “sharing
economy”, resulting in a new way of looking at individual ownership and goods sharing.
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In 2013 a survey conducted by Nielsen among 30,000 consumers in sixty countries revealed a strong
propensity for the sharing economy: willingness to share own assets, or willingness to share from
others.
Figure 72: survey on sharing economy

3.5.2. New shared mobility services
This phenomenon has been adressed as the sharing economy revolution (Pilzare, 2012) and it is
greatly affecting mobility services. It seems that shared mobility sector is one of the fastest growing
segments of the shared economy. The consulting firm Roland Berger predicts that by 2020, the
revenue of that market will reach between 3.7 and 5.6 billion of euros (Berger 2014)
In this scheme, service providers hold the ownership of products and vehicles and provide users
with different forms of services. Users can so enjoy the exclusive use of potentially any type of bike
or car without the commitment of a purchase, maintenance, insurance costs but basically paying
for the services (Melisa L Diaz Lema, 2018). The costs for the users are : an inscription fee, a monthly
fee and a cost for use.
The new flexible shared mobility services could be categorized as following :

3.5.2.1. CAR-oriented services
Car pooling is the joint use of a vehicle on an organized basis (as opposed to hitchhiking) by a non-
professional driver and one or more third-party passengers to make a trip (blabla car, UBER). This
also includes shared taxi services. In fact a journey is shared, not a vehicle. Journeys may be shared
both by travellers and by goods.
Car sharing enables several users to share the same vehicle. It may be arranged directly between
private individuals (Communauto) or offered by service providers (Drivy).
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Figure 73: Number of car sharing vehicles in Europe (2014, Source : Atkins global.com)
The collection and returning of a shared car at the beginning and end of a trip may be:
• Station-based: each station has one or more cars spread over the city according to
several criteria, including the necessary complementarity with the public transport
supply.
o Two returning systems coexist:

▪ round-trip: at the end of the hire period the vehicle has to be returned at
the station of departure;
▪ one-way: the vehicle can be returned at another place than where it was
collected;
• Free-floating, i.e., anywhere within a well-defined territorial zone. There are no spaces
specifically reserved for car sharing. The user can take or return the vehicle in on-street
parking spaces or off-street parking facilities situated anywhere within a well-defined
zone.
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Figure 74 : The two returning systems of car sharing
Car sharing is Operating in 33 countries (Europe being the largest car sharing region measured by
membership), with more than 4,8 million members sharing over 104,000 vehicles (2016
Innovative Mobility Carsharing Outlook).
In addition to these classic forms of on-street car sharing, other systems are developing:
1. turnkey solutions to allow easier reservation and optimization of official cars within enterprises.
A simple reservation system can be implemented on the intranet of the enterprise, or external
operators can be hired to fit the vehicles with technological tools connected to an actual
reservation centre;
2. a vehicle is shared by different citizens who are often neighbours (CozyCar). In some cases users
are assisted by a platform for practical arrangements (giving them services like : safety
certification, assurance, technology, customer support…) : Turo, Getaround in North America.
3.5.2.2. BIKE-oriented services
The same principles apply.
Bike pooling: journey sharing does not exist on cycle trips.
Bike sharing, self-service public bicycle systems: bicycles are made available, free of charge or not,
to the public. This mobility service can be used for short-distance trips mainly in urban areas – from
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one station to another or free floating The Belgian railway company SNCB-NMBS offers in its major
stations a so-called “Blue Bike” service, which is slightly different from other self-service public
bicycle systems. It complements the train and enables users to easily reach their final destinations
and then to ride back to the station. It may be very suitable for the co-workers of an enterprise who
make their business trips by train: www.blue-bike.be.
As car sharing, Bike sharing systems could be station based or free floating. It seems that when it is
developed and used on a large scale, free floating bike sharing systems could lead to bad side effects
regarding the use of the public space. Bikes are parked on the pavements, making walking
uncomfortable.
Figure 75 : Beijing : free floating bike sharing system

Another system is the direct sharing of a personal bicycle by private individuals : Spinlister is one
bicycle sharing system in North America. Bitlock is another one using keyless bluetooth bicycle
locks.
Similarly to car sharing, bike sharing is rising fast. Currently there are about 7000 programmes of
bike-sharing all around the world, invloving over 800 000 bicycles in 855 cities (Fishman, 2016).
3.5.2.3. Shared parking
Shared parking is a much younger concept than bike or car sharing. It may be defined as opening
private parking spaces to the public. This sharing aims to optimize the use of parking spaces.
Sharing parking spaces is based on the finding that cities are often faced with an imbalance
between:
• on the one hand, a shortage of on-street parking spaces, resulting among other things in
their saturation, in low parking turnover rates at night harming the attractiveness of
shops, in double or footway parking hampering the flow of traffic, and in poor safety
conditions for vulnerable road users;
• and on the other, and paradoxically, an overall supply of (public and private) off-street
parking spaces which is overdesigned in some respects, resulting in wastage of space and
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considerable extra costs. As a result, parking spaces take up large areas and represent
high costs5.
Shared parking consists:
either in limiting the private supply associated with each real estate project, by creating shared
parking facilities meeting the additional needs of several near-by projects;
• or in taking advantage of the complementarity in use between public and/or private
parking facilities, for example to avoid having to build a new structure. More particularly,
shops, offices, dwellings and hotels and catering premises are not all visited at the time
of day /week. In the evening, a parking area at an office building can, therefore, be
perfectly made available for example to customers of restaurants in the neighbourhood.
Conversely, a private parking space in front of a dwelling can be opened for daily
commuters on weekdays. Likewise, a supermarket can conclude an agreement to make
its parking area available to local inhabitants after closing time at night.
In shared mobility services the second option prevails. Private individuals make their parking spaces
available (justPark). Both strategies can, of course, be implemented concurrently. Shared parking
can be included in future urban operations or be considered within the existing urban fabric.
Finally, some mention should be made of the development of shared mobility for other modes.
Planes, boats are shared. Journeys for package deliveries are shared as well (KakoExpress,
piggybee). Logistics is also affected by these new services.
The following diagram summarizes the various types of shared mobility service with examples of
service providers.
5
The average price of a parking space in Wallonia ranges between 5,000 and 12,000 €, not including maintenance costs and
taxes
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Figure 76: Various types of shared mobility services Source: BRRC- Wanda DEBAUCHE
The US Department of Transportation suggests a categorization based on the business model. The
following table summarizes these 5 categories of shared mobility service models.
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Figure 77 : Shared mobility. Current practices and guiding principles

Source : US Department of Transportation. Federal Highway Administration. April 2016
Membership-based self-service models
The characteristics of membership-based self-service models are :

1. An organized group of participants;
2. One or more shared vehicles (cars, bicycles, scooters…);
3. A network of stations used as point of departure and arrival for trip or station-based
one-way services or a free-floating decentralized vehicle network with flexible
departure and arrival locations within a fixed geographic boundary
4. Short term access (one hour our less)
5. Self-service access.
These service models can be “open systems” available for the public or “closed (restricted)
community systems” with limited access to predefined groups, such as members of a university,
employees of a company or an office park, residents of an apartment complex.
Peer-to-peer self-service models
With the peer-to-peer models, vehicle owner can rent them when they are not in use. In these
models, companies supply mobility owners by providing the organizational resources required to
make the exchange possible (online platform, insurance, booking service, driver and vehicle safety
certification…). These models can be used for parking spaces aswell. Exemple : justpark.
Non-membership self-service models
This model includes carpooling and rental cars.
For-hire service models
The principle of for-hire vehicle service models involves a passanger hiring a driver for either a one-
way or a roundtrip ride (taxis, limousines, liveries, tricycle). Exemples : UberX, CNS, blablacar,
snapcar, Kakoexpress.
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Mass transit systems
Mass transit services include public transportation (buses, susbways, rail, ferries operating on fixed
routes, available to the public) and alternative transit services (flexible routes services, on demand,
free shuttles, request stops).
3.5.3. Case studies on the New Shared mobility services

3.5.3.1. Belgium
Brussels provides a lot of means for reducing the car’s footprint in the city, by replacing the model
of “the car as property” with that of “the car as a service”. Brussels is even the 2nd highest placed
European city in terms of the density of its shared mobility offering.
The Brussels-Capital Region is a champion in providing means of self-service mobility: a wide range
of shared bicycles, scooters and cars are available. An online shopping platform, ShopAlike, has
even calculated that there are 42 bikes, 8 cars and 0.6 scooters available in self-service for every
10,000 Brussels citizens. This density as regards shared mobility means that the region is in the 2nd
position among the 28 European capitals.
The following table shows the evolution from 2010 to 2015 for the number of shared car stations
and members in the Brussels Capital Region.
Table 5: Evolution of car sharing for the Brussels Capital Region : 2010-2015
2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015
Stations 72 81 93 96 102 108
Number of location 233 251 284 290 303 318
Members-Subscribers 6.222 7.275 8.990 9.520 10.791 11.722
Source : Cambio
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Table 6: Stations of car sharing within the municipalities of the Brussels Capital Region : 2015-
2018
2015 2016 2017 2018
Anderlecht 3 3 8 10
Auderghem 3 3 3 5
Berchem-Sainte-Agathe 1 3 5 5
Bruxelles 32 32 34 36
Etterbeek 15 17 17 22
Evere 1 1 4 7
Forest 4 7 9 12
Ganshoren 1 4 4 4
Ixelles 12 13 19 25
Jette 4 4 8 13
Koekelberg 2 2 2 2
Molenbeek-Saint-Jean 4 5 5 5
Saint-Gilles 8 8 6 12
Saint-Josse-ten-Noode 6 13 6 6
Schaerbeek 12 6 20 26
Uccle 5 7 7 14
Watermael-Boitsfort 3 4 7 11
Woluwe-Saint-Lambert 3 3 4 7
Woluwe-Saint-Pierre 9 9 9 16
Total for the 19 municipalities of the 128 144 177 238

Brussels Capital Region
Source : Cambio, Zen Car et Ubeeqo
Right now, there are three service providers of car sharing within the Brussels Capital Region :
Cambio, Ubeeqo and Zen Car with electric cars. The total fleet is about 670 vehicles for 623
locations. The supply is continually growing. Because there was a big difference of the number of
locations between the different municipalities, a general goal of 800 locations for 2020 has been
defined and municipalities are forced to set up a strategic plan to achieve the goal, regarding the
share of the population on their territory.
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Figure 78 : The carsharing in Brusseles
3.5.3.2. Germany
Different bikesharing systems exist in Germany. For instance, the national railway company,
Deutsche Bahn offers “Call a Bike” which provides about 8500 bicycles in stations and city centers
all around Germany. Nextbike is another German famous bikesharing system with more than 20
000 bicycles in 30 German cities and several nearby countries. 300 bicycles are available in Berlin
where shared mobility operators are particularly prolific. This is because Berlin and its population
present characteristics which are ideal for it : high level of zero-car households (40%), low emission
zone restricting inner city neighborhoods to certified low emission vehicles, …
In Germany, we notice a great public involvement in car sharing, given that several of the large car
sharing operators are in the hands of public entities. A relevant example is Flinkster. Flinster is a
government-sponsored car sharing model, operated by Deutsche Bahn. The cars of Flinkster are
available in several countries like Italy, Austria, the Netherlands, Switzerland and Germany. The link
between mass transit railway and car sharing is here very strong and good complementarities could
so be developed.
The city of Bremen
The City of Bremen has integrated car sharing policy into urban development and in its Sustainable
Urban Mobility Plan (SUMP) for a long term. In 2009, the City Council adopted its ‘Car Sharing
Action Plan’ with the target of 20,000 car sharing users by 2020 ( 5,000 users in the beginning of
2009). In Bremen, car sharing is market-based with 3 commercial companies.
In 2017 a report of the City Council to the transport committee highlights :

1. more than 14,000 users;
2. about 5,000 cars taken off the roads by the users of car sharing;
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3. one third of the car sharing users gave up a private car when joining the car sharing service;
4. about 79% of the Bremen car sharing users doesn’t have a car in their household;
5. Under the top priorities of car sharing users (60% by all, 68% by women) : the nearness of
stations. Car sharing users of a return car sharing system want to have a station close to
their home (or workplace if used for work purposes) ;
6. car sharing users do more of their grocery shopping in the neighbourhoods, and less in
shopping centres;
7. high level of satisfaction of the users (84% satisfied or very satisfied).
Figure 79 : A typical Bremen ‘mobil.puenktchen’

A typical Bremen ‘mobil.puenktchen’ in a narrow neighbourhood street with 2 spots for car sharing
cars, bike-racks and the pillar on some extended curbs.
3.5.3.3. USA
As of January 2017, there were 39 car sharing organizations in North America serving 1.9 million
members with a collective fleet of 24,629 vehicles (these numbers do not include P2P carsharing;
they include roundtrip and one-way carsharing operations.).
Three major types of bikesharing systems have emerged: public bikesharing (docked and
dockless/free floating), closed campus bikesharing and Peer-to-Peer (P2P) bikesharing.[12] Most
bikesharing systems are public and allow anyone to access a bicycle for a fee, typically in daily,
monthly or annual membership fees.[2] Public bikesharing programs can be station-based (docked),
or dockless (also known as free floating).
As of April 2016, there were 99 U.S. cities with technology-enabled public bikesharing systems, with
approximately 32,200 bikes and 3,400 stations.[11]
Major bikesharing operators in North America include: Motivate, Social Bicycles, Spin, ofo, Mobike,
and LimeBike. E-bikesharing systems (or Pedlec) have also been growing in popularity. Based on
data from Statista’s Global Consumer Survey 2018 , the following chart examines how big roles ride-
, bike- and car-sharing services play in present-day America.
In general, in the United States, these services are almost entirely disconnected from public sector
involvement. The public role is generally limited to the leasing of parking facilities for the vehicles
on the public space. Many car sharing operators have agreements with municipalities to use on-
street parking facilities and they pay for it (leasing the parking).
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Figure 80 : Online booking services in the past 12 months

McKinsey surveyed 2,000 shared-mobility consumers across ten US cities: Austin, Chicago, Dallas,
Denver, Kansas City, Milwaukee, New York City, Peoria, Richmond, and San Francisco. The effort
looked at cities of varying sizes, population levels, and demographic compositions to ensure an
adequate representation of North American consumers
There’s a consensus that the use of private cars will decline in the long term, partly as a result of an
increase in autonomous “robo-taxis” and the use of public transportation. When the survey asked
consumers to compare their current mobility usage with their probable choices 15 years in the
future, they saw themselves using private cars 12 percent less. They also expected to choose ride-
hailing6 and ride-sharing services 7 percent more, and to travel by public transportation 4 percent
more.
3.5.3.4. China
In China, new mobility services focus on taxi-hailing7 and shared bicycles based on intelligent cell
phone. According to iiMedia Research data, the total user who use cell phone based platform to
choose their travel modes has reached 362 million.
For taxi-hailing, since 2013, UBER and DIDI launched competitions in China. National government
issued guidance for regulating taxi-hailing development. According to the iiMedia Research survey
data, 58.6% of the taxi-hailing users are aged 16-20, and 26.7% users are aged 30-50.which shows
young people prefer to use taxi-hailing.
6
the activity of asking for a car and driver to come immediately and take you somewhere, or a service that
lets you do this (app)
7
the activity of asking for a taxi to come immediately and take you somewhere
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For shared bicycle, from a joint study conducted by CATS and Ofo BICYCLE in the year 2016, the
shared bicycle in Chinese cities could improve travel efficiency by 15%. Taking Beijing for example,
the average car travel distance is 13.2 km, the ‘shared bicycle+bus’mode is 18% faster than
‘bus+walk’ mode. ‘shared bicycle+metro’ mode is 17.9% faster than private car, ‘shared
bicycle+metro’ mode is 15.8% faster than ‘walk+metro’ mode.
According to iiMedia Research survey, 74.6% user thinks taxi-hailing is the main reason for severe
congestion, and 69.2% user feels worry about their safety during taking taxi-hailing, 61.7% user
feels the condition of vehicles are not so good, and the driver quality is uneven. 43.6% user thinks
there is possibility that their personal information might be disclosed due to the weak data
monitoring regulation. In some cities, the development of taxi-hailing lead to a decrease of public
transport.
And with the issuing of national guidance, government will strengthen its monitoring especially in
operation safety to improve service quality.
3.5.4. First lessons to be drawn from this new shared mobility services
Although there are no comprehensive studies into the effects of these various new services, there
are specific studies on some of them, from which lessons can be drawn.
On the whole, these studies agree that car sharing makes it possible not only to reduce the numbers
of travelling and parked vehicles, thereby mitigating congestion and pollutant emissions, but also
to make considerable savings on public carriageway space, which can then be reassigned among
others to active road and public transport users.
The diagram below was drawn from the national French survey into car sharing conducted in 2013
by 6T-Bureau de recherche at the request of the Agenda de l’Environnement et de la Maîtrise de
l’Energie (ADEME).
Figure 81 : The national French survey into car sharing

Source : Survey by 6T-Bureau de recherche
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According to this study, car sharing is not only a credible substitute for private car ownership, but
also allows more rational car use and, consequently, an overall reduction in the numbers of
kilometres travelled:
• one third of the users of car sharing services signed up when their personal cars had
reached the end of their service lives;
• more than three fourths of car sharers do not own a car, whereas this applies to only one
third of households not making use of car sharing services;
• 39 % of the households interviewed got rid of their car after signing up to a car sharing
service;
• the car is less used by car sharers who use other alternative modes in combination with
car sharing (walking, cycling and public transport are more used by car sharers). As a
result, the number of car kilometres travelled by car sharers drops by 41 % after they
have signed up.
Car sharing also reduces the time spent in cruising for a parking place. It is estimated that every
year seventy million hours are lost in France in cruising for a parking space, representing an annual
loss of about six hundred million euros8.
For the city of Paris, the mere elimination of cruising time would allow a reduction by 5 %.
It is, therefore, clear that an overall reduction in numbers of travelling vehicles and kilometres
travelled will make it possible to reduce energy consumption and pollutant emissions.
It should also be borne in mind that 15 % of the total energy consumption over the full life cycle of
a car occurs during production. Producing fewer cars has, therefore, a direct beneficial effect on
energy consumption.
As for the reduction of pollutant emissions, according to the Swiss energy agency an active user of
car sharing produces an average reduction of 290 kg of CO2/year. Finally, OECD reports that the
intensive use of vehicles in car sharing schemes implies accelerated fleet replacement and thus,
potentially, quicker penetration of newer, cleaner technologies.
Car sharing also allows savings on parking space requirements. A study by CERTU has demonstrated
that on average a car is in motion for only 8 % of its service life. The rest of the time it is parked.
A shared vehicle is estimated to replace between five and eight private vehicles. Knowing that an
average on-street parking space “consumes” 10 m², potential savings are huge. Public space
released from car parking can be converted to other uses in order to enhance liveability or to
improve infrastructures dedicated to active modes such as cycling and walking (wider footways,
more cycle tracks, high-quality public space development …), or to logistics (distribution centre).
The diagram below shows the savings the Brussels Capital Region could make on space if it carries
through its strategy for the deployment of the supply of car sharing vehicles. Eight hundred new
vehicles should be available within the foreseeable future, allowing a potential gain of nearly
40,000 m² in surface area – i.e., nearly two hundred tennis courts that could be used for improving
public space quality and/or developing alternatives to the car mode.
8
« la recherche d’une place de stationnement : stratégies, nuisances associées, enjeux pour la gestion du stationnement en
France » - Amélie LEFAUCONNIER et Eric GANTELET, SARECO
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Figure 82 : The strategy for the deployment of the supply of car sharing vehicles
The potential of care sharing is, therefore, substantial. Similar beneficial effects can be expected
from bike sharing or shared parking.
Social Bicycles began testing an e-bikesharing program, called Jump, in San Francisco in Summer
2017. Studies have been conducted that analyze bikesharing impacts on modal shift. A 2014 UC
Berkeley study suggests that in larger cities, bikesharing programs remove riders from crowded or
high-use bus transit systems. In smaller cities, bikesharing improves access from bus lines, filling in
gaps in the public transit system. In addition, those living in larger cities report decreased rail usage
as a result of increased cost savings and reduced travel times. The study also found that half of the
bikesharing members surveyed reduced their personal vehicle usage due to bikesharing.
3.5.5. Definition of MaaS : Mobility as a service
Over the past few years, mobility services have emerged that tend to promote sharing rather than
ownership and fit in with a comprehensive supply of mobility services. We speak about :
Transportation-as-a-Service (TaaS), also known as Mobility-as-a-Service (MaaS). A shift away from
personally owned modes of transport and towards mobility solutions that are consumed as a
service.
Mobility as a Service (MaaS) is the integration of various forms of transport services into a single
mobility service accessible on demand. To meet a customer’s request, a MaaS operator facilitates
a diverse menu of transport options, be they public transport, ride-, car- or bike-sharing, taxi or car
rental/lease, or a combination thereof. For the user, MaaS can offer added value through use of a
single application to provide access to mobility, with a single payment channel instead of multiple
ticketing and payment operations. For its users, MaaS should be the best value proposition, by
helping them meet their mobility needs and solve the inconvenient parts of individual journeys as
well as the entire system of mobility services.
This is enabled by combining transport services from public and private transport providers through
a unified gateway that creates and manages the trip, which users can pay for with a single account.
Users can pay per trip or a monthly fee for a limited distance. The key concept behind MaaS is to
offer both travellers and goods mobility solutions based on travel needs. MaaS is not limited to
individual mobility; the approach can be applied to movement of goods as well – particularly in
urban areas.
This shift is fuelled by a myriad of innovative new mobility service providers such as ride sharing
and e-hailing services, bike sharing programmes and car sharing services as well as on-demand
"pop-up" bus services. On the other hand, the trend is motivated by the anticipation of self-driving
cars, which put in question the economic benefit of owning a personal car over using on-demand
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car services, which are widely expected to become significantly more affordable when cars can
drive autonomously.
Figure 83 : MaaS Framework (Source: Telematics Wire.net)

This shift is further enabled by improvements in the integration of multiple modes of transport into
seamless trip chains, with bookings and payments managed collectively for all the legs of the trip.
In London, commuters use the Oyster card, a contactless payment bank card, to pay for their travel.
Between the multiple modes, trips, and payments, data is gathered and used to help people’s
journeys become more efficient. In the government space, the same data allows for informed
decision-making when considering improvements in regional transit systems. Public transport
scheduling and the spending of consumer dollars can be justified by obtaining and analysing data
based around modern urban mobility trends.
A successful MaaS service brings new business models and ways to organise and operate the
various transport options, with advantages for transport operators including access to improved
user and demand information and new opportunities to serve unmet demand. The aim of MaaS is
to provide an alternative to the use of the private car that may be as convenient, more
sustainable, help to reduce congestion and constraints in transport capacity, and can be even
cheaper.
The following table describes the different levels of MaaS and their business models created for
stakeholders (Traffic Technology international April/May 2018. P 70, 71.)
The degree of human intervention will decrease as MaaS matures. Level 0 is the base level and level
6 requires artificial intelligence.
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Table 7: The different levels of MaaS and their business models
LEVEL DESCRIPTION EXPLANATION
0 Base level, relative to today There are account-based systems in place,

individual modes of transportation already
have a digitized interface and the traveler
has information available online for each.
1 One-to-one integration between some private Services start to develop joint offerings. For
services example, tolling and car park; private car and
ferry; park-and-ride bus services
2 Integrated payment and ticketing across modes Greater integration of services occurs, but
of limited public and private modes of thiis time between privately operated and
transportation services public transportation. Integration shows
promise but other public transit modes are
skeptical and continue to stay away.
3 Unified interface for single account used in Instead of having different channels, an
multiple modes of transport services interface is unified across modes, providers
and services, where the traveler can plan
their journeys
4 All modes are integrated, private and public, Open data and standards are defined and
including routing, ticketing and payment commonly used
5 Active artificial intelligence choices are taken Based on traveller-specific behavior and
based on travel preferences and near real-time profiling, minimal intervention is needed by
data for ad-hoc changes the traveler for an end-to-end journey
6 MaaS connects beyond mobility, interfacing As MaaS evolved, so did other systems that
with smart cities and smart buildings were involved
3.5.6. Conclusions, stakes and pending issues

A. Shared mobility will impact everyone: users as local and regional governments and public
transit companies.
B. Public agencies should not deny this trend but should embrace public and private collaboration.
Public agencies have a role to play espacially regarding collection of data which are crucial to
understand and manage the impacts of shared mobility on the transportation network.
C. Transportation planing and mobility policies should incorporate shared mobility. It is important
to ensure that shared mobility helps improve the levels of transportation service for all
segments of people relative to the costs incurred. Detailed researches and careful investigation
are required (costs-benefits analyses should be useful). Necessary actions, however, must be
taken in time.
D. In order to be effective the shared mobility services need to be implemented on a large scale
throughout the metropolitan area and not only in parts of it. Sufficient scale is also important
for achieving manageable costs. Indeed, it seems that some car sharing or bike sharing systems
are not self-supporting despite a large demand in urban area. Then, the question is : should the
public authorities provide them financial subsidies or should the price for theses services be
increased?
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E. Some public transport professions or services (taxis, buses that follow fixed routes and
timetables while being limited in capacity) are probably bound to disappear. The question is
whether public transport operators intend to accept these new shared services and the
attended change in demand, or simply to oppose them. How will policy-makers anticipate these
phenomena?
F. The automotive industry and other sectors need to recalibrate their business models and
strategic thinking to account for this shifting landscape. The car industry especially, with its
rather traditional economic model, will go through profound changes. Some manufacturers are
already announcing that they will no longer make cars but rather provide mobility services.
How to monetize and manage these services? Moreover, the cars that are still produced will
have to be adapted for more intensive use.
G. The sharing services that are part of this integrated mobility supply are mainly urban. Their
economic viability depends on demand. This demand is concentrated in urban areas, making
the economic model viable. Paradoxically, in peri-urban areas the traditional supply of public
transport has the most difficulty in meeting a scattered demand. It may, therefore, be
wondered whether it would be appropriate to subsidize the supply of such services in those
areas, rather than heavy vehicle (train, bus) solutions.
H. Public authorities should guide the deployment of these services and regulate their accessibility
and operation. Managers should think carefully about the deployment of the supply in their
territories. Concurrently, operators should be officially recognized to ensure quality of service.
If dedicated spaces within a municipality or region are assigned by different entities or
municipal authorities (like in the Brussels Capital Region), the terms and conditions for
operators to have access should be neutral and harmonized. This is essential for the good
operation of a market with several operators. In its 2016 report on “Shared mobility”, OECD
rather recommends to charge a single entity with matching demand and supply. OECD also
mentions that “authorities must carefully reflect on its statute and the supervision of its
performance in order to protect consumers from market power abuse and to ensure efficient
outcomes.”
I. A number of services presented above were initially designed as truly collaborative and free of
charge. They have gradually developed into more traditional and well profitable business
models. Such is the case for example of Blabla car or Uber. This new unregulated networking
economy cannot be equated with a sharing economy and raises a good number of issues:
privileging shareholders over the community, unfair competition, casualization of labour …
J. As a concluding remark, all the stakeholders need to actively respond to shared mobility
services because they have a potential to become both new opportunities and new threats
depending on how and when we respond to them. We need to investigate human behaviour
carefully and intervene in the development of the services by the most appropriate ways and
at the right timing.
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4. LAND USE AND URBAN DEVELOPMENT

4.1. OVERVIEW
Spatial organization of the city and transport are well interrelated in urban environment. The
movement of people and freight is the key aspect driving the city life. The high quality of life is
impossible without appropriate level of satisfaction of mobility needs. Spatial structure of the city
and its immediate surroundings plays a very important role in relation to the demand for transport,
capacity of transport networks and their usage. There are three basic aspects of the city and its
structure with influence on traffic and its environmental impacts:
• formal spatial structure of city
• functional pattern of land-use
• spatial interactions
The first was presented in the introduction to the report, the other two are developed in the
following chapters.
4.1.1. Functional pattern of land-use
The mobility of city is the function of interconnection of main socio-demographical activities such
as housing, shopping, industry, services, leisure-time activities, etc. These components create in
the city sectors with a predominant character of function - functional zones, which can be divided
into:
• residential: either in the form of compact urban residential blocks (mostly in historical
city centers) or free standing housing estates or in the form of a low-density urban or
periurban housing,
• employment: either production (industrial area, production district, mining area,
processing of agricultural products,...) or business-administrative (office blocks) nature
• civic amenities: cultural facilities, secondary and higher education institutions, state
administration centers, leisure centers, service centers,
• shopping: large shopping centers or group of smaller shops (often mixed with housing or
office)
• recreational: sometimes do not create a separate functional zone and often merge with
civic amenities bound to the green and free landscape, parks, consisting of natural
recreation areas and sports (cottages, campsites, swimming pools, sports grounds, etc.)
Besides the predominant function, each zone should have also complementary functions.
• Monofunctional zones – are strictly focused to one urban function. Their existence is
mostly the result of functionalist approaches to urbanism in 20th century.
Monofunctional zones, especially those made up from employment facilities, are great
in limiting harmful effects to living environment and but their major disadvantage is high
demand for mobility, especially everyday commuting.
• Mixed areas - the variety of urban functions in one zone is closer to the natural
development of cities. Their greatest benefit is the reduction of transport demands as
the connections between housing, workplaces and civic amenities are short. This fact can
encourage higher use of sustainable non-motorised transport modes (walking and
cycling). But the challenge of mixed land-use is to deal with negative impact to
environment such as pollution or noise.
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4.1.2. Spatial interactions
The transportation is (as well as the technical infrastructure) not the basic spatial function of the
city but the key component in the process of its shaping as it represents the flows between
individual spatial-functional zones of the city. The goal for fine spatial layout of the city is to achieve
a state in which all mobility demands are satisfied and in the most sustainable way.
Each type of functional use of the land is characterized by productivity or attractiveness in terms of
mobility interactions. The generated volume of traffic can be found for transport modeling
purposes in trip generation manuals. The most important mobility relations should be defined as
residence – workplace/school and back; workplace/residence – shopping and back; residence –
recreation and back. Also the chain trips (e.g. residence – workplace – shopping – residence) are
common, especially in large-scale cities.
The changes in land-use are quickly reflected in the traffic demand with direct influence to travel
behavior patterns. On the other hand, the availability, speed and reliability of transport can affect
the process of land-use changes, although in this case the response time is significantly longer than
in the opposite.
Figure 84 : “Land Use” and “Transportation”

The major projections of urban transportation system into spatial arrangements are (Rodrigue et
al., 2009):
1. Pedestrian areas,
2. Roads and parking areas,
3. Cycling areas,
4. Public transport systems,
5. Transport terminals.
The importance of each existing transport mode is influenced by numerous factors including spatial
form, urban density, policy implications, etc. The individual modes also differ in terms of space
consumption, transport performances, speed and typical travel distance. Several different policy
strategies developed over years to handle mobility needs of the cities. The main approaches in past
50 years are shown in the figure below.
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Figure 85 : The approaches on several different policy strategies

4.1.3. Approaches and trends in urban development and mobility for future cities
Trends of suburbanization and expansion of mono-functional zones have been one of main drivers
for rapid growth of mobility needs covered (almost) exclusively by individual transport and the
development pressure on suburban areas in past century. Next to old problems, new challenges
such as aging and social stratification came in 21th century. Major problems faced by today's cities
are:
• sprawling of cities – land-take and devastation of suburban areas
• rising needs for mobility – causing traffic congestions
• social disintegration – population aging, income disparities, cultural fragmentation
• decreasing quality of life due to environmental pollution
• disappearing biodiversity in urban ecosystems and climatic changes
• economic stagnation or decline of old traditional industries
New policies are adopted to influence development of cities towards sustainability. European
document Cities of Tomorrow (EC, 2011) is defining vision of the cities. But there is no single vision
of the city.
Rather each city must develop its own vision, although general framework should be similar. This
framework includes following trends:
• Compact city – suppressing sprawl and increasing density of city:
• Functional polycentric structure – diversification of functions, decreasing needs for
mobility
• city of short distances – most of mobility needs is satisfied by walking or cycling
• attractive open public spaces
• transit oriented development – to link medium-sized centers by well-developed public
transport systems in order to link their potential and capacity
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Economical and social transformation:

• promotion of new industries, knowledge economy, innovations
• local based small and medium enterprises
• local community-led developments, inclusion
Smart city – strategic framework for introduction of new technologies to city services including:
• digital transition of public services - reducing demand for necessary mobility
• promotion of electric transport in urban areas
• traffic flow management using on-line collected big data
• city logistic (last-mile deliveries etc.)
4.2. TRANSIT ORIENTED DEVELOPMENT

4.2.1. Introduction
City planning is increasingly confronted with a lot of tasks which are often related together in
control cycles. A lot of tasks are rooted at responsibilities in the social sphere at the local level up
to necessities derived from global and longterm changes (environmental problems, greenhouse gas
effects, demand for economic growth). In order to recent concerns about today needs of cities and
their future, Transit Oriented Development (TOD) has rapidly emerged as one of the most popular
urban planning paradigm in the world. It seeks to maximize access to mass transit and non-
motorized transportation with centrally located public transportation system surrounded by
relatively high-density commercial and residential development.
TOD can enhance quality of life in urban areas at the same time provide benefits for individuals,
communities and developers. Transit oriented development in the United States has gained wide
acceptance among all of the policies and strategies that the federal and local governments have
adopted to respond to challenge of rapid social, environmental, economic, technological and
cultural changes which cities are facing.
TOD is regional planning, city revitalisation, suburban renewal, and walkable neighbourhoods
combined. TOD projects depend on good urban design to coordinate transportation types, mixed
land uses, and create an appealing public space, all in a limited area.
TOD is an exciting fast growing trend in creating vibrant, liveable, sustainable communities. Also
known as TOD, it´s the creation of compact, walkable, mixed-use communities centered around
high quality public transport systems (train, tram, light rail, metro) or even BRT. This makes it
possible to live a lower stress life without complete dependence on a car for mobility and survival.
4.2.2. Definitions of TOD
There are a lot of surveys on the internet with aspects like TOD facilities, locations (e.g. urban
downtown versus regional town center), typologies (e.g. land use mix, street and block patterns),
mobility and modes of transports and densities, dependencies on distances, dimensions of the
transport system. And there are also a lot of other influences like employments, jobs, income of
household and different actors which are influencing factors.
Some authors use the term TOD quite liberally, referring to any form of “transportation-oriented-
development”, including bus and rail oriented development as well as development along freeways
(Lefaver,1997). This review takes a narrower definition, referring to development near or oriented
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to mass transit facilities. The following represents a sample of TOD definitions found in the
literature:
“Development within a specified geographic area around a transit station with a variety of land uses
and a multiplicity of landowners” (Salvensen,1996).
“A mixed-use community that encourages people to live near transit services and to decrease their
dependence on driving” (Still,2002).
“Moderate to higher density development, located within an easy walk of a major transit stop,
generally with a mix of residential, employment, and shopping opportunities designed for
pedestrians without excluding the auto. TOD can be new construction or redevelopment of one or
more buildings whose design and orientation facilitate transit use” (California Department of
Transportation,2001).
The frameworks worldwide are different including policies and strategies that federal and local
government have adopted to respond to challenge of TOD. There is no unique definition of TOD.
Among many definitions of TOD, the following three by Center for Transit Oriented Development
(CTOD), Institute for Transportation and Development Policy (ITDP), and Wikipedia are mobilized
and noted as shown in the following box.
• Transit-Oriented Development is typically defined as more compact development within
easy walking distance of transit stations that contains a mix of uses such as housing, jobs,
shops, restaurants and entertainment. TOD is really about creating walkable, sustainable
communities for people of all ages and incomes and providing more transportation and
housing choices (Center of TOD, 2007).
• TOD implies high quality, thoughtful planning and design of land use and built forms to
support, facilitate and prioritize not only the use of transit, but the most basic modes of
transport, walking and cycling (ITDP, 2014).
• A transit-oriented development (TOD) is a mixed-use residential and commercial area
designed to maximize access to public transport, and often incorporates features to
encourage transit ridership. A TOD neighborhood typically has a center with a transit
station or stop (train station, metro station, tram stop, or bus stop), surrounded by
relatively high-density development with progressively lower-density development
spreading outward from the center (Wikipedia).
According to the definition by ITDP, cycling is also considered as one of transportation system for
TOD like walking and transit. Therefore, TOD might be re-defined, in view of transportation, an
approach to build up integrated transportation system mixing walking, cycling and transit to make
people live in sustainable society.
Traditional Transit-Oriented Development is designed so that residents can live, work, shop, and
recreate in the same area. TOD resembles a small, walkable neighborhood focused around a
regional transit station. The transit stop (rail or bus) is the main focal point of the development and
is immediately surrounded by high-level densities of commercial, office, and residential properties.
The transit stop serves as the regional connection for the development as well as the connection
to the urban center to which people commute. To maximize access and land-use efficiency, the
transit stop is connected to vehicular, bicycle, and pedestrian traffic. As one walks further from the
transit center, the building density decreases and becomes more uniformly residential. Density still
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remains higher than typical suburban densities to centralize the population and maximize land uses
(Rappahannock Rapidan Regional Commission,2006).
4.2.3. TOD - development worldwide
The term transit-oriented development, as a US-born concept, is rarely used in Europe, although
many of the measures are also stressed here. Many European cities have long been built around
transit systems and there has thus often been little or no need to differentiate this type of
development with a special term as has been in the case of US. An example of this is the
Copenhagen`s Finger Plan from 1947, which embodied many transit-oriented development aspects
and is still used as an overall planning framework today. Many of the new towns created after the
World War II in Japan, Sweden and France have many of the characteristics of TOD communities.
In a sense, nearly all communities built on reclaimed land in the Netherlands or as exurban
developments in Denmark have had the local equivalent of TOD principles integrated in their
planning, including the promotion of bicycles for local use. Even the spatial matrix of large panel
housing estates developed in Soviet block countries from 1960s to 1980s shows some aspects of
TOD despite questionable general quality of housing.
TOD was rapidly sweeping the US with the creation of exciting people places in city after city. The
public has embraced the concept across the nation as the most desirable places to live, work and
play. Real estate developers have quickly followed to meet the high demand for quality urban
places served by rail systems.
The survey (Amerika THINKS survey) also found that the desire to live near public transportation
has increased in the last five years among 29 percent of Americans. Millennials again take the lead
with 36 percent who want to live near public transportation today more so than five years ago
versus 25 percent of older Americans.
The desire to more fully integrate lifestyle and mobility options is causing Americans to rethink their
priorities about where they choose to live, and how they travel to work and play. (Mike Sweeney,
HNTB, Senior vice president). The willingness of people to pay more to live in a particular area in
exchange for enhanced lifestyle and mobility options sends a clear message about the growing
interest, value and importance of transit oriented development.
According to the Transit Oriented Development Institute, TOD is a compact development with easy
walking distance of transit stations that contains a mix of uses such as housing, jobs, shops,
restaurants and entertainment. They are centered on high quality rail systems, which greatly reduce
the need for driving and energy consumptions by up to 85 %.
The America THINKS survey found that more than 83 percent of all Americans (2016) were as more
interested in living near accessible public transportation than they were five years ago, including 76
percent of Americans living in rural areas. According to the survey, over half of Americans agree the
availability of good public transportation increases their interest in moving to and living in a
particular area. The survey also found Americans believe numerous benefits result from transit
oriented development.
This include reduced dependency on driving (57 percent) allowing residents to live, work and play
in the same area (46 percent) reducing the area’s carbon footprint or negative environmental
impact (44 percent) access to better life services and stimulating the local economy (43 percent)
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better access between urban and suburban areas (42 percent) access to better entertainment or
recreational services (39 percent) access to better jobs (37 percent) HNTB Cooperation (visit
www.hntb.com)
4.2.4. TOD – Typologies

4.2.4.1. General Typologies of TOD
Traditionally, the transit orientation of an area has been measured using the 3 D’s of density,
diversity of land uses, and design or built form. Here the transit normally refers to rail-based, but
these days bus rapid transit also comes into play for TOD and sometimes the tram or light rail train
is also intertwined with TOD and various implementations are available all over the world. In
addition, for the purposes of better evaluating urban form and transportation system performance,
the 5 P’s used for the strategic plan are suggested and those are as follows (see below). ( Florida-
Transit-Oriented Development FDOT- www.fltod.com s.31.
1. People: The number of residents and workers in an area.− This has a direct correlation with
reduced vehicle miles traveled.
2. Places: The number of neighborhood serving retail and service establishments.− Areas with
commercial urban amenities such as restaurants, grocers, and specialty retail not only allow
residents to complete daily activities without getting in a car, but they also improve the
likelihood of higher density development by increasing residential land values
3. Physical Form: Average block size.− Small block size promote more “urban” style compact
development and walkability.
4. Performance: The frequency of bus and rail service.− High quality, frequent bus and rail
service makes public transportation a more reliable means of getting around and can be
correlated to less driving.
5. Pedestrian/Bicycle Connectivity: Access to sidewalks and low stress bikeways.− Bicycle and
pedestrian connectivity encourages many more people to walk or cycle to transit and
neighborhood destinations.
Moreover, depending on the support and dependency of the transit, the transit communities can
be categorized into three types based on this assessment as shown in the following box.
1. Transit Adjacent
Non-transit areas or areas close to quality transit that don’t possess the urban character that
would best support transit; generally describes low to moderately populated areas within walking
distances of higher quality transit stations or corridors that lack a combination of the street
connectivity, pedestrian and bicycle facilities, and urban amenities to more fully support the level
of transit service.
2. Transit Related
Areas that possess some, but not all, of the components of transit-oriented development;
generally describes moderately populated areas served by higher quality transit, a good or
improving pedestrian/bicycle network, and some mix of neighborhood supportive retail and service
amenities.
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3. Transit-Oriented
Areas that are most likely to support a transit lifestyle; describes more densely populated areas
served by high quality rail and/or bus transit, good to excellent pedestrian/bicycle connections, a
finer grain of blocks, and a supportive mix of retail and service amenities.
Other breakdown of TOD can be arranged based on transit mode and geographic region as urban
core, urban general, suburban, and rural area. One typical example of taxonomy is from that of
Florida TOD Guideline
4.2.4.2. City - wide Typology
Land Use Mix
Strong mix of uses, mid to high-rise buildings with a mix of multi-family, commercial, office, civic,
institutional and entertainment uses
Street and Block Pattern
Regular, smaller blocks, Regular pattern of pedestrian/vehicle connections, Unique triangular

blocks where grids meet Linear streets, Consistent alleys
Building Placement
Buildings built-to sidewalks, Continuous street wall, Consistent orientation, Parking at rear/side or
structured
Building Height
Context-sensitive heights in historic districts, Consistent mid to high-rise in other districts

Mobility
Highest priority to pedestrian, High level of bicycle facilities, Center of multi-modal transit system
4.2.4.3. TOD Typologies
City planners used a TOD typology to indicate the desired mix and intensity of development at
specific transit stations and to show that not all stations will be built in identical patterns. This
helped residents understand that their existing neighborhoods would change only modestly and
signaled to developers where the city planned to support intensive, new TOD (An Issue Paper of
the American Planning Association, 2007).
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The following table describes TOD typologies that should be considered in the United States:
Table 8: Transit oriented development Typologies
Typology Characteristics
Urban-Downtown • Civic and cultural centres
• Multiple transit lines and transfer points
Moderate to high density (>30 dwelling units per acre)
• Extension of downtown street system
• Shopping along a central street

Urban Neighbourhood
• Key crossroads
• Usually more affordable housing
• High pedestrian activity
• Sometimes historic districts adjacent to downtown
• Opportunity for higher density and redesign

Suburban Neighbourhood
• More commuter focused
• Some retail and commercial in existence, but limited
Neighbourhood Transit Zone • Mostly residential
• Some shopping with limited retail or office space
Freestanding, with commuter service to downtown

Commuter Town
• Station area may be a “main street” with retail, offices, residential
• Supports peak hour service but needs parking
• Pedestrian and bike environment

University Centre
• Needs sidewalk and shuttle bus connectivity to student activity
• centres, sports complex and libraries
• Shopping centre, with ample auto access
Regional Town Centre • Will require careful connectivity
• Land use changes will likely be needed
• Infill opportunities to make the area 24 hour
4.2.5. Implementation Strategies for TOD

4.2.5.1. Implementation Strategies for TOD
As shown in the Figure below in Zimbavwe’s presentation in 2011, there are two directions for
accomplishing TODs-regulatory or reactive and participatory or proactive directions and there are
four instruments such as regulations, voluntary instruments, expenditure and financial incentives
which are the tools most of the TOD projects around the world once used and are using to make
that happen.
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Regulations include instruments such as laws, licenses and permits that have a statutory basis.
Voluntary instruments include information, technical assistance and community activities, which
do not require financial investments. Expenditure includes direct investments by governments for
provision of infrastructure and amenities. The last category involves providing financial incentives
to people through mechanisms such as pricing, taxes and charges, subsidies, rebates, grants and
loans, rewards, surety bonds. Although these four policy categories are not mutually exclusive and
have some overlaps, they provide a useful basis to analyse the mechanisms to promote
(Bajracharya, 2005).
Figure 86 : - TOD Implementation Strategies and Tools (Zimbavwe, 2011)

Once some of government legislation and/or guidelines are set, to effectively promote TOD
projects, there should be a clear consideration of incentives at two levels – one for the local
community and another for the developers. To effectively aim at gaining support from the
community, incentives comprising of community benefits need to be carefully packaged. The
package may include provisions of community facilities, walkable active streets and attractive
neighbourhoods. Likewise, developers need to be offered an incentive package focusing on their
needs, such as support with respect to of land assembly and infrastructure provision, and a
simplified and integrated development approval system.
It is widely recognized and accepted that the introduction of transit services, particularly those that
deliver service on fixed guideways, will increase the value of land near station locations. Land value
premiums in excess of thirty percent near commuter rail transit have been observed (Cervero,
2004).
Value capture is defined broadly as a means by which the increment of increased land value
resulting from transit investment is “captured” by some means for use by the transit agency as
shown in figure 87. Such transit premium, for the purpose of funding TOD, should be captured and
according to the CTOD report published in 2008, most of the strategies fall under four broad
categories listed below.
Figure 87 : Value Curve in Transit Premium (CTOD, 2008)

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Special Assessment: a tax assessed against parcels that have been identified as receiving a direct
and unique benefit as a result of a public project. Typical examples of this category involves Metro
Red line in LA, Portland street car, and New York Avenue metro rail station in Washington DC.
Developer/Impact Fee: a fee assessed on new development within a jurisdiction as a means to

defray the cost to the jurisdiction of expanding and extending public services to the development.
Transit Impact Development Fee (TIDF) in city and county of San Francisco and Transit Oriented
Concurrency (TOC) system in Florida cases belong to this category.
This section of summary of implementation strategies contains most of the US cases due to the
availability of the references. However, the overall approaches made in other part of the world are
not much different from the US cases and some local context and situations are reflected in
arranging the implementation strategies.
4.2.5.2. Key Strategies and Tools for TOD Implementation
Many cities, counties and state/federal agencies across the United States are achieving TOD in their
jurisdictions, using a variety of implementation tools. A number of implementation “best practices”
have emerged, which are outlined below.
• A comprehensive, strategic vision establishes TOD as a key element of a City’s overall
land use and mobility plan. The vision encompasses broader city-wide land use and
development goals, as well as performance expectations for future development around
transit stations.
• Public and Private Participation: A broad understanding and acceptance of TOD is
important. Community wide information and education programs should be promoted.
Planning processes that involve neighbourhoods, elected officials, land owners and the
development industry can create a TOD program that is supported and will be
implemented.
• Wherever there is a LRT station there is an opportunity for TOD. However, the market is
not limitless. Identify priority stations where there is market interest, sufficient land and
a reasonable opportunity for success. Focus attention at these priority stations to ensure
early
• TOD projects are successes. Individual stations need specific plans that recognize local
market strengths, site opportunities and community interests. These plans will outline
clear goals for TOD at the individual station and provide guidelines for land use, density,
public systems, urban design and parking management.
4.2.6. TOD and Transport modes

4.2.6.1. Rail Transit and TOD
A wide array of TOD, as evidenced in the Figure below, are available throughout the world and most
of TOD distribution is spread across rail transportation first in US and this is not an exception in
Europe and Asia in pointing out TOD and associated transportation services.
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Figure 88 : - Distribution of Listed TODs by Type of Transit Service (TRB, 2004)

For the commuter rail case, there are many good examples in Japan, Korea, Europe and US. For
light rail case, there are a lot of good examples all over the world. This is partly due to the tram
renaissance in Western Europe and US. One striking example out of LRT bases TOD`s could also be
found in Portland LRT base TOD.
The heavy rail and commuter rail based high-capacity metro and urban light rail offer solutions for
improving urban mobility, quality of life and the environment in both developed and developing
countries, they played an important role in shaping urban form, promoting higher densities,
including mixed and accessible land use. It is not strange to note that many TOD implementations
are situated outskirts of central cities in newer and older suburbs.
Coordinated Strategy between Rail and Suburban Development in Tokyo
In Tokyo the pattern of land use densities follows the pattern of main mass transit networks, and
thus, multi-modal urban mobility has been realized at a substantial degree. This is due to the
medium-term strategy of coordinated planning and finance between rail transit network
development and suburban development. The strategy has long been employed by private rail
companies and by public sectors in the Japanese large metropolitan areas including Tokyo.
Throughout the 20th century, the period of lasting urbanization for Japan, one of the policy issues
was to provide affordable housing and housing sites to inflowing population to the large
metropolitan regions, under soaring land price. In order to develop suburbs at a large scale, the
extension or improvement of existing urban rail network (basically formed up by 1920’s) was
considered to be an effective urban transport policy.
The key concepts of the coordination strategy are twofold. The one is the implementation of
suburban development under private rail companies’ initiative, supported by central and local
governments. The other is re-investment of the gained development benefits to further rail-
extension and suburban development by private rail companies. The strategy has been an effective
urban transport policy as well as a sustainable business model over years.
4.2.6.2. Active modes Walking / Bicycling and TOD
Walking
A TOD neighborhood typically has a center with a transit station or stop (train station, metro
station, tram stop, bus stop), surrounded by relatively high-density development with progressively
lower-density development spreading outward from the center. TOD`s generally are located within
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a radius of one-quarter to one-half mile (400 to 800 m) from a transit stop, as this is considered to
be an appropriate scale for pedestrians, thus solving the last mile problem
Figure 89 : TOD case study draft

The local government of Arlington County, Virginia encourages TOD within ¼ to 1/2 mile (400 to
800 m) from the County`s Washington Metro rapid transit stations, with mixed-use development,
bikesharing and walkability. In the United States, a half-mile –radius circle has became the de facto
standard for rail-transit catchment areas for TOD’s. A half mile (800m) corresponds to the distance
someone can walk in 10 minutes at 3 mph (4.8 km/h) and is common estimate for the distance
people will walk to get to the rail station. The half-mile ring is a little more than 500 acres (2.0 km2)
in size.
In Europe its seen a bit different, especially calculating the walking speed of children or elder
people. Looking at the figure 5 you can see that distances of in average 600 meters are accepted
only by a very small number of people especially if the environment is not attractive and people
have to make this trip regularly (to work, school and so on).
100 Curve Parameter Number of passengers
K a b B S
90 10 218.4 261.7426 0.4406 0.5133 2.38 136
11 117.8 225.7052 0.6913 0.9448 1.91 47
80
Acceptance [%]
70
60
50
+70% attractive environment
40
non attractive environment
30
20
10 Car orientated environment
0 PT stop
0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800
Parking place Walking distance [m]
Figure 90 : Influence of the city structure on the acceptance of walking distances; Travel purpose:
work traffic, free choice of transport mode; (Source: Peperna O, 1982)
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The acceptance of this distance demands attractivity of the circumstances. For example looking at
a walking distance of 300 m, an attractive environment could increase the acceptability to walk to
the destination from 30 percent to 70 percent. (see figure 89)
The willingness to go by foot up to 800 m for regular trips (to work, shopping etc) is reduced to a
high extent. Even in attractive environment the willingness falls under 10 % (and under 50 % for
400 m). The acceptance of walking distances, is a problem of exhaustion of body energy and by that
of diminishing marginal utility. Also issues such as safety in public space, permeability of area or
exposure to the harmful pollutants have are taken into account in the modal choice. On the other
hand in case of a station 300m far away an attractive environment might increase acceptance to
more than twice.
The Czech State Standard 73 6425-1 states for example that the stops for public transport services
providing local transport service should be placed in a way, that the walking distance from the
origin/destination point should not exceed more than 500m. In justified cases the distances can be
adequately adjusted according to local conditions. Above mentioned 500m limit is quite a border
limit – with walking speed 5km/h it represents 6 min of walking time. In general, rather 400 m would
be better – psychological limit 5 min walking time. This limit is in the line with generally
recommended density of PT stops on fast trams/light rail (700-800m) This applies for walking to PT
stop; the distance should be improved with extra measures such as operation of local feeder busses,
bike+ride etc.
Bicycling
Even though bicycle itself is often sufficient for a complete travel, it is more likely to be an access
travel mode to major line-haul mode these days. In general, the average bicyclist can move 3 times
faster than the average pedestrian (Lee et al., 2014).
The number of people riding bicycles has been increased, in particular, trip-chaining pattern of
integrating bicycle and public transportation has also grown, especially in Europe, Japan, and Korea.
Both in Denmark and Sweden the use of bicycle and public transportation are 25 % and 9 % of the
total trips respectively. Lee et al. (2014) suggests the concept of bicycle-based TOD (B-TOD). The
suggested B-TOD is based on a combination of Bicycling and PT, a new concept to enlarge scope of
the station area with a bicycle friendly environment, while adopting the traditional TOD concept
within walking range.
In the case of cycling, however, it should be mentioned that it is not very suitable for areas that are
complicated by orography. The physical effort associated with the hill climbing negatively affects
the willingness to choose this mode.
Figure 91 : - Spatial Context and Configuration of B-TOD (Lee et al., 2014)

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Half-Mile Circles (2010) also posted how bicycling can exponentially improve accessibility to transit
and the viability of any development oriented to it. They imply that being allowed to bring a bicycle
onboard the bus or train is vitally important as it provides additional mobility choices and thereby
the overall TOD with bicycle could be more practically implemented.
Thus far, there are actually not good TOD examples based on bicycling. However it is quite apparent
that bicycling plays an important role in connecting people to transit system. Ma et al. (2014)
examined impacts of bicycle share program on rail transit ridership targeting on Washington, D.C..
Capital Bikeshare station ridership was found significantly associated with Metrorail ridership.
4.2.6.3. BRT and TOD
Cervero and Dai (2014) noted that well-designed TOD serves as a hub for organizing community
development and revitalizing long-distressed urban districts. Also BRT seems particularly suited to
the low-to-moderate density, residentially oriented market niche of TOD. Accoring to the report of
EMBAQ, BRT influnces on increasing of physical activity spacing of BRT stations tend to require
longer walking distances than all other motorized modes and its higher operation speeds increases
passengers’willingness to walk to stations. Therefore, there are probably positive effects of BRT on
TOD and some successful cases which consider the service of BRT to implemet TOD are introduced.
Although there are many BRT based cities like Curitiba, Brisbane, and etc, most typical city which
TOD has been explored with extensive BRT systems are Curitiba and Bogotá.
4.2.7. Benefits of TOD - What makes TOD successful
TOD makes it easier for those who live or work in the area around the transit station to get around
the region providing a range of benefits including increased transit ridership, reduced regional
congestion and pollution, and healthier, more walkable neighborhoods. It also benefits drivers
because it removes trips from the road network. EPA (2013) reported that the mix of commercial
and residential uses, enhanced pedestrian realm and streetscapes, and reduced traffic congestion
improve quality of life in transit-oriented neighborhoods, as well as vitalize the center of city.
In general, by creating "activity nodes" linked by transit, TOD provides important mobility options
for the young, the elderly, people who prefer not to drive, and those who don't own cars. TOD can
increase transit ridership and by that TOD could improve the efficiency and effectiveness of transit
service investments. It is known that TOD increases transit use of transit near stations by 20 to 40
percent and can reduce rates of vehicle miles traveled (VMT). In addition, considering that the
housing and transportation costs are ranked as the first and second largest expenses in households,
TOD can bolster households' disposable income. TOD reduces air pollution and energy consumption
rates by 2.5 to 3.7 tons per year for each household. Other than those, TOD can help conserve
resource lands and open space, can play a role in economic development, can decrease
infrastructure costs, and can contribute to more affordable housing. Summing up, as identified, the
benefits range from individual, community, and to regional level, respectively.
Americans believe transit oriented development provides an array of benefits;
Source: America THINKS Survey (1) side8;

• Reduced dependence on driving (57%)
• Allow residents to live, work and play in the same area (46%)
• Reduce the areas carbon footprint ore negative impact on the environment (44%)
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• Provide access to better life services (43%)

• Stimulate the local economy (43%)
• Provide better access between Urban and suburban areas (42%)
• Provide better access to entertainment or recreational services (39%)
• Provide access to better jobs (37%)
• Revitalise urban areas (30%)
Benefits of TOD
• Higher quality of life with better places to live, work and play
• Greater mobility with ease of moving around
• Increase transit ridership
• Reduced traffic congestion, car accidents and injuries
• Reduced households spending on transportation, resulting in more affordable housing
• Healthier lifestyle with more walking, and less stress
• Higher, more stable property values
• Increased foot traffic and customers for area businesses
• Greatly reduced dependence on foreign oil, reduced pollution and environmental
damage
• Reduced incentive to sprawl, increases incentive for compact development
• Less expensive than build roads and sprawl
• Enhanced ability to maintain economic competitiveness
4.2.8. Linkage between Land Use and Transportation
In talking about TOD, the land-use and transportation is not far away from it and TOD also falls in
the realm of the interaction between the two with the medium of accessibility. Wegener and Furst
(1999) provided the ‘Land Use Transport Feedback Cycle’ to explain the accessibility – land use –
activities – transport system relationship. This feedback cycle indicates that a key problem in the
transport planning logic and idea of integrated transport often fails to consider land use impacts
with ignoring the wider impacts of transport in the urban environment (Mepham, 2013). As shown,
the accessibility and activities lies between the bounday line of the land use and transportation and
two factors plays an important role in achieving good example of TOD.
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Figure 92 : - Land Use Transport Feedback Cycle (Wegener and Furst, 1999)
4.2.9. Case studies on the regional TODs along railways
4.2.9.1. Korea Train eXpress
As for the regional scale TOD based on railways, Korean KTX corridor could offer good examples for
TOD implementation. More specifically, the Korea’s Cheonan station can be envisioned as a good
example. The major cities along the (High Speed Rail in Korea) line usually show the changes of land
price with an increase of housing investment. The development around the Cheonan station is an
example of high speed rail based TOD in this regard and the mixed use of development around
station is still going on. According to the report by KB Kookmin Bank, the housing prices increased
by an average of 4% throughout the city of Cheonan over the last year. Moreover, a development
project of large industrial complexes connected with the station is in progress.
4.2.9.2. Tsukuba Express
The Tsukuba Express Project refers to the construction of a new railway line, Tsukuba Express (TX),
between Tokyo and Tsukuba Science City that is located about 50 km from Tokyo, and the
integrated urban development of the areas along the railway line. The Project characterizes the
development of public transport systems and housing areas along the line under the special law for
coordinated development of residential areas and railways metropolitan areas (so-called
“Coordinated Development Law”) to facilitate it. The Law compels relevant municipalities, land
readjustment business operators along the railway line, and relevant railway business operators to
establish a council to organize necessary discussions for the railway development and urban
development.
The TX Project realized smooth development of a railway system and brought a major change to
the share of public transport systems including existing railways and highway buses. Recently, “bus
and train rides” to combine the use of TX and highway bus services have been implemented at a TX
station, forming a multimodal transport network for the area.
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Figure 93 : -Kashiwa-no-ha-Campus Station

4.2.10. TOD Actors and their Goals
Transit oriented development is a major solution to the serious and growing problems of climate
change and global energy security by creating dense, walkable communities that greatly reduce the
need for driving and energy consumption. This type of living arrangement can reduce driving by up
to 85 %.
Many cities and local governments have considered sustainable development and urban
sustainability against the growing consumption of fossil fuels in the transport sector. Here, TOD is
the fast growing trend being considered as the way to realize new urbanism throughout the world.
To make a city sustainable, people’s travel demands must be fulfilled with smaller energy
consumption and lower CO2 emissions. Therefore, TOD can be a one of solution to the serious and
growing problems of peak oil and climate change including global warming by walkable
communities connected to public transportation system that greatly reduce the need for driving
and the consumption of fossil fuels (Zhang, 2006; Kang, 2012).
A number of possible goals associated with each of the actors involved in TOD projects are shown
in Table 2. Many of these goals-such as maintaining a high level of station parking and maximizing
pedestrian access to the station-conflict with each other. Even a single actor may have goals that
are incompatible, or at the very least, that require careful balancing if they are to be reconciled.
Many of the incompatibilities reflect the basic tension between place and node.
The results of a national survey suggest that the principal aim of TOD and joint development is to
boost ridership and, thereby, boost revenue income. Community economic development and
broader smart-growth agendas are secondary objectives.
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Table 9: TOD Actors and their goals
Actor Possible Goals

• Reaching monetary equilibrium (revenues + subsidies X public
transport costs)
Transit Agency
• Maximize ridership.
• Capture value in the long term
• Create/maintain high level of parking
• Improve transit service and station access

Riders
• Increase mobility choices
• Develop convenient mix of uses near station
• Maintain/increase property values
• Minimize traffic impact

Local Communities
• Increase mobility choices and access to transit, services and jobs
• Enhance 121eighbourhood livability
• Foster redevelopment
• Maximize tax revenues
Local Government • Foster economic vitality
• Redevelop underutilized land
• Minimize the subsidies to PT system
Federal Government
• Protect “public interest” and set limits on federally-funded investments
• Maximize return on investment

Developer/Lender
• Minimize risk, complexity
• Ensure value in long term
4.2.11. Case studies on the TOD Strategic plan

4.2.11.1. US / Denver
The Transit Oriented Development (TOD) Strategic plan 2014; is intended to guide the critical City-
led actions needed for successful TOD in Denver. Since the 2006 TOD Strategic Plan, multiple
stations have been planned and needed infrastructure improvements have been identified.
Multiple city departments and agencies have policies, goals, and strategies that broadly and
specifically address TOD. This strategic plan does not revise station area plans or alter long-standing
TOD policies; rather, it focuses these multiple efforts into a concise work program for the City.
Strategic Planning is an important step to successful TOD implementation for several reasons:
• Station area plans have identified needed, but unfunded, investments
• Barriers to TOD implementation exist at multiple stations
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• Stations are at varying levels of market and development readiness for TOD ?
The City has limited resources to implement TOD
Some station areas best suited for near-term TOD may require focused financing strategies for
needed investments. Denver’s TOD Strategic Plan provides a foundation to guide public and private
investment at rail stations. Residents, business owners, builders, and public employees can use this
strategic framework to eliminate or reduce barriers to TOD, create realistic financing plans, and
direct growth and investment to rail stations with the best opportunity for development in the next
5 to 6 years.
The TOD Strategic Plan contains both city-wide, high-level policy recommendations and on the
ground, station-level action items with the intent to foster implementation of TOD at rail stations
and support the development of transit communities in Denver. As a strategic plan, this document
is intended to facilitate the implementation of existing recommendations and projects identified in
adopted city plans, including Comprehensive Plan 2000, Blueprint Denver, neighborhood plans, and
station area plans.
Measures
• Priority for the transport association
• Optimization & expansion of public transport
• Integration & networking in the transport association
• Pedestrians and cyclists– Strong partners in the transport association
• New instruments of the mobility management
• Consistent acceleration of public transport, above all with trams/underground and buses
• Design and vicinity of stops and major changing points should be rendered more
attractive. Intervals and waiting conditions are among the decisive factors for
satisfaction with public transport.
• Favourable combination possibilities between public transport, cycling and walking
facilitate independence from motorised individual traffic.
Analysis of shortcomings
The above positive trends meet with a number of challenges
• Mobility in the growing city
• Modal Split in Commuter Transport
• Multimodality
• Attaining environmental and climatic protection targets
• Street configuration
• Regaining public space on streets
4.2.11.2. Czech Republic
The system of spatial planning in the CZ is regulated by Building Act and the general priorities are
also presented in the Spatial Development Policy of the Czech Republic. In the §24 it is declared
that priority is Create conditions for better accessibility of an area by extending and improving
transport infrastructure, taking into account the needs of public transport, particularly within
development areas and development axes. Potential new constructions shall be directly linked with
sufficient public transport infrastructure. Create conditions for higher safety and smoothness of
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transport, improvement of protection against noise and emissions and, with respect to this, create
area conditions for environment friendly forms of transport (e.g. railway, bicycle lines).
In CZ in general the time of housing projects in sprawl locations is over – this was quite in common
in 1990s and the first half of 2000s. Nowadays, the projects with housing in “central location” (i.e.
within cities) are in significantly higher demand. This is true for housing projects and partially also
for retail shopping while industrial zones are still built in sprawl locations.
This priority is completely in the line with the TOD principles, but the extent to which it is
implemented in the Land-Use planning dokuments (for regions, for cities) is within the competence
of the regional/local authorities and planners. All spatial planning documents have to be in line with
Spatial Development Policy. The local spatial plans must be in the line with respective principles of
territorial development (Spatial plan for each of 13 regions).
There are regional planning Laws, City development plans but there are no specific
methodologies/guidelines dealing with TOD in CZ. However the principles of TOD were quite
respected since 1960 for example the stops of PT line (Underground in Prague, fast tram in other
cities) always became the center of local area with shops and sevices and the panel housing blocks
were scattered around.
Are higher mortgages and rents necessary to live in a TOD area? It is not easy to say. Possible
analysis could theoretically be done using pricing maps prepared by the Association of Real estate
Agencies of the Czech Republic.
The Czech State Standard 73 6425-1 states that the stops for public transport services providing
local transport service should be placed in a way, that the walking distance from the
origin/destination point should not exceed more than 500m. In justified cases the distances can be
adequately adjusted according to local conditions
Above mentioned 500m limit is quite a border limit – with walking speed 5km/h it represents 6 min
of walking time. In general, rather 400 m would be better – psychological limit 5 min walking time.
This limit is in the line with generally recommended density of PT stops on fast trams/light rail (700-
800m) This applies for walking to PT stop; the distance should be improved with extra measures
suh as operation of local feeder busses, bike+ride etc.
4.2.11.3. Japan
Land Use Control System for Achieving Compact Cities Linked by Transit Network
In order for senior citizens and other residents to enjoy services necessary for their daily life in their
vicinity through a compact city where medical care, welfare, child raising support, commercial
services, and other urban functions are integrated into the city center and/or local hubs in
residential areas, it is necessary to comprehensively consider maintaining and expanding public
transportation services in ways that include securing access to and between local hubs. On the
other hand, in building sustainable local public transportation networks, it is also important to
comprehensively consider ways of encouraging the concentration of urban functions in local hubs
and residence along public transportation systems.
Legal and planning systems for these purposes include “site optimization plans” for attracting city
functions and residences, and “local public transport network plan” for developing public
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transportation networks. Both plans will be sufficiently coordinated to ensure that initiatives for
setting up residence-attracting areas and urban functionality-attracting areas and initiatives for
constructing sustainable local public transport networks can be established in harmony with each
other.
(1) Site Optimization Plan
Municipalities will prepare a “site optimization plan” that describes how they will promote a plan
to build a compact city. Specifically, the plan will designate “residence-attracting areas” as areas
where people’s residence will be encouraged to maintain a certain population density, and “urban
functionality-attracting areas” as areas into which the placement of service facilities will be
promoted.
a. Measures for residential attraction
In the residence-attracting areas, a variety of support measures will be taken to promote people’s
area of residence. For example, the national government will provide fiscal support for initiatives
to promote tree-planting projects, to create excellent landscapes within the relevant districts, and
to otherwise improve residential environments. In addition to those financial incentives, developers
will be required to file advance notifications with the competent municipality when they plan
residential development above a certain scale outside of residence-attracting areas. This will make
it possible for the municipality to urge the developer to select a development site within the areas.
b. Measures to encourage the location of daily service facilities
In the urban functionality-attracting areas, measures will be taken to provide fiscal support or
financial assistance for the development of medical, welfare, educational, cultural, commercial, or
other service facilities. Moreover, measures can be taken to relax regulations concerning floor area
ratios for certain specified purposes, for example, in order to prevent a hospital in a downtown area
from relocating to the suburbs when its existing building becomes too old to use. In addition to
those incentives, any entity that intends to develop a service facility outside of urban functionality-
attracting areas will be required to submit an advance notification with the competent municipality.
c. Measures for the enhancement of public transportation services
The enhancement of public transportation services is essential to securing access to service

facilities. To this end, urban development should be promoted with a focus on public transportation
services by establishing public transportation networks designed to maintain and expand public
transportation services in collaboration with plans to construct local public transport networks.
Financial support measures will also be taken to develop multimodal interchanges coordinated with
various transportation systems, streets for smoother urban transportation and re-shaping urban
areas, and public transportation facilities (LRT, station plazas, bus terminals, waiting spaces, etc.)
that will support access to and encourage the location of necessary services.
As described above, a site optimization plan serves as a master plan that incorporates welfare,
medical care, child raising support, commercial services, housing, public transportation and other
various elements. For this reason, it is necessary to manage the plan in association with, and in
concordance with, other various measures including those for reorganizing local public
transportation networks and revitalizing central business districts. At the same time, municipalities,
residents and private business operators must make combined efforts to develop a compact city.
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As of the end of March 2018, 407 cities throughout Japan are considering and formulating site
optimization plans, and 161 cities have announced plans as of May 1, 2018.
(2) Local Public Transport Network Plan
Local governments can develop a plan “Local Public Transport Network Plan” to promote the
revitalization and regeneration of local public transport based on the national basic policy. In the
plan, the local government initiates the planning and implementation of public transportation,
instead of depending on local transport operators.
To increase its plan’s viability, the local government states items for evaluating the plan’s level of
achievement. It also endeavours to list points to consider in establishing sustainable local public
transport networks including linking with siting optimization measures in order to secure
integration with regional strategies for urban development, tourism stimulation, and the like.
Figure 94 : Plan and system for network based compact city
4.2.11.4. Vienna
Urban Development Plans Vienna (STEP)
Vienna so far has elaborated Urban Development Plans – about every ten years (1994, 2005, 2014)
including other strategy plans;
• A Strategy for Local and Regional Public Transport in Lower Austria
• Energy-efficient new mobility in Vienna
• Design of public spaces in residential areas (RVS 03.04.11)
• Municipal Energy Efficiency Program
• 2003 Transport Master Plan for Vienna/ Transport–political Targets for 2020
• Smart City Vienna Roadmap
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• Climate Protection Program of Vienna Municipality

• Sustainable Program of Vienna Public Utility
• “Vienna is Growing” (targets on EU level)
STEP 05 pursues the following goals (in extracts):
In a competition of cities and regions, to offer attractive locations, infrastructure and innovative
facilities and to create a climate that fosters investment activity (headquarters, trade, commerce,
small and mediumsized enterprises, services, technology clusters) and to preserve an adequate,
local supply of shops and businesses.
To concentrate settlement development along high-capacity public transport means, to prudently

use the resource of land, to encourage the vertical mix of uses, and to prevent functional and social
segregation.
To increase the share of environmentally-friendly transport (bicycle, footpaths, public transport) in

total transport; to reduce the share of individual motorized traffic; to generally reduce the
generation of traffic.
The central concerns of STEP 05 are derived from this target function:
“Energy-efficient new mobility in Vienna“
Targets set by Wiener Stadtwerke (Vienna Lines)– Guidelines “New mobility for Vienna“
Step 2025 – Thematic Concept Urban Mobility plan Vienna; Energy Report of the City of Vienna;
https://www.wien.gv.at/stadtentwicklung/studien/pdf/b008443.pdf
Primarily Needs:
• More Space for pedestrians and cyclists
• Expanding public transport
• Sharing instead of owning
• Multimodal transport from door to door
• Active and safe mobility for the youngest
• Mobility partnerships in the region
• Organising commercial transport efficiently
Energy Ahead! Energy Report of the City of Vienna; https://www.wien.gv.at/stadtentwicklung/

energie/pdf/energiebericht2016-en.pdf
Faced with this challenge Wiener Stadtwerke have pooled their competences in this field in the so-
called mobility cluster and laid down new guidelines - “New mobility for Vienna“ – 2011.
A Strategy for Local and Regional Public Transport in Lower Austria

Lower Austrian Provincial Government, SectIon Regional planning, Environment and Transport
Dept. General transport matters, Lower Austria and the Austrian Federal Railways (2012)
Principles
• Mobility and accessibility for all
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• Providing high quality mobility for a necessary change of place (work, training, leisure)
represents an important aspect when developing locations. No group of people must be
excluded or disadvantaged.
• Increased efficiency is accompanied by an improved eco-balance sheet.
• Improved capacity utilization of the network and the means of transport target higher
efficiency of above all publicly financed transport infrastructures.
• Securing and improving the business location Lower Austria while at the same time
safeguarding the quality of living.
• Both in global location competitions and in the regional context for the citizen high
quality mobility becomes a most essential location criterion.
Traffic relations between the city and its surroundings - Lower Austria/Vienna, trengthening main
transport routes
Everyday routes from the vicinity into Vienna; * The share of users having spent the night (12 p.m.
to 6 a.m.) in a community near Vienna and having stayed in Vienna during the day at least for a
short time) Based on the evaluation of movements of users of A1 mobile network in Austria (2012)
Figure 95 Visualization of commuting relations between Vienna and its surroundings

Western, northern and southern axes
The commuter relations in Lower Austria as illustrated visualize the dominating importance of the
western and southern axes and the traffic connections between the federal capital and its
surroundings.
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Vienna is connected to the surrounding area as never before
Figure 96 and 97 Modal Splits; Railway/ Bus (left) and PT/ MIT (right)
Nearly 500,000 persons cross the city border on a working day to enter Vienna, of which approx.
110,000 with public transport. The importance of public transport reaches its peak with working
commuters’ traffic and/or the time segment between 6.00 a.m. and 9.00 a.m.: about 32 percent of
distances covered are attributable to public transport.
Density built- up Areas along Stations of the light-Rail
In fact these measures are TOD although not named by that.
Figure 98 Density built- up Areas along Stations of the light-Rail

Pursues the following goals:
• offer attractive locations, infrastructure and innovative facilities
• To concentrate settlement development along high-capacity public transport means
• To increase the share of environmentally-friendly transport (bicycle, footpaths, public
transport) in total transport.
There are always different organisations with different targets working together with different but
coordinated Programs. Especially Vienna is working together with the surrounding federal state of
Lower Austria. For example, the effectiveness of Density build- up Areas along Stations of the light-
Rail is supported by more than 30.000 Park&Ride Parking spaces at the stations in Lower Austria.
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Strengthening of regions
Figure 99 the Strengthening of regions

Strategy: Areal Services
• Scheduled services
• Buses from central places at peak hours, tailored to commuter relations and main
activities (work, school)
• Public Transport based on demand
• Call bus
• Collective call taxi
• Handling of transport requests via uniform countrywide disposition centers with cost
born by Lower Austrian Services offered to Lower Austrian communities
• Communal bus
As early as in spring 2012 a new transport service contract was concluded between Lower Austria
and the Austrian Federal Railways, securing the financial and legal bases for a constructive further
development and improvement of railway services.
Further development of main transport routes focuses on permanent modernization and quality
improvement e.g. new transport service contract between Lower Austria and the Austrian Federal
Railways (2012)
A Strategy for Local and Regional Public Transport in Lower Austria Lower Austrian Provincial
Government, Section Regional planning, Environment and Transport Dept. General transport
matters
Another reason of urban sprawl, the decline of land price gradient
Based on the evaluation of movements of users of A1 mobile network in Austria (2012)
The mechanism of commuter behaviour is mainly influenced by costs of private households which
are looking for cheaper facilities (see Alonsos Model).
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Figure 100 Land Price for properties suitable for one-family houses
Based on the evaluation of movements of users of A1 mobile network in Austria (2012), * The share
of users having spent the night (12 p.m. to 6 a.m.) in a community near Vienna and having stayed
in Vienna during the day at least for a short time)
• Because of commuting costs residential areas near the center in general are more
attractive then suburban locations (theory of balance between ground rent and distances
to the city center).
• Negative connection between ground rent and the distance to the city center
• Reduction of commuter costs respectively general growth costs lead to reduced lease of
land gradient and to expansion of the city area.
Integration degree*
36% PT
33% Bike, Walk
31% mIT
Year: 2010
Figure 101 Effect is the building of commuter belt around the city itself
As much as 36 % of movement today is carried out with public transport, making Vienna range
among the best in an international comparison.
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Influencing factors on mode choice based on regional statistical analysis in Austria
Modal Split of PT is raising the influences as follows

• Low and degressive PT-tariff (favors long distances – cost gap)
• Short travel times (express trains, Rapid trains, direct connections)
• Operating frequencies PT (intervals)
• Railbefor bus (railway bonus)
• Settlement density (access to public Transport)
• Parking Availability (Parking Management, P+R)
• Travel time motorized individual traffic (highways, traffic jam)
• Car availability
• Socio-economic factors
Housing development in Vienna 1981 – 1991 ((Source STEP – Stadtentwicklungsprogramm Wien)
People are building their houses outside of the cities because of cheaper prices of properties
(Principle of ALONSO) and commute back to the working places in the cities. (example Vienna)
4.2.12. TOD - Financing and Incentive Strategies
National economy
Tax Increment Financing: a mechanism that allows the public sector to “capture” growth in property
tax (or sometimes sales tax) resulting from new development and increasing property values. This
type includes for example Pennsylvania Transit Revitalization Investment Districts and some of
Chicago RTA Metra stations.
Joint Development: generally, cooperation between the public and private sectors to deliver
transit-oriented development (TOD), usually involving development on transit agency owned land.
This involves for example San Francisco Bay Area Rapid Transit (BART), Washington Metropolitan
Area Transportation Authority (WMATA), and Metropolitan Atlanta Rapid Transit Authority
(MARTA) station area developments.
In Japan, JR Toyama Port LRT line (a local line), which had been suffering from a constant decline in
the number of passengers, was revitalized as the nation's first full-fledged LRT. This was achieved
by adopting a two-tiered concept in which the public sector constructs the track while the private
sector runs the business. Toyama City pays the costs for construction and maintenance, and
Toyama Light Rail Co., Ltd., a newly established joint public-private venture, operates with its fare
revenues. This is a high quality public transport, and different from conventional trams, with the
maximum speed of 70 km/h, in addition to barrier-free stations, low-floor vehicles, low noise, etc.
Feeder buses are operated to LRT stations as well, and schedules are adjusted to make the
connections as fast as possible.
Toyama City has to address the issues including "excessive dependency on cars", "deteriorating city
center", and "relatively high administration costs for urban management" which have been caused
by lower density in urban area, and so on. For those reasons, Toyama City developed the future
vision of sustainable city with three directions. 1) Revitalizing public transport, 2) Encouraging
citizens to relocate to areas along public transport lines, 3) Revitalizing the city center.
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Toyama City Government has a good reason to finance its LRT using its tax revenue. Saving on the
future expenditures for new developments and expected property and income tax revenues from
redeveloped downtown areas can justify the financing of its LRT.
In the case of Tsukuba Express, the Integrated Land Readjustment Project was established to
facilitate the acquisition of railway lands, along with the implementation of the Coordinated
Development Law. This special measure enabled municipalities responsible for urban development
to implement the following provisions:
• qualify the land for railway development as a railway facility area in a project plan;
• preempt adequate land around the railway facility area within the planned area, even in
cases;
• enable conversion and consolidation of preempted lands into a railway facility area after
authorization of the project plan based on the Coordinated Development Law.
As a result, the Integrated Land Readjustment Project enabled the integrated promotion of housing
land development and railway development.
This land readjustment system was based on the practice of a comprehensive development of
railway lines and suburban housing carried out by private railway companies throughout the 20th
Century in Japan.
Private Household Costs
Americans overwhelmingly favor changes in land use and zoning regulations that encourage transit
oriented development.
HNTB America THINKS survey also shows Americans willing to pay higher mortgages and rents to
live in transit-oriented areas. New York (May 24,2016) – Nearly 73 percent of the Americans would
support changes in land use or zoning regulations in their community that encourage transit
oriented development, according to a new America THINKS national public opinion survey by HNTB
Corporation. The survey, “Transit Oriented Development in America”, found that more than half
(55 percent) of Americans so value the ability to get to work and play without using a vehicle that
they are willing to pay more for their mortgage or rent in ordert to have this opinion. This is
especially true among millennials who are much more willing to pay more each month than older
Americans (70 percent versus 49 percent).
4.2.13. Priority Transit Station Area Plans - Components - Design and planning Infrastructure
Design of public spaces in residential areas (Guideline RVS 03.04.11)
In Austria – just like in some other countries - there is a common understanding about that there is
a strong necessity to build an attractive environment for active modes (walking and cycling).
Targets and principles
The Austrian Guideline (RVS) 03.04.11; of the Austrian Association for Research on Road-Rail-
Transport (FSV), A Directive on “Design of public spaces in residential areas“ for example entered
into force in 2012, in order to meet the requirement of obtaining a higher quality of living in
residential areas and also to prevent the exodus from the cities and the commuter traffic to the
urban environment connected therewith.
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In accordance with this Directive the planning of urban traffic systems must be oriented to the
needs of all users (MIT, PT, cyclists, pedestrians). Streets represent living areas and recreation
rooms above all, also for abutting owners of a street. Only the all inclusive consideration of a street
will permit to promote individual types of traffic according to a predefined validity. Preference
should be given to pedestrians, cyclists and local public passenger transport.
The urbanistic environment must be included into street design. The “urbanistic area” is an
experience space and a building-related and plant-oriented free space. The utilization, density and
design of adjoining premises and free spaces show the demand for an improved quality of personal
recreation (e.g. playing children).
An essential design element to be taken into consideration is the “3rd Dimension” (superstructures,
spatial impact, depth effect), from network conception to design of details. (see Figure 102)
Figure 102 From layout to upright projection and perspective

Initiating and steering desired developments of public areas should be considered to be open and
long-term processes. A sustainably successful implementation of projects needs co-operative
planning procedures and further supervision by a co-operative area management.
The following principles must be adhered to reach the selective targets:

• Non motorised road users should be given priority in the design of traffic installations.
• Network elements with important connecting functions should be bundled.
• A barrier effect of traffic areas should be avoided.
• Historic connections and care and maintenance of the landscape and appearance of a
village must be taken into account.
• The free space function and the quality of experiencing the street space should be
improved.
• The utilization of premises must be borne in mind.
• The functional gradations in transport networks must be tailored to urban construction
conditions.
• In predominantly residential areas non-resident transport is to be prevented.
• Motorised traffic should adhere to adjusted speed.
• All those concerned should participate in design planning.
• Weaker citizens must be duly protected.
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5. CONCLUSIONS
For many years, authorities and organizations across the world have tried to solve the problem of
mobility in large urban areas. Most answers were based on solutions to meet the demand, and a
few others were based on solutions to reduce the demand. Unfortunately, the same approaches
have produced very different results: sometimes very interesting but sometimes ineffective, and
last but not least it appears also that if some very good practices have been observed for small cities
or city centers, there is no example of a successful policy for large cities.
Moreover, transportation policies in urban areas are facing increasing challenges: health impacts
of air pollution, lack of public space and congestion, climate change, lack of public funds, as well as
new challenges (new vehicles, services, expectations of customers, …) and with the digital
innovations and the emergence of disruptive technologies, the rate of change is increasing.
Expansion of sprawled urban area, many cities are facing significant increase in the commuting
areas, and therefore an increase of traffic demand in the transportation networks including roads.
Severe territorial and social disruptions between cities and their hinterland are caused as well.
Therefore, the question regarding sustainable mobility solutions for urban areas – unsolved up to
now – must now be extended from city itself to the commuting area and take into consideration
the long-distance commuter needs.
It is therefore not possible today to provide a universal response that fits in all contexts. It can only
be presented a series of good practices and highlight the essential conditions for success.
To cope with the terms of reference, our committee decided to follow the recommendations
suggested by road administrations and external organizations in 2014 and insists that any major
mobility project should follow this approach:
• focus primarily on people needs
• focus on integrated approaches (land and transport, public and private transport, …)
• focus on multimodal solutions
• focus to work in network (2 international seminars and 2 international workshops)
• take into account a large number of stakeholders
The report produced during the 2016-2019 cycle provides a series of good practices or
recommendations that follow the following structure:
• Take into account the suitable size and scope of area for studies on mobility needs and
transportation services (Chapter 1.2 "What do we mean by "urban region?”) and
understand the complexity of the relationship between spatial planning, demand,
transport policies, ... (Chapter 1.3 “Complexity of urban transportation”)
• Focus on mobility needs of users (Chapter 2.2 “What are the daily needs of the
inhabitants?”), control the impacts of long-distance trips on the organization of the
transport system (Chapter 2.3 “Consequences of transport demand on transportation
strategies and policies”) and examine a multimodal approach that considers service level
of multiple transport modes (Chapter 2.4 “Road MultiModal Level of Services”)
• Present diverse and varied mobility solutions based on the collective systems to be
performed (Chapter 3.2 “Bus priority and BRT manual”), on a new use of traffic lanes
(Chapter 3.3 “ HOV, HOT, Managed Lanes”), on the strategic role of connection points
135
(Chapter 3.4 “Multimodal Transit Centers”) and on the impacts that the breakthrough of
new shared services could have (Chapter 3.5 “New shared mobility”)
• Take into consideration all the reciprocal effects between transport and urbanization of
the territory in order to achieve the best symbiosis (Chapter 4.2 “Transit Oriented
Development”)
At the end of this four-year cycle, the committee wishes to share some questions but also one
certainty.
The questions concern the future of mobility. We have seen in this short introduction that our
societies have moved in less than a century from a traditional model with two types of living
environment (cities and village communities) practically independent in terms of daily mobility, to
a model of peri-urbanization where hundreds or even thousands of village communities located
more than a hundred kilometers from a city live in close relationship with it, a relationship that
translates into daily exchanges for access to living opportunities such as employment, education,
health care or leisure. The question that arises today is whether this model of spatial occupation,
consisting of a mosaic of geographically separated territories closely linked by daily exchanges, will
continue to expand, stabilize or multiply?
The emergence of disruptive technology and shared economy ask us how do they change people’s
mobility in urban areas. Since digital technology already allows remote working, will we see a
further dispersion of living and working places with less physical presence in the workplace? It will
also bring essential services (education, health care, etc.) closer to living spaces: it should therefore
lead to a reduction in mobility needs. It is possible, that autonomous vehicle may reduce transport
costs, driver time lost and travel discomfort while improving safety. The result should therefore be
a rebound effect consisting in transforming these innovations (as has happened with each
innovation in the field of transport) into new desires to travel further (or more often) to access new
opportunities. Shared use mobility may offer new opportunities but to what extent and finally how
should we take into account the challenges of climate change and the scarcity of natural resources?
To do so, it is certain that we need to continuously share observations on good and bad practices
at the international level, and the diversified views and objective performance measures on these
practices. Eventually we need to focus on gathering not only an anecdotal case but also building
accumulative database, and use it to build a diagnostic framework on city’s mobility and
accessibility. It would help us analyze and examine cities’ socio-economic situation, urban land-use
and transportation systems with peoples’ travel behavior and make comparison between cities on
the level of mobility and accessibility. This type of knowledge sharing enable us to broadly think
about mobility and accessibility issues with new diagnostic approaches, particularly suggested by
the social sciences.
May these contributions help the road authorities and roads projects designers to provide a
sustainable response to the needs of the inhabitants of metropolitan and urban areas.
136
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140
APPENDICES
6.1. APPENDIX 1 : MULTIMODAL LEVEL OF SERVICE FRAMEWORKS
6.1.1. Highway Capacity Manual (HCM)
The HCM 2010 is a widely-used reference manual in the United States. Five editions of the HCM
have been published, with LOS procedures evolving through each edition. The HCM 2010 provides
LOS measures, standards and estimation procedures for automobiles, transit, pedestrians and
cyclists. The U.S Department of Transportation (2017) outlines that the HCM 2010 ‘was the first
edition to fully integrate tools for multimodal analysis, which was a step in addressing the weakness
of the traditional auto-centric definition of LOS.’
According to Cascade Bicycle Club (2011), ‘up until the HCM 2010, pedestrian and bicycle LOS
measures generally reflected a traffic engineer’s perspective – focusing on delay, speed and
demand to capacity. Under these methodologies, a sidewalk with no pedestrians using it would
likely receive a pedestrian LOS of “A”… whereas a sidewalk with high pedestrian volumes would
receive a pedestrian LOS score of “E” or “F”.’
The most recent edition of the HCM focuses on the traveller perspective and mode-specific
measures to facilitate multimodal comparisons of urban streets. This calculation results in a LOS
score (“A” through to “F”) for each mode, but it does not provide the ability for an overall score
that incorporates the various LOS values for each mode. In fact, the Department of Transportation
(2017) believes that ‘the HCM specifically recommends against aggregating metrics for different
modes because this approach would overlook quality of service deficiencies’ experienced by
alternative modes of transport, most noticeably pedestrians and cyclists.’
As outlined in the HCM (2010), ‘each mode's travellers have different perspectives and potentially
experience very different conditions while travelling along a particular roadway. Using a blended
LOS risks overlooking quality of service deficiencies for non automobile travellers that discourage
the use of those modes.’ An overview of the road user needs and LOS measures is provided in Table
below.
Table : Overview of the HCM 2010 LOS framework - source: Austroads (2015)
Road user needs

Mode
Mobility Safety Access
Travel speed
Car - -
Congestion
Transit Travel speed Walking environment Headway
Mid-block density Vehicular volume and speed

Pedestrian Roadway crossing difficulty
Crossing impedance Separation from traffic
Cyclist Crossing impedance Separation -

141
The LOS criteria for the various modes differ for automobiles and non automobile modes. For
example the automobile mode criteria are based on performance measures such as travel speed,
whereas for non automobile modes they are based on scores reported by travellers (HCM 2010).
See Figures below for further information.
Figure : LOS thresholds for automobiles - source: HCM (2010)
Figure : LOS thresholds for pedestrians - source: HCM (2010)
The HCM 2010 framework is a quantitative framework but it also integrates qualitative factors that
are more appropriate to determining the LOS of other modes. Austroads (2015) indicates that
‘other LOS frameworks are more qualitative or descriptive frameworks, although quantifiers are
sometimes used. Austroads (2015) also states that ‘there are merits to using a quantitative
framework such as the HCM (2010) framework, but practitioners tend to favour either a qualitative
or semi-qualitative approach’.
6.1.2. Florida’s Quality/Level of Service Handbook
The Florida Q/LOS Handbook provides LOS measures, thresholds, and estimation methodologies
for auto, transit, bicycle, and pedestrian modes (NCHRP 2008). The 2013 edition builds on the
analytical techniques from HCM 2010 to assist in evaluating roadways from a multimodal
perspective. ‘The goal of FDOT’s handbook is to provide a complete planning application for the
existing operational models’, states Cascade Bicycle Club (2011).
According to Cascade Bicycle Club (2011), Florida’s Quality/Level of Service Handbook ‘has been
recognized as a leading application guide, connecting the nation’s leading automobile, bicycle,
pedestrian, and transit quality/level of service evaluation techniques.’
Within the Quality/Level of Service Handbook, there are tools that are able to quantify MMLOS
within the road reserve, for example ARTPLAN is a multimodal and conceptual planning software
142
for roadways. Figure 1 provides an overview of how the modes and their levels of service are linked
using this tool.
Figure 3: Multimodal flow chart - source: FDOT (2013)

As shown in the figure, there are major inputs in particular modes that can have an adverse impact
on other modes e.g. operating speed of vehicles is also an important determinant for cyclists and
pedestrians (FDOT 2013). The LOS for the various modes is calculated using a combination of the
HCM 2010 and TCQSM criteria.
This software ‘does not combine the LOS for each of the modes into one overall LOS for the facility
because there is no professionally acceptable or scientifically valid technique for combining the
LOS’, according to FDOT (2013). Guttenplan et al (2003) also believes that ‘a single grade could mask
the effects of the less used modes, negating the effort of a multimodal analysis.’
6.1.3. SmartRoads
The SmartRoads approach is different to that utilised in the HCM 2010 and Florida’s Quality/Level of
Service Handbook where the letter grading relates to a scoring from the criteria. The broad approach
to defining LOS is set out in Table below.
Table : Defining level of service - source: VicRoads (2015)
Level of Service Definition
A Best operating conditions
B Good operating conditions
C Fair operating conditions
D Poor operating conditions
E Unsatisfactory operating conditions
F Worst possible operating conditions

143
Table below further explain the LOS measurement by mode and the definitions for each mode’s
LOS.
Table : LOS measurement by mode - source: VicRoads (2015)
Mode LOS measurement
Travel speed and variability in travel speed and/or delays and variability in
Auto/Freight
delays
Travel speed and variability in travel speed (excluding board times) and/or
Transit
delays and variability in delays
Cyclists Separation and visibility
Pedestrians Crossing opportunities and wait time
Austroads (2016) outlines that ‘although currently the SmartRoads tool focuses on mobility and
does not extend to the other four measures of safety, access, information and amenity.’ Austroads
has identified the need to continually develop the tool and the Level of Service Metrics (for Network
Operations Planning) report is a document that can be used as a supplement.
6.1.4. Austroads Level of Service Metrics (for Network Operations Planning)
Austroads recently developed a LOS framework for network operations from the perspective of all
road users through research outlined in Level of Service Metrics (for Network Operations Planning).
The purpose of the framework is to enable road agencies to undertake integrated planning and
decision-making within the context of network operation planning. The users incorporated into the
LOS framework include motorists, transit users, freight, pedestrians and cyclists (Austroads 2015).
The needs of the road users are also included within the framework; these include mobility, safety,
access, information and amenity. Austroads (2015) outlines that ‘incorporating the various users
and transport needs into the LOS framework, allows road agencies to observe trade-offs in LOS
which can assist them in better balancing the competing demands for road space.’ An overview of
the road user needs and LOS measures by mode is provided in next table.
Austroads (2015) acknowledges that further development is required including the conversion of
the LOS framework into an electronic format. Interestingly, Austroads (2015) also recommends
further work ‘to give an overall LOS score for a project that incorporates the various LOS levels
across user modes and transport needs.’ This differs to what is stated in both the HCM 2010 and
Florida’s Quality/Level of Service Handbook.
This framework is relatively new but through its use to date Austroads has found that it has been
successfully used for several purposes.
144
Table : Overview of the proposed LOS framework - source: Austroads (2015)
Road user LOS measure

Mode
needs
Mobility Congestion, travel time reliability, travel speed
Safety Crash risk
Ability to park close to destination; ability to access roadside land

Auto Access
or ability to depart an intersection
Information Traveller information available
Amenity Aesthetics, driving stress, pavement ride quality
Mobility Service schedule reliability, operating speed
Crash risk of transit vehicle, crash risk of transit users while

Safety
accessing/egressing
Transit Access Service availability, level of disability access, access to transit stops
Pedestrian environment, on-board congestion, seat availability,

Amenity
security, comfort and convenience, aesthetics, ride quality
Mobility Footpath congestion, grade, crossing delay or detour
Safety Exposure to vehicles at mid-blocks and crossings, trip hazards
Access Crossing opportunities, level of disability access

Pedestrian
Footpath pavement conditions, comfort and convenience,

Amenity
security, aesthetics
Mobility Travel speed, congestion grades
Various crash types including with other cyclists, pedestrians,

Safety
stationary hazards etc.
Cyclist Access Access to and ability to park close to destination, cycle restrictions
Aesthetics, comfort and convenience, security, pavement ride

Amenity
quality
Mobility Congestion, travel time reliability, travel speed
Safety Crash risk
Freight Access Level of freight vehicle type access
Information Traveller information
Amenity Pavement ride quality, driving stress

145
6.1.5. Reference Overview

[1] Cascetta, E., Cartenì, A., & Montanino, M. (2013). A new measure of accessibility based on
perceived opportunities. Procedia-Social and Behavioral Sciences, 87, 117-132.
[2] Holmes, A. (2017, March 31), The Countries with the Longest and Shortest Commute,
Retrieve from https://daliaresearch.com/the-countries-with-the-longest-and-shortest-
commutes/
[3] ILO (2018), 20th ICLS, Geneva, October 2018, 27
[4] Pourbaix, J., Steriu, M. & Saeidizand, P. (2015). Mobility in Cities Database, Synthesis
Report. Brussels, Belgium, International Association of Public Transport (UITP).
[5] UN DESA (2018), World Urbanization Prospects: The 2018 Revision.
Copyright by the World Road Association. All rights reserved.
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Issue Authors and reviewers

BROTO André and LUZERNE Mathieu (France)

MC CLEAN Michael (Australia)

DEBAUCHE Wanda (Belgium)

ENDO Akira (Japan)

MBAMBO Dudley (South Africa)

NAMKUNG Ok (South Korea)

FARINA Oscar (Argentina)

DEBAUCHE Wanda (Belgium)

ENDO Akira (Japan)

MILLER Harlan (USA)

MACOUN Thomas (Austria)

3-Land use and urban development DOSTAL Ivo (Czech Republic)

NISHIMURA Takumi (Japan)

Stefan EBNER (Austria) Isabelle DULAERT (Belgium)

Francois RAMBAUD (France) Felix HUBER (Germany)

Andrea SIMONE (Italy) Suichi KAMATA (Japan)

Izmi KAWAGUCHI (Japan) Ken-Ichi NAKAMURA (Japan)

Peter LOS (Slovak Republic) Lina Sofia TOMCZAK (Sweden)

Seungmo KANG (South Korea)

SUSTAINABLE MULTIMODALITY IN URBAN REGIONS

2.4. ROAD MULTIMODAL LEVEL OF SERVICE (RMMLOS) ................................... 32

4.2. TRANSIT ORIENTED DEVELOPMENT ........................................................... 106

1.1.1. Strategic Theme B: Access and Mobility

1.1.2. TC B.3 – Sustainable Multimodality in Urban Regions

1.2. WHAT DO WE MEAN BY “URBAN REGIONS”?

Figure 1 : 3D representation of the spatial distribution of population in 7 metropolis represented at

Figure 2 : average population densities in buid-up areas by Alain Bertaud

Figure 3 : Different patterns of distribution of population densities in buidt-up areas by Alain

1.2.2. Formal spatial structure

radial-centric city – the main transportation arteries are

Figure 4 (left) : Moscow (Russian Federation) – example

fan-shaped city – specific case of

rectangular (or grid) city – is composed from sectors

Figure 7 (right) : Milton Keynes in UK was founded

1.2.3. Some definitions : “Urban area and commuting area”

For further : http://ec.europa.eu/regional_policy/sources/docgener/focus/2012_01_city.pdf

1.3. COMPLEXITY OF URBAN TRANSPORTATION

Downtown revitalization could also be considered as a transportation-related challenge in a social

Technology advancement is another challenge. With a rapid progress of information and

1.3.2. Why do we deal with sustainable multimodality?

As described in the Terms of Reference of ST B, the goal of ST B is to encourage the improvement

1.3.3. Conceptual framework

Figure 8 The conceptual frame

2. MULTIMODAL URBAN TRANSPORTATION POLICIES AND

Figure 9 : Source: ILO (2018: 8)

Figure 10: Source: Holmes (2017)

Figure 11: Source: Pourbaix, Steriu & Saeidizand (2015: 2)

2.2. WHAT ARE THE DAILY NEEDS OF THE INHABITANTS?

Generally speaking we can consider three types of trips:

2.2.2. Focus on the commuting trips : the French case

Figure 13: Commuting area in Helsinki 2006

In France the 2013 census gives the following results:

2.2.2.3. The trends