_ Dynamic Force Analy 13 aa Dynamic forces are associated with accelerating masses. As all machines have some accelerating pars, dynam always present when the machines operate. In situations where dynamic forces are dominant or comparable with of external forces and operating speeds are high, dynamic analysis has to be carried out. For example, in cae of which rotate at speeds more than 80 000 rpm, even the slightest eccentricity of the centre of mass from th ais of °° produces very high dynamic forces. This may lead to vibrations, wear, noise or even machine failure. tg Foes a 13.2 | D’ALEMBERT'S PRINCIPLE D’Alembert’s principle states that the inertia forces and couples, and the external forces and torques on body together give statical equilibrium. . : Inertia is a property of matter by virtue of which a body resists any change in velocity. Inertia force F, =-m f, (Bn where m = mass of body f,, = acceleration of centre of mass of the body The negative sign indicates that the force acts in the opposite direction to that of the acceleration, The force acts through the centre of mass of the body. Similarly, an inertia couple resists any change in the angular velocity. Inertia couple, C,=-ha (132) where /, = moment of inertia about an axis passing through the centre of mass G and perpendicular to plane of rotation of the body @: = angular acceleration of the body Let EF =F,, F;, Fy, ete. = extemal forces on the body T =Tyy, Tyo, Ty etc = external torques on the body about the centre of mass G. and According to D’ Alembert’s principle, the vector sum of forces and torques (or couples) has to be 2er0, its SF+F,=0 (133) and 3T+C,=0 (34) These equations are similar to the equation of a body in static equilibrium, ie, DF =0 and [T=0. This suggests that first the magnitudes and the directions of inertia forces and couples can be determil after which they can be treated just like static loads on the mechanism. Thus, a dynamic analysis problem reduced to one requiring static analysis.Mean resisting torque Tmt eee Moone Negative loop Turning moment — > PASS re “) 2n an Si 4n le suc —sl-conenenr feng slots ——Crank ange ——> Turning moment diagram for a four stroke cycle internal combustion engine.A re Cae Cylinder a“ ‘\, 4 LIN / — Turning moment ——» 60° 120° = 180° 240° 300° 360° o < x nw Crank angle ———> Turmmg moment diagram for a multi-cylinder engine.i]. Coefficient of Fluctuation of Energy It may be defined as the ratio of the maximum fluctuation of energy to the work done per cycle. Mathematically, coefficient of fluctuation of energy, C, = Maximum fluctuation of energy Work done per cycle The work done per cycle (in N-m or joules) may be obtained by using the following two relations + 1. Work done per cycle = T,,, x 9 ‘here T ean = Mean torque, and 6 = Angle turned (in radians), in one revolution. = 2n, in case of steam engine and two stroke internal combustion engines = 4m, in case of four stroke internal combustion engines.570 e Theory of Machines The mean torque (7) in N-m may be obtained by using the following relation : mean Px60 P mean = nN = © where P = Power transmitted in watts, N = Speed in r.p.m., and @ = Angular speed in rad/s = 2 nN/60 2. The work done per cycle may also be obtained by using the following relation : P x 60 Work done per cycle = n = Number of working strokes per minute, where = N, in case of steam engines and two stroke internal combustion engines, = N/2, in case of four stroke internal combustion engines. The following table shows the values of coefficient of fluctuation of energy for steam engines and internal combustion engines.aaa 5 coefficient of Fluctuation of Speed ms i between the maxi a the difference imum and mii : : um fluctuation of speed. The ratio of the stems speeds during a cycle is called the ae 1 efficient 0 sffluctuation'of speed. im fluctuation of speed to the mean speed is dl Let N, and N, = Maximum and mini minimum speeds in r.p.m. during the cycle, and N = Mean speed in rp.m. = Ny, +N, +, Coefficient of fluctuation of speed, z C MM N= %) ; Ni N+, eke _ 20, -0,) ...(In terms of angular speeds) @ a, 12 ®, _ 12 _2(4-%) 1 - : , v, a , ..(In terms of linear spees ) The coefficient of fluctuation of speed is a limiting factor in the design of flywheel. It varies épending upon the nature of service to which the flywheel is employed. Note, The reciprocal of the coefficient of fluctuation of speed is known is coefficient of steadiness and is denoted by m. N a CMM Rim m= Pee oe a Se5 ' i + syedegy . : KP ynownically egtivalont Ss) 2 ro marker of fhe connoctMg red - Is eckan | We cu by considaune © denovmrecl ey ep MUan noe eqpureecd Fyetomr mEcmy trating ~pgad Uk replaced b @ tink win two pot may Fach a. cway Bod It has be see mushior oy + ped DR aon Gubjectsl bo some fhe Mee hu coder of mos of fhe eyvelant “HVE Sur | lawn & emg accolesaction a eee | - eee ea Fema - | 30> Flin, \ Fe=Ia | A=£xe : | -To howe oO duynomh , P sae a hove. be replace tha mass ies UN bo 2 pent "oh b onl m, d the Aiden b eq Pespachvely FON Ka” HOSS G1. Gh rondihdns $0 be sate Red oroy (i) The Sem of equivalent masses md my bas Pe i equcth SOM kW howe MM Some utwhorahoy pa Pet Mem +I,(iA Resonquiay~ cemmetre RVI ene SNoxstc, romadh ha. Zona SM thus e€ has 4 ba Me sama ohan meams the perpordeuoy d&turee of £ Bom. G remcun the Sowre Or aha combined equualeant sycfenr remains LAG ley Mm XB = Mrasd (iii) TRO paarnovrt of merthey of The dwo pant Mascer alent the POpnoletor axis 10 Shar combines’ contre moss ie ey to that of The rod fe T= m,p*mad™f i X Eich hb Kraw salu? protherry >» } ore ae 2) ute & 3) Was Jon -qu 4) ys We an S) fy = ag on 4 6) Zam, (OH weal 1 obeyed) 7) Demujmy Bisby oe Daenping Reus == ee 6) Logavithme dood’ Te > 2 = 206 (eRe feo ae 4 DLogetr Mone oweremart ( 8) Be dsfnod of tho outward Jegreufien AP cirapAtula veoturchys far «tho ARF . ~ ne of two sua? cor pheducles cn tr soma S10 of 100 poHidOn, ete ms fee Nee pete’ *] Oipleot—> esd z JL S= Un (ARF) =n C192) sn pear Aexere S=@ We = a KIN =| 27a a \w,-a*-Whon fhe nahocl freqpn of tho sytem “ro Anica with the’ extema/ fequoncy rs called Rucnance, tre gpaed which resonomes occuds 3s called caateal sped, in hos SR2EAS (he ampAltuoes “ihakin of refers B ekawirely Jonge Ard saree ommomt ot - orm Ay aranimifed Jo the Suadedion honda: BIS very import we find Cho nabural frequmcy of Shah sto! aro Pho accuraneWL a oe speek whith moy Repu 4S CEBAAA PMI cong jU2. Te Crittreat seeack rag F Secu UL exantR ing OM rater (NO= autos beri, free cee cbercling of Shor Ft. 4 fete sg ee aes yet Fe istfiness of shaft . » eccentreity of disc 2 lateral of shade hei to ve uniform cmgeclad velocity of shaft W,: ass seced « ‘of shath : Geomotric eget center? clisc. a! Centre of gpahity of dike. _ At equalilrium positon me restoring Pre > centritygel Pre. AKER = mw corte) =mary + mube Rn-mon= moe al ke-ma) = mie, om A = more ' Seo = mure “2 ma| fe ae e (aya Hest oH) 4 + when Ws, » % red becomes intingly. Tes snabne % ws calli rtticcal "os (W)2 O-HASS rps Le Weal yeaack peso Biel - aS mes sea but wy se Ate * i tg 7 yyMotion Transmissibility + Motion transmissibility is defined as the ratio of absolute amplitude of the mass (F,) to the base (orsupport) base excitation amplitute (¥Y). + This ratio is alo known as Amplitde ‘Teatismissibility. + This denoted by ar rou tegie— a= es 2{ 2) nate) ieForce Transmisstbility + Force Transmissibility is defined as the ratio of the force transmitted (F,) to the force applied on the system (E,). + This ratio is also known as isolating factor. + Itis denoted by epsilon.‘VIBRATION ISOLATION AND TRANSMIissip roduced in machines having unbalanced Masses, These vibrations will be Vibfations are ps i , transmitted to the ‘ which the machines are installed. This is usually Undesirable. To diminish the smitted fone ee usually mounted on springs or dampers, or on some at vibratio, Tas Se iebita forces can reach the foundation only through the: isolating Then material used. ILity isolating Se springs, dampers, or the f the spring force (4) and the damping force (cea4) at perpendicular to each other (Fig. 18.21), Fa V(s4? +(cwdy? = Als? + (cap? 2 i 14(£0) en eee +(coy =—N As J (s— mw)? + (cw)? Foy + lo! 0,7 I-10)? 5 Qtora, i. fieQhoia,? ce Transnissbiliy, €= = Vl-(@/0,? + 0lw/o,)? At Tesonance, a 1, @,, (18.43) 2 ea M+ 20) 26 When no damper is used, o=0 (18.44) 1 ™ “£f-@/0,)118.12 MAGNIFICATION FACTOR The ratio of the amplitude of the steady-state response to the static deflection under the action of force Fis known as the magnification factor (MF). ur = IN(s—@?)? + (coy? = s Fy/s a —mo’)* + (co)? 1 1 3 po 5 (18.41) 1 @?) 4(¢ oY wo) a , s° (3) (x2) a, Q, Thus, the magnification factor depends upon (a) the ratio of frequencies, sO and O, (b) the damping factor.ENGINEERING DESIGN It can be define as the process of applying the various techniques and scientific principles for the purpose of defining a device a process for a system in sufficient details to permit its realization. STEPS INVOLVED IN DESIGN RECOGNITION OF NEED DEFINITION OF PROBLEM PRESENTATION | It is an iterative process4.0 stress Concentration "Whenever a machine component changes the shape of its cross-se ‘ribution no longer holds good and the neighbourhood of the discont Jarity in the stress distribution caused by abrupt changes of form is cal! cn for all kinds of stresses in the presence of fillets, notches, holes, foes or scratches etc. ; ” fnorder to understand fully the idea of stress concentration, consider a member with different cass-section under a tensile load as shown in Fiz. 6.5. A little consideration will show that the ro sominal stress in the right and left hand sides will te uniform but in the region where the cross- = section is changing, a re-distribution of the force Fig. 6.5. Stress concentration. within the member must take place. The material neat the edges is stressed considerably higher than the average value. The maximum stress occurs at some point on the fillet and is directed parallel to the boundary at that point. 6.11 Theoretical or Form Stress Concentration Factor The theoretical or form stress concentration factor is defined as the ratio of the maximum stress ‘Samember (at a notch or a fillet) to the nominal stress at the same section based-upon net area. Mathematically, theoretical or form stress concentration factor, Maximum stress ction, the simple stress inuity is different, This led stress concentration. keyways, splines, surfa - és ‘Nominal stress The value of K, depends upon the material and geometry of the part. cine loading, stress concentration in ductile materials is not so seriolts as in brittle materials, Raters, on materials local deformation or yielding takes place which. reduces the concentration. In brittle te section ii fi oa at these local concentrations of stress which will increase the stress over the rest of en. In on der to pa - » Necessary that in designing parts of brittle materials such as castings, care should be nove aa failure due to stress concentration, fillets at the changes of section must be provided. a i ror eine. Stress concentration in ductile materials is always serious because the ductility of the sha discon n'<, Telieving the concentration of stress caused by cracks, flaws, surface roughness, or duran limilty in th : '¢ geometrical form of the member. If the stress at any point in a member is above the il Cf be member ‘material, a crack may develop under the action of repeated load and the crack will lead to blog* 6.13 Methods of Reducing Stress Concentration , t Fig. 6.7. Stress Concentratig | due to not We have already discussed in Art 6.10 that whenever there is a otches, change in cross-section, such as shoulders, holes, notches or keyways and where there is an inter. ence fit between a hub or bearing race anda inion then stress concentration rresillts. The presence oj | i A Crankshaft — | » stress concentration can not be totally eliminated but it ma concept that is useful in assisting a de y be reduced to some extent. A device | sign gn engineer to visualize the presence of stress concent"Variable Stresses in Machine Parts = 189 how it may be mitigated is that of stress flow lines, as shown in Fig. 6.8. The mitigation of stress 3 centration means that the stress flow lines shall maintain their spacing as far as possible, (c) Preferred (d) Preferred Fig. 6.8 a In Fig. 6.8 (a) we see that stress lines tend to bunch up and cut very close to the sharp re-entrant comer. In order to improve the situation, fillets may be provided, as shown in Fig, 6.8 (6) and (c) to sive more equally spaced flow lines. Figs. 6.9 to 6.11 show the several ways of reducing the stress concentration in shafts and other cylindrical members with shoulders, holes and threads respectively. It may be noted that it is not practicable to use large radius fillets as in case of ball and roller bearing mountings. In such cases, notches may be cut as shown in Fig. 6.8 (d) and Fig. 6.9 (b) and (c). (a) Poor (b) Good (c) Preferted Fig. 6.9, Methods of reducing stress concentration in eylindrical members with shoulders. oe oar (a) Poor (>) Preferred Pig. 6.10, Methods of reducing stress concentration in cylindrical members with holes, (a) Poor (b) Good (©) Preferred Fig. 6.11, Methods of reducing stress concentration in cylindrical members with hol P les. The stress concentration effects of a press fit from the rigid to the more flexible shaft. The vari Cases are shown in Fig. 6.12 (4), (b) and (c). ny be ined by making more gradual transition ys of reducing stress Concentration for such98 = A Textbook of Machine Design . 1. Proportional limit. We see from the diagram that from point O to A is a straight line, which represents that the stress is proportional to strain. Beyond point A, the curve slightly deviates from the straight line. It is thus obvious, that Hooke's law holds good up to point A and it is known as proportional limit. It is defined as i that stress at which the stress-strain curve begins to de- 4 viate from the straight line. 2. Elastic limit. It may be noted that even if the load is increased beyond point A upto the point B, the material will regain its shape and size when the load is, removed. This means that the material has elastic properties up to the point B. This point is known as elastic limit. It is defined as the stress developed in the ‘material without any permanent set. Note: Since the above two limits are very close to each other, therefore, for all practical purposes these are taken to be equal. 3. Yield point. If the material is stressed beyond (6) Shape of specimen after elongates int B, the plastic stage will reach ie. on the removal I Pe load, ibe material will not be able to recover its Fig. oe Sen | original size and shape. A litte consideration will show for soniye : that beyond point B, the strain increases ata faster rte with any increase in te stress until P| re is an appreciable ‘stra C is reached. At this point, the material yields before the load and the without any increase in stress. In case of mild steel, it will be seen that immediately after yielding commences. Hence there are two yield points C and ‘D are called the upper and lower yield points respectively. The stress correspond known as yield point stress. ; ‘h Ultimate stress. At D, the specimen regains some strength and higher values of SUS -_ 1 for higher strains, than those between A and D. The stress (or load) goes on increasing" ‘a small load drops | 'D. The points Co! | fing 10 yield pot” ‘Simple Stresses in Machine Parts = 99 point Eis reached. The gradval increase inthe strain (r length) ofthe specimen is followed with the aform reduction ofits cross-sectional area, The work done, during stretching the specimen. 1S ansformed largely into heat and the speeimen becomes hot. At E, the gress, which attains its maximum walue is known as ultimate stress. It js defined as the largest stress obtained by dividing the largest value of the load reached in a test to the original cross-sectional area of the test piece. 5. Breaking stress. After the specimen has reached the ultimate stress, a neck is formed, which decreases the cross-sectional area of the specimen, as shown in Fig. 4.12 (6). A little consideration will show that the stress (or load) necessary to break away the specimen, is les than the maximum stress. The stress is, therefore, reduced until the specimen breaks away at p stess corresponding to point F is known as breaking stress. ote The ain sess, seat F whichis es than aE appens oe somewhat misteang, Ash fomaton ofa neck akes place a E which reduces the ros-etiona are, i causes the specimen sidlen! ail at F. If for each value of the strain between E and F, the tensile load is divided by the reduced eros: {tonal raat the narrowest part ofthe neck then the te stress curve wil follow the dotted line E< Moves an eld pact, exe sso he hs of vga cone sctional are of 6. Percentage reduction in area. Itis the difference between the origin tnderos-sectional are atthe neck (.e, where the facture takes place, This difference Percentage of the original cross-sectional area. ide oh ‘A recovery truck with crane.the natural frequency. The terms mode shape or natural vibration sha structural dynamics. A mode shape describes the deformation that the show when vibrating at ‘the natural frequency.woh of oye reveal banding eae rr ; gj try ree Mma K| Stresy ! do a. Mand: 7 wary in ach cred. —-& Rud of ale fr ano forcing | ~ FOS > — Erduroon@ Sid stress Working Séress : for Stebh Jje- os ~OFyees EA een 6 eStore aan Pastor shu gh his Sector Js apical or at mine. the olastyn's ® genet 4 ie we eae cal Beng ses fr venice cick toasting He O-F te > wl dirstone dading hp os oe factor (8) proWhers a fui cot Aenwir shesset Aros mouiny Lae 40 fee proteuality of flows LH com bin Rouny » a Jager z equouhons pol odoatets bere By C! can Jen oumch aact Gorn Spenes Mo Penal JS 2 _ =ABCSe_ : " it . ~ StS concantramion ee CK) . | adresses’ dua fo This doivad oS fhe loculizchon Nigh, cad 20 ‘realities 6 on chonges of sho crosses ak JS don J by the. Sym ik) — “kK $ itpest vetur of achuct afress nec “situ ominal vhess ats ah dhe crossechion. ° ores Man AMON Lac tore, . cy eOerOS ON ModE of sno cernpanarth fife obec —- Joss '@ ‘Under Seki ad ota. tho rite eats beter OMe aie on more. severe in bei fe mado ihe Du shebly spate, cabin “Or Aeechuching, Jesergh ne. adWwiancs: sare of sch "9 po ns ing Wado Dg gready piri Ne rat ares (oncRemoved OF UNAlgAG MGICUE “Drilling acon! poles ~Falyoe stress conconhection_Euefor Cr) “Whon ox monoor IS sedgjecdal fo cycle or Jeacling Aha valu. of Pastiguc stress con dood Instcadl ot tvanretec SRS COM nthuky Ke, = Merde, iy ix 5 3 enduranes Limit wath secs COncontecdong ~ Noten sensitivly C+) oe Sha ahi of natch US In cycle bacioln orf FU op ey cer ies otek vals, of Tharrekiccy fercor Ws differenaa. Js dua to Ma «tress : region of seatress con ntreanhon unc norrolngae-of ty LO quo IHR, Sh® Rector Hake sensitib, Je Consicter20f it Us. tS oo Clehre, she capa dove shan, Conamirerhoa sity , Guat veaioned Og? Rect . be is gibi . -Re- a : — combined ' Sealy mol VOM RAStvesses | - Studies were comductel on olifferent deot . ohealodd) 4 Meee. Gonadal) Ipadng MOIS alte points hom dab, -from tho cbsowadins it was emek Rout ee in compressive Had means Rubino. Bulura arg leas Jn Compresstue condlion Compara de> vag Plobedl as a &inchon of UNDO stressors « LCL gteagh wsACauKing_and - In ore dp make Sra jo ook. proc? OF fluid Pa “Preseene vescely iS Presasr WR Arun oS caultany te Hire “a nord Jr ‘cogtl cautery binon the cole SR the Hoel IR giourd Lb cdraings, acon St Ae. divehs — of KP sa : plaks cue exerted le stress nck JF Ho -B get a mre sutihecdry yont Alloling opoiation wn Be oat eee seca done. ,hara. fie fiblooep Ea Bama MRhengse, yor Mra, Ives, the heading Place Rees aS tect oF he pale uch a wows aot fe Pare |" haya ORDA by a rivet fo be shoaraol oF® ij’ prsswe. bles occ nod Ae York thawing” clas is 7 Ralenis, aes awn a Wet) dni. ad yeasty. in pemare| 7 = Cee LP for aowote Aras SN RU6E A Ae xi xd” a . (fer double dheced) L eh ets a0 fn:no. of rivets per piteh Longin Acorching 42 TBR) RFailusas of a rveker loict Oeaay of te g angle. sa joint may fel duck to deovrirg oF Ga pate fee ah tea eusitla by peviding y margin of ASA yoy sd : pe I 1 i of vet ts someting psec ‘of shewniny oe 1d Gress the evel mou} got rupted, nD wl tat In rivet hala hecomuny cued “shape WAMTR wt : ° offen cal peng ered Bellona ey « Qrfewey of te de coos to ro» of els : Deep denidt rae aposadé ir ai plake. bei cover plate, of es Saint ‘i rb lbeied "hy “oe lode ageinst pando feaning I knauun as Jeading resisfan@- 5 ; whon P>P, teasing US413 Factor of Safety iso ingeer. the rato of he mainamstrastotheworkingsire Mth acon ofsafey = Mein sess neuf dsl tei mel wh he i pit scent te arf aye upon th ed point tes In ssh ee, ‘ied pie sess Factor of 6 = Working design ars Incas of rite mantras. cst rn the es pit ot wel defined ws fo duct mate ‘Tt aor of fe for rite mis bs nui ses. Uma ses Factor of sale) = gkingo devon sues ‘hsm may abo be used for Sle mais _ Sea ens rf of fey forse aixRiet era Joints eetcyint lan ae : a day Law pod . plek Ss short wypbinddllcod foc. seit: oy aceol, dere repel do yo Yenc ~parhun As calleg shank; 7 Trey a mainly Used do movbe: yy Hid Tho ~- BO Sh i Sched ly bal, xypes of Riveded jonnd ; Le - dung on Ske In Uke fhe neotel (ore PI BF Sag gh Me tole on conta (i)LoP Juinty. - : a oe pate oe tae the ae Phe two plate) are Thon, (i) Butt Joint Se “Tha moun Pisses wre pagt aligned sto cach afher onola curt plade EStrup) JS placeot ailher on One Stele OF O7 bath sides of Aho plotes dW IS Puthur LassTPreol to dws dypes (a\Sing Sbrop pusttycint (b) Seubla. etrup fouctt joa (ica) single sreip batt pie__ iron castings by 50% and steel castings by 30% ; es is lesser due to no additional components used Alterations and additions of the design of welded assemblies can be easily and economically modified Welded assemblies are tight and leak proof | Production time is less Welding does not create stress concentration due to lack of of the plates that are joined together. components of certain shapes such as circular steel easily be constructed by welding. Cost is higher due to usage of additional components listed above Alterations and additions of design of riveted assemblies not easier and economically changed Riveted assemblies are not as tight and leak proof as that of : welding assemblies i Production time is higher Holes are drilled to accommodate the rivets. The holes redi the cross-sectional area of the members and result in stress: concentration. x Strength of rivets are not high as that of weld joints. Machine components of certain shapes sucha as circ! pipe , find difficulty in rivetingsurge in Springs aaa 2 asl \d of a heli ing i Me all . eee cal spring 1s resting on a rigid support and the other end is loaded jen, s ne spring will not suddenly deflect equally, because some time is squire fr te propagation of stress along the spring wire>A litte consideration will show that in the peginig the end coils of the Spring in contact with the applied load takes up whole of the deflection péthenit transmits a large part of its deflection to the adjacent coils. In this way, a wave of compression agagates through the coils to the supported end from where it is reflectéd back to the deflected end. zis wave of compression“travels along the spring indefinitely. If the applied load is of fluctuating peas in the case of valve spring in internal combustion enginés. and if the time interval between the jad applications is equal to the time required for the wave to travel from one ‘end to the other end, then resonance will occur. This results in very large deflections of the coils and correspondingly very” sigh stresses. Under these conditions, it is just possible that the spring may fail. This phenomenon is called surge. , . Ithas been found that the natural frequency of spring should be atleast twenty times the frequency {application of a periodic load in order to avoid resonance with all harmonic frequencies upto twentieth order. The natural frequency for springs clamped between two plates is given by 3 : d 6G.g cycles/s (hn 2nD>n p * | Where d = Diameter of the wire, D = Mean diameter of the spring, n = Number of active turns, G = Modulus of rigidity, g = Acceleration due to gravity, and = Density of the material of the spring. The surge in springs may be eliminated by using the following methods : |. By using friction dampers on the centre coils so that the wave propagation dies out. Semper — ou 2 By using springs of high natural frequency. 3. By using springs having P f the coils near the ends different than at the centre to have S §6—sE. different natiral fremuen:Springs 2 823 3 Materlal for Helical Springs ‘The material of the spring should have high fatigue strength, high ductility, high resilience and sould be creep resistant. It largely depends upon the service for which they are used i.e: severe it ice, average service or light service, ; a er sere service means rapid continuous loading where the ratio of minimum to maximum ol (orstess) is one-half or less, as in automotive-valve springs, . i Average service includes the same stress Tange as in severe service but with only intermittent _pertign, as in engine governor springs and automobile suspension springs. na Light service includes springs subjected to loads that are static or very infrequently varied, as in fey valve springs. - : The springs are mostly made from oil-tempered carbon steel wires containing 0.60 to 0.70 per catcarbon and0.60 to 1.0 per cent manganese. Music wire is used for small springs. Non-ferrous nuterials like phosphor bronze, beryllium copper, mone! metal, brass etc., may be used in special caso increase fatigue resistance, temperature resistance and corrosion resistance. Table 23.1 shows the values of allowable shear stress, modulus of rigidity and modulus of thstcity for various materials used for springs. LY The helical springs are either cold formed or hot formed ing upon the size of the wire. ie So’ formed or hot i Vires of small sizes (less than 10 mm diameter) are usually wound cold whereas larger size wires are ‘ound hot, The strenigth of the wires varies with size, smaller size wires have greater strength and less tuclty, due to the greater degree of cold working. gree ° 9 of ue ° 2 ; owes npReese nc0 es (0s2 cm) "The curate carecton or an pan paraneternthe es Jormiaon of neal eens sping, whi describes he eect ot-sil-ience /re'zilyans/ noun + the ability of @ substance or object to spring backinto shape; elasticity. * the capacity to recover quickly from difficulties; toughness.Surge Phenomenon in Spring When one end of a helical spring is resting on a rigid sheets daltered force. support and the other end is loaded suddenly, then all the Z =o coils of the spring will not suddenly deflect equally, = = = = because some time is required for the propagation of Ss =, = stress along the spring wire. A little consideration will show @ (8) that in the beginning, the end coils of the spring in contact - with the applied load takes up whole of the deflection and R then it transmits a large part of its deflection to the adjacent polls. way, a wave of compression propagates through the coils to the supported end from where it is reflected back to the deflected end. This wave of compression travels along the spring indefinitely. If the applied load is of fluctuating type as in the case of valve spring in internal combustion engines and if the time interval between the load applications is equal to the time required for the wave to travel from one end to the other end, then resonance will occur. This results in very large deflections of the coils and correspondingly very high stresses. Under these conditions, it is just possible that the spring may fail. This phenomenon is called surge.Surge Phenomenon in Spring a Whatis surging : - When a coil spring absorbs shock, the coil wire undergoes torsion, which is transmitted as a shock wave. This shockwave is called a surge wave. — The amount of time (T) in which this surge wave moves along the spring wire and travels back is called surge time. The surge time and speed can be calculated using the following formula: . D:Mean diameter of coil Sue ee n: Number of active turns b a: Surge speed c:Spring index G:: Shear modulus of spring material L y: Unit weight of Spring material Surge speed a = — c g : Gravitational acceleration — When a coil spring is subject to forced oscillation, the resonance phenomenon surging occurs if the cycle corresponds to the surge time T or becomes the half or one third of the surge time T.Surge Phenomenon in Spring a The surge in springs may be eliminated by using the following methods : — The spring is designed in such a way that the natural frequency of the spring is 15 to 20 times the frequency of excitation of the external force. This prevents the resonance condition to occur. The spring is provided with friction dampers on central coils. This prevents propagation of surge wave. Aspring made of stranded wire reduces the surge. In this case, the wire of the spring is made of three strands. The direction of winding of strands is opposite to the direction of winding of the coils while forming the spring. In case of compression of the coils, the spring tends to wind the individual wires closer together, which introduces friction. This frictional damping reduces the pasaihitt eon Sinem 7 et