Germanic Settlement in Britain, the

Otherwise called the Invasion of Britain by the West Germanic Tribes, and it took place in the year 449. This
event is first mentioned by Bede, a monastic scholar, in his Ecclesiastical History of the English People.
These invaders belonged to the western branch of Germanic tribes and they became the founders of the
English nation. As stated by Bede: *Those who came over were the three most powerful nations of
Germany - Saxons, Angles, and Jutes." We are told, two Germanic leaders Hengist and Horsa from Jutland
in modern Denmark were invited by the British king Vortigern to come and to help militarily in a civil war in
exchange for some land. The Germanic settlement is considered to be a more or less peaceful process as
compared with Roman or Norman conquests. For more than a hundred years the invaders gradually
migrated from their homes in Denmark and the Low Countries and settled in the island. The Angles came
from the middle of the Danish peninsula, the Jutes from the northern part, the Frisians and the Saxons from
the west and the south of the Angles. The participation of some tribes in the invasion is still being
questioned. The major problem is regarding the Jutes and Frisians. Some historians believe that the Jutes
did not exist. Bede mentioned them only once. And Procopious (in Caesura' De bello gothico) speaks only
about Frisians and Angles. The archaeological evidence suggests that the Jutes had no clear ethnic identity
when they crossed the Channel. Before settling in Kent they must have merged with Frisian and Frankish
tribes. The Saxons occupied territory along the south coast and on both banks of the Thames and formed
the kingdoms of Wessex, Essex, Sussex and later Middlesex. The last wave of invasion was by the Angles.
They established their settlement along the east coast and founded some kingdoms to the north of the
Humber: Anglia, Mercia and Northumbria. See also: Germanic Tribes, the West; Angles, the; Saxons, the;
Frisians, the; Jutes, the; Franks, the; Bede; "The Ecclesiastical History of the English People"

Quotations:

"The events of these years are wrapped in much obscurity. Although we can form a general idea of their
course, we are still in doubt about some of the tribes that took part in the movement, their exact location
on the continent, and the dates of their respective migrations.'

Heptachy, the Anglo-Saxon

The name of a group of several small Anglo-Saxon kingdoms founded by the West Germanic tribes after
invading Britain. At least seven of them are known:

Northumbria, Mercia, East Anglia, Kent, Essex, Sussex and Wessex. Each of the kingdoms was established
by a specific tribe and each took supremacy and became culturally, military and economically important at
various times. See also: Anglo-Saxon Kingdoms; Mercia; Nothumbria; Wessex; Sussex; Essex; East Anglia;
Kent

Quotations:

"At times one or the other (kingdoms) was more dominant and some of the kings gained fame for
spreading the rule beyond his original borders, over another of the kingdoms, e.g. Northumbria had
political and cultural supremacy over a number of kingdoms at the beginning of the seventh century, Kent
under king AEthelberht (c.560-616) dominated part of the political scene, Mercia held leadership in the
eighth century and Wessex kings claimed to be kings of England throughout the ninth century. Under Alfred
the Great (871-899) Wessex became politically and culturally the leading kingdom of England, paving the
way for the future political unification of the country." [Fisiak, 2000:421

the grouping [of the kingdoms - O.K.] was not very permanent, sometimes two or more being united under
one king, at other times kingdoms being divided under separate rulers. In the early part of the seventh
century Northumbria gained political supremacy over a number of other kingdoms and held an undoubted
leadership in literature and learning as well. In the eighth century this leadership passed to Mercia.

Finally, in the ninth century, Wessex under the guidance of Egbert (802-839) began to extend its influence
until in 830 all England, including the chieftains of Wales, acknowledged Egbert's overlordship. The result
can hardly be called a united kingdom, but West Saxon kings were able to maintain their claim to be kings
of all the English, and under Alfred (871-889) Wessex attained a high degree of prosperity and considerable
enlightenment." [Baugh & Cable, 1993:48]

Anglo-Saxon Chronicle

A year-by-year record of the important events of English history from the Roman invasion to the 11th
century. It is given in the form of a series of chronological records written in Old English by monks. The
Chronicle was started in the 9th century at various monasteries, during the reign of King Alfred and
initiated by Alfred himself. It continued to the 12th century. The Chronicle, comprising seven different
manuscripts, forms a unique record of early English history and of the development of Old English prose up
to its final stages in the year 1154, by which date it had been replaced by Middle English. In the 9th century
the chronicles were unified at Winchester and then copied out by monks. Several versions of the Anglo-
Saxon Chronicle have survived. The Chronicle is valuable linguistically as a sample of Old English prose and
syntax, free from Latin influence. However, it is hard to judge OE syntax from it as the style represents oral
speech. Early entries in Anglo-Saxon historical records are not always authentic or reliable. (See also: Alfred,
King; Old English Prose)

Quotations:

"Having no particular literary value they are of greatest interest to the philologist, as they afford a closer
approach to spoken OE than OE poetry or prose translations from Latin; the style lacks conciseness, the
syntax is primitive, for it reflects faithfully the style of oral narration."

[Rastorgueva, 1983:67]

"Copies of this Chronicle were distributed throughout the realm, and the annual record of happenings in
England was continued by various hands in various places, sometimes only a short while after the events
occurred.

Jarrow Monastery

One of the twin Anglo-Saxon monasteries at Wearmouth and Jarrow of the seventh century with two
Abbey Churches of St Peter and St Paul respectively. They were founded in 674 by a Northumbria nobleman
Benedict Biscop. The Venerable Bede described them as 'one monastery in two places' and in its day, it was
one of the world's greatest and most influential cultural centres. The two monasteries were closely
connected and functioned as one unit, so they are often referred to as one monastery, though there is a
distance of seven miles between them. Wearmouth Jarrow was the first ecclesiastical structure in Britain
built in stone, richly decorated with stained glass which was also a novelty. Benedict himself was the first
abbot, and Jarrow prospered under him and his successor, St Ceolfrith. On his travels to Rome Benedict
collected books for the renowned monastery library. The library became a cradle for English literature. The
monastery was the home of one of the most eminent theologians and historians of the age, the Venerable
Bede, who left a legacy of about 60 remarkable written texts which have survived across the ages. Bede
entered St Peter's aged seven and spent his life in the twin monastery of Wearmouth-Jarrow. He records
this himself. Inspired by scholarship and a new style of monastic life, he dedicated his life to study. He
received his early education under Ceolfrith's patronage and lived, wrote and died as a monk. In the 1020s
some bones, thought to be Bede's remains, were taken from Jarrow to Durham Cathedral. From its
foundation in the seventh century until its destruction by Scandinavian raiders in the ninth century,
Wearmouth-Jarrow operated as a centre of learning, hosting travellers, pilgrims and royalty from across
Europe. The monastery declined in the 9th century and was re-founded in the eleventh century. During the
period of Viking raids the history of the monastery is obscure. Jarrow was destroyed by the Danes in 794.
(See also: Bede; Scandinavian Invasions;)

Quotations:

"A high standard of learning was reached in the best English monasteries, especially in Northumbria, as
early as the 8th and 9th c. There was the famous monastery of Lindisfarne, founded by Aidan, who had
come with the Irish priests; the monastery of Jarrow, where the Venerable Bede, the first English historian,
lived and worked. During the Scandinavian invasions, the Northumbrian culture was largely wiped out."
[Rastorguyeva, 1983:61]

"...by 700 several major centres of learning had emerged in the north, notably at Jarrow, Durham, and
Lindisfarne, with Bede and later Alcuin producing influential works." [Crystal, 2004:38]

" Bede wrote more than 60 books but despite his immense scholarship, he rarely left the monastery of
Wearmouth-Jarrow, where he was brought up and spent most of his life. The monastery of Wearmouth-
Jarrow was a religious house on two separate sites, which flourished during the seventh century, a golden
age of learning and culture in Northumbria, when Bede was alive. The church of St Peter's, at Wearmouth,
was founded by Northumbrian noble Benedict Biscop, who also founded St Paul's at Jarrow, seven miles
away. Together, the two monasteries acted as one monastic site, which Bede was to call 'one monastery in
two places". [Rachel Bellerby, 2009]

"Bede was born in Northumbria, in around the year AD 673. He was taken by his family to St Peter's
Monastery, Wearmouth at the age of seven. During the early middle Ages, it was fairly common practice for
families to give a child to the care of a religious house, knowing that that child would be educated and
cared for until adulthood. At the time of Bede's entry, the monastery of Wearmouth-Jarrow had recently
been founded by Benedict Biscop, and monks at the twin site seem to have spent their time split between
the two monasteries, moving freely as the need arose. Biscop set up the religious houses following six
inspiring visits to Rome, after which, he decided to try to replicate what he had seen in Italian churches,
using

Lindisfarne Monastery

The Anglo-Saxon monastery founded by St Aidan around 635 AD. St Aidan was sent from the West Coast of
Scotland to Northumbria to establish a base for Christian missions in northern England. He converted
Northumbria to Christianity at the invitation of its king, Oswald. Northumberland's saint, Cuthbert, was a
monk and later the Abbot of the monastery, and his miracles and his life are recorded by the Venerable
Bede. Cuthbert later became Bishop of Lindisfarne. He was buried there and his remains were later
transferred to Durham Cathedral. Lindisfarne is also known as Holy Island, since it is a tidal island. It is
connected to the mainland by a narrow pathway that is cut off twice a day by tides. The Lindisfarne
Gospels, a 7th century illuminated Latin manuscript was written here, and is now a relic in the British
Museum. The island of Lindisfarne and its very rich monastery was attacked by the Vikings from the end of
8 century and was eventually ruined by the Danes in 793.

Quotations:
"A high standard of learning was reached in the best English monasteries, especially in Northumbria, as
early as the 8 and 9' c. There was the famous monastery of Lindisfarne, founded by Aidan, who had come
with the Irish priests; the monastery of Jarrow, where the Venerable Bede, the first English historian, lived
and worked. During the Scandinavian invasions, the Northumbrian culture was largely wiped out. The
monastery at Lindisfarne was destroyed by the Danes in one of their early plundering attacks.
"[Rastorguyeva, 1983:61]

"Lindisfarne, also called Holy Island, is a tidal island off the northeast coast of England. Home to a
population of less than 200, Lindisfarne is connected to the mainland by a causeway that is cut off twice a
day by the tides. "

"In 793, a Viking raid on Lindisfarne caused much consternation throughout the Christian west, and is now
often taken as the beginning of the Viking Age. The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle records: "In this year fierce,
foreboding omens came over the land of Northumbria. There were excessive whirlwinds, lightning storms,
and fiery dragons were seen flying in the sky. These signs were followed by great famine, and on January
8th the ravaging of heathen men destroyed God's church at Lindisfarne."

"Aidan organized the building of the first monastery at Lindisfarne in

635. Aidan and his monks came from the Irish monastery of lona and with the support of King Oswald
worked as missionaries among the English living in Northumbria. In their monastery they set up the first
known school in this area. Lindisfarne became known for its skill in Christian art of which the Lindisfarne
Gospels are the most important surviving example. Cuthbert became prior of Lindisfarne in 676. During this
period Lindisfarne became known for its skill in producing illuminated books. When Cuthbert died in 687
the magnificent Lindisfarne Gospels book was made for the occasion.

Lindisfarne,

because it had been the home of St. Aidan and St. Cuthbert,

was visited by pilgrims and it was claimed to be responsible for several miracles.".

Ælfred, King

An outstanding English King. He lived in Anglo-Saxon times and is famous for his victories over the Vikings
and for the beginnings of reform in Britain. In

871 AD Alfred ascended the throne of Wessex. He defended England against Danish invasion, founded the
first English navy, and issued a new code of laws.

During his reign (871-899) he was not only famous as a military strategist and a statesman but also for his
educational campaign. Alfred enthusiastically devoted his attention to reviving and maintaining learning. He
brought many notable scholars to Wessex, making his capital at Winchester a centre of intellectual life.

Among these learned men was Asser, a Welsh monk, who wrote the first biography of Alfred and assisted
the king in translating literary works from Latin to English.

In fact, in his determination to educate as many of his people as possible and to

make England a centre of intellectual achievement, Alfred set up a scheme by which certain important Latin
works were translated into English. Some works he translated himself adding and missing some information
from source texts. Alfred supervised the translation of five major works, including "The Pastoral Care" (Cura
Pastoralis) by Pope Gregory I, the famous "The Consolation of Philosophy" (De Consolatione Philosophix) by
Boethius, Orosius's "World History" (Historiarum Adversus Paganos Libri Septem), "Seven books of history
against the Heathens" and Bede's "Ecclesiastical History of the English People" (Historia Ecclesiastica Gentis
Anglorum). He also encouraged the continuation of "The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle" an early history of
England. The king established a school for young nobles in his court and restored and promoted the
Christian faith. Alfred strengthened the West Saxon monarchy, thus preparing the way for the eventual
union of England under one king. Amidst the devastation caused by the war against the Danes, he fostered
a revival of religion, education, and literature in Anglo-Saxon England. This was necessary during his reign
because education had declined due to the fact that the Danes were looting the monasteries and churches
which were centres of education.

Alfred believed that learning makes life more rewarding and enjoyable and that the worst thing of all is
ignorance. He contributed his ideas for better education and social order. There is a story how as a child
Alfred won a prize of an illustrated book from his Mother. This story may be true, or it may be imaginary,
though it testifies to the young Alfred's love of learning. His remarkable achievement rests in creating a
culture in which Old English became recognized as a language of prestige.

Throughout his long reign, Alfred showed himself to be an imaginative military leader, a wise and
determined ruler, and a skilled and charismatic statesman. The title "Great" was justly given to him because
of his leadership over the land and the people he served. He is the only English monarch to be known as
"the Great" and he well-deserves this title. King Alfred the Great died on October 26, 899 and was buried in
the Old Minster at Winchester See also: "Cura Pastoralis"; Anglo-Saxon Chronicle, the; Danelaw, the;
Wessex; Winchester; Scandinavian Invasions;

Heptachy, the Anglo-Saxon; Alfred Jewel, the

Quotations:

"If Alfred had not come to the throne of Wessex in 871 the course of England and of its language would no
doubt have been immeasurably different. For Alfred's strategy and tactics in both war and diplomacy
enabled him first to regroup his forces and then, in 886, by the Treaty of Wedmore, establish a truce with
the Danish leader Guthrum which in only…”

in dealing with own to the poem's first events and people, some of whom may have been known to the
poem's first audience. In pes pet we see the immediate past being suddenly transmuted into literature.
which should produce for us a jolt of disquieting juxtaposition: these are ordinary modern-day men being
talked about in the language of heroic poetry, a minor battle on the Essex coast being turned into an epic
struggle between invader and defender, heathen and Christian."

Bede's famous Ecclesiastical History of the English People was written in Latin (Historia Ecclesiastica Gentis
Anglorum) and remains a masterpiece. The purpose of this work was to tell the story of Christianity in
Britain but in doing so he became the first to give a full account of the history of England. He is also
regarded as the earliest literary source for the events which formed a nation. At the time when most
"historical" writing was inconsistent and ambiguous, Bede's Ecclesiastical History of the English People
maintained a high standard of accuracy, order, and verification of sources. It is also well written and
sustained the interest of readers both during and after the Middle Ages. However, it lacks precision in some
issues, which is inevitable as Bede's history was written almost 300 years after the events it describes and
was focusing on only one aim - the history of Christianity. It is also acknowledged that some events were
presented superficially ignoring other Roman sources. See also:
"The Ecclesiastical History of the English People"; Germanic Settlement in Britain, the; Old English
Literature; "Cadmon's Hymn"; Jarrow Monastery

Quotations:

"Bede was writing in the eighth century, although he uses as a source the writings of Gildas which date
from the middle of the sixth. Even so, approximately 100 year stands between Gildas and the arrival of
those two famous brothers Hengist and Horsa, the traditional founders of the English nation. It is therefore
reasonable to suggest that the truth of Bede's account is sanctified more by tradition than by a
correspondence with actual events. There is, for example, a growing body of archaeological evidence of
Germanic peoples being in Britain during the fourth century. "[Hogg, 1992:21]

"Saint Bede the Venerable ... lived in the north of England... His important work as a theologian earned him
a place in the fourth heaven..

Bede (673-735)

The first English historian, scientist and philologist. He lived in the North of England. At the age of seven he
was taken to the monastery of Wearmouth in Northumbria and later joined the monastery at Jarrow. He
became a deacon at nineteen and a priest at thirty, working as a writer and a teacher. He was buried at
Jarrow and his remains later were moved to Durham Cathedral. He was canonized as a Saint and is often
referred to as The Venerable Bede. Bede began his work on history in his late fifties, and finished it only
four years before he died. Almost everything we know about Bede comes from an autobiographical chapter
at the end of his History. He also lists in detail all his works: more than 35 papers on theology, treatises on
language and natural science; biographies, letters, compilations and histories.

Periods in the History of English

The same as: Chronological Division of the History of English

The English language looks very different at different stages throughout its

development over fifteen centuries. These differences are at times so drastic that it

is reasonable to distinguish separate periods of language evolution. Periodisation

is used only for learning and research purposes, and we should bear in mind

that language evolusion has been an unbreakable process and any subdivision

is conventional and artificial.

The history of English is traditionally divided into

three periods: Old English (OE), Middle English (ME) and New English (NE).

At least two criteria are taken into account to make this division: the internal

(linguistic matters of the language) and external (extralinguistic, historical factors).

A chronological subdivision is attached to some historical events that have a drastic

influence on the change of the language. OE begins in 449, with the Invasion of

the Germanic tribes and ends with the Norman Conquest in 1066, ME lasts from

1066 until 1475, the Introduction of Printing. NE covers the period from 1475
until the present day. The English scholar, Henry Sweet, divided the history of the

English language by phonetic and morphological features. Thus, Old English is

the period of full endings, Middle English is the period of levelled endings and he

calls New English the period of lost engings. Still the difference of the language

within each of these three periods is so striking that it is fairly reasonable to

subdivide them with more specific boundaries. All in all, the history of English

has eight periods. Old English is divided into Early or Prewritten Old English

and Late Old English; Middle English is divided into Early ME and Late Middle

English, or Classical ME. The latter is also called Chaucer’s ME. New distinguishes three subperiods: Early
NE, also called the Literary Renaissance;

the period of Normalization and Correctness; and Late New English, or Modern

English. A special stage, the 8th , which English reaches in its evolution at the end

of the 20th c. is called English as a World Language or International Language, a

linqua franca.

“England” and “English”, the names

The earliest stage of the language can be named in one of two ways: Old

English or Anglo-Saxon. The Germanic invaders were called by the locals

indiscriminately as Saxons. Latin authors also called all the Germanic inhabitants

in Britain as Saxons, and the country Saxonia. Pope Gregory addressed the king

of Kent as Rex Anglorum. The Venerable Bede entitled his history as Historia

Ecclesiastica Gentis Anglorum. King Alfred was called Rex Angulsaxonum in

his biography. However, the Germanic invaders called their language Englisc

(English). The name is a derivative of the name the Angles (OE Engle), but it

was used without distinction for the language of all the settled tribes, as well as

the land. In manuscripts written in the vernacular we find Angelcynn “race of the

Angles”. From the year 1000 the name Englaland, begins to be in use. Thus, the

name English is earlier than England. It remains a mystery why the name of the

Angles was ultimately given to the people and to the language. In the 16th century

the term Anglo-Saxon was mostly used to refer to all aspects of the early period —

people, culture and language. But since the 19th century when the history of

English came to be studied thoroughly, Old English has become the correct term

for the language. It suggests the uninterrupting development of English, from

the Germanic settlement through “Middle English” to the present day. Some
scholars, however, still use the term Anglo-Saxon for the language and by this

they emphasize the idea that the nature of the language at this early stage is fairly

different from what is later to be found under the heading English.

Old English Dialects

The local or regional dialects existing in Britain from the fifth till the eleventh century. There are four of
them: Northumbrian, Mercian, Kentish and West Saxon. They all derived from the tribal dialects of the
West Germanic tribes that invaded Britain in the fifth century. The Northumbrian and Mercian dialects
were developed by the Angles. They were similar, but there were some distinguishing features for each of
them. The Northumbrian dialect was spoken to the north of the Humber, and the Mercian dialect was
spoken between the Humber and the Thames. The Kentish dialect derived from the tongue of the Frisians
and the Jutes. It was spoken in modern Kent and Surrey. The West Saxon dialect was the dialect of Wessex
and was introduced by the Saxons. Its area was to the south of the Thames and of the Bristol Channel,
except Cornwall, where the Celts lived.

All the dialects were equal in oral speech, though in terms of writing each of them became dominant as the
centre of culture and education moved to each kingdom in turn. The bulk of the Old English corpus is West
Saxon in character, which reflects the steady growth in West Saxon power during the tenth century. Soon
late West Germanic dialect reached the status of a literary standard. Due to this, and also because most of
the Old English literature survived in West Saxon, it is considered the basis for Old English Studies. It is
obvious that there must have been more than four dialects at this time. And though linguistically
recognizable are only four dialects, scholars admit the existence of a wide range of local dialects,
particularly if we take into account the huge territory the dialects were scattered over. These four are
distinguished by scholars on the basis of the surviving literary texts. Most of the conclusions on dialects
were made from the phonological and morphological variations found in the texts. The phonology and the
morphology variations are extremely important for dialect identity, because they are likely to turn up fairly
frequently in a text. On the contrary, vocabulary variations as a criterion for dialectal divergence are not
verifiable. When the entire corpus is so small, it is difficult to be sure whether a word is genuinely dialectal
or not. If a word is registered only in a West Saxon text, it does not mean that it is a West Saxon dialect
word; it may well be just a word which happens not to be recorded in the texts of any of the other dialects.
The real problem for scholars is to decide which bits of the variation are random errors and which reflect
some aspect of the sociolinguistic situation of the time. The boundaries between the dialects are vague.
Most texts include evidence of more than one dialect, and this immensely complicates any question of
origin.

See also: West Saxon, Kentish, Mercian, Northumbrian dialects.

Quotations:

"...The question which immediately arises is why only four?... Was Britain at the time not so linguistically
heterogeneous after all?. The initial impression derives from the nature of the evidence available to us from
the Anglo-Saxon period, and is highly misleading. The four dialects are judgments based on the
investigation of the surviving literary texts, and these are few and fragmentary. Toronto University's
Dictionary of Old English Corpus shows that the entire body of Old English material from 600 to 1150 in fact
consists of only 3,037 texts (excluding manuscrints with minor………» ДАЛІ НЕМАЄ

Runes

The ancient Germanic signs, used for writing and magic rituals. Each rune had its own name and could
stand for a sound, a word or a notion. They were used throughout northern Europe, Scandinavia, the British
Isles, and Iceland. The Old Germanic Runic alphabet or «Elder Futhark» contains 24 runes. The names of the
first six runes of the alphabet gave the name to the runic alphabet «FUTHARK».

The number of runes in different OG languages varied. It was the largest in England; all in all 33 symbols, as
new runes were added to represent new sounds appearing in English. The origins of the runic alphabet are
uncertain. The three best-known runic alphabets are the Elder Futhark, the Anglo-Saxon Futhorc, and the
Younger Futhark. The word rune originally meant 'secret' and 'mystery'. The angular shape of the runes is
typical for most contemporary alphabets of the period and this helped carving in wood or stone. A
peculiarity of the runic alphabet is the absence of horizontal strokes, although this characteristic is also
shared by other alphabets, such as the early form of the Latin alphabet.

See also: Franks Casket;

Ruthwell Cross; Futharc; Runic Inscriptions; Alphabet, the OE Roman

Quotations:

"No one knows exactly where the alphabet came from, but it seems to be a development of one of the
alphabets of southern Europe, probably the Roman, which runes resemble closely. ...Current research
suggests that the word rune had been thoroughly assimilated into Anglo-Saxon Christianity, and meant
simply sharing of knowledge or thoughts. ... Modern English rune is not even a survival of the Old English
word, but a later borrowing from Norse via Latin." [Crystal, 1995:9].

"Neither on the mainland nor in Britain were the runes ever used for everyday writing or for putting down
poetry and prose works. Their main function was to make short inscriptions on objects, often to bestow on
them some special power or magic." [Rastorguyeva, 1983:64].

"The earliest records of any Germanic language are in runes. Runic writing was a system that the early
Germanic peoples developed for inscribing names and short texts on wood, bone, or stone. It was originally
an epigraphic script: that is, a way of writing on objects, not on parchment or paper. No one is quite sure
how runes originated, but it is clear that by the fourth century AD, Germanic peoples throughout Europe
were writing their names as signs of ownership on objects. One of the earliest, and perhaps the most
famous, of such inscriptions went around the lip of a golden drinking horn found in Denmark in the
eighteenth century. The inscription is from about the year 400 AD and is written in a form of Old Norse (the
horn has since been lost or destroyed). "[Lever, 2015: 10]

names as signs of ownership on objects. One of the earliest, and perhaps the most famous, of such
inscriptions went around the lip of a golden drinking horn found in Denmark in the eighteenth century. The
inscription is from about the year 400 AD and is written in a form of Old Norse (the horn has since been lost
or destroyed). "[Lever, 2015:107]

Runic Inscriptions

The earliest written records in Old English using the runic alphabet. The runes were of an angular shape so
as to be easily carved in wood or stone. They could represent a whole word or a separate letter and were
used for magical rituals. The peculiarity of the runic inscription is the absence of horizontal strokes,
although this characteristic is shared by other alphabets. There are about forty runic inscriptions in Old
English. The two most famous runic inscriptions are on the "Franks Casket" (an inscription on a box) and the
"Ruthwell Cross"- a short text on a stone cross in Dumfriesshire in the village of Ruthwell. These records are
in the Northumbrian dialect. See also: Runes; "The Dream of the Rood";

Franks Casket; Futhark

Quotations:

"The largest group of surviving runic inscription are Viking

Age Younger Futhark runestones, most commonly found in Sweden. Another large group are medieval
runes, most commonly found on small objects, often wooden sticks. The largest concentration of runic
inscriptions is the Bargen inscriptions found in Bergen, more than 650 in total. Elder Futhark inscriptions
number around 350, about 260 of which are from Scandinavia. Anglo-Saxon futhore inscriptions number
around 100 items... Unlike the situation on the continent, the tradition of runic writing does not disappear
in England after Christianization but continues for a full three centuries, disappearing after the Norman
Conquest." [htp://en. wikipedia.

org/wiki/Runic inscriptions]

"We have no sustained runic documents, however; what we do have are inscriptions on crosses, art
objects, headstones, and weapons. There is a beautiful little ivory box in the British Museum with runic
writing on it, probably from the early eighth century, telling part of a story about the smith god of Northern
mythology, Waeland. There is also a massive cross, also probably from the eighth century, in Northern
England on which is inscribed, in runes, part of a poem about Christ's original cross. These runic lines are

Augustine, St (?-604)

Augustine is the Roman monk who was in charge of the missionaries sent to Britain by Pope Gregory the
Great to convert Britain to Christianity. The mission took place in the 6 century and it was not an easy task.
St Augustine had to introduce a new Christian philosophy to an Anglo-Saxon pagan society.

Fortunately, there was one circumstance which made the task easier - Christianity was not an entirely new
religion on the island. There were some small numbers

of Christians in Kent and in Northumbria. Our knowledge of this mission derives entirely from Bede, who
claims that Augustine and forty Roman monks left Rome and arrived in Britain in spring 597. One hundred
years after the beginning of St Augustine's mission all England became Christian. The missionaries principal
task was to establish schools for training local priests. They also brought books and ecclesiastical relics to
England from Rome. One of these books survives as St Augustine's Gospels. See: Christianization of Britain,
the; Conversion to Christianity, the; Pope Gregory the Great; Augustine, St

Quotations:

"Augustine's choice had long-lasting historical consequences, as to this day the Church of England is headed
by the archbishop of Canterbury.

Augustine succeeded in converting the king of Kent, Ethelbert (d. 616), whose wife Bertha was a daughter
of the Christian French king Charibert.

This set a precedent for the conversion of the English, which followed a top-down pattern. The key to the
conversion of an Anglo-Saxon kingdom was the king, the queen, and the top nobles. A Christianized
leadership would then support the missionary effort among the common people. "[Burns, 2009:29]

"Some years later, however, when he [Pope Gregory] had become pope, he had not forgotten his former
intention and looked about for someone whom he could send at the head of a missionary band. Augustine,
the person of his choice, was a man well known to him. The two had lived together in the same monastery,
and Gregory knew him to be modest and devout and thought him well suited to the task assigned him.
With a little company of about forty monks Augustine set out for what seemed then like the end of the
earth." Baugh & Cable, 1993:81]
"In 597AD Augustine and his fellow missionaries arrived in Britain and began the gradual process of
converting its inhabitants. The event is recorded in Bede's Ecclesiastical History, and also in the Anglo-Saxon
Chronicle (the Parker Chronicle, the oldest manuscript of the Chronicle which is also known as the A
version, attributes it to 601 AD; the Peterborough Chronicle records it twice, once under 596 AD and once
under 60|AD). Fascinating from the linguistic perspective is Bede's account, also in his Ecclesiastical History,
of how this missionary project came to be conceived. "Irvine,2006:407]

"In due course King Athelberht himself was converted, and by the end of 597 Gregory could write that
Augustine had baptized more than 10,000 converts to the faith. " [The Wiley Blackwell Encyclopedia of
Anglo-Saxon England, 2014:54]

Pope Gregory the Great

Pope Gregory the First is also known as the Great. He was a Roman Catholic pope and was made a Saint.
Pope Gregory is famous for sending a mission to Britain in the sixth century with the purpose of converting
pagan Anglo-Saxons to Christianity. This mission was successful and the Christian religion spread from
Britain to other European countries.

Conversion to Christianity, the; Augustine, St;

Quotations:

"According to the well-known story reported by Bede as a tradition current in his day, the mission of St.
Augustine was inspired by an experience of the man who later became Pope Gregory the Great. Walking
one morning in the marketplace at Rome, he came upon some fair-haired boys about to be sold as slaves
and was told that they were from the island of Britain and were pagans. "Alas! what pity, ' said he, 'that the
author of darkness is possessed of men of such fair countenances, and that being remarkable for such a
graceful exterior, their minds should be void of inward grace?' He therefore again asked, what was the
name of that nation and was answered, that they were called Angles. 'Right,' said he, "for they have an
angelic face, and it is futing that such should be co-heirs with the angels in heaven. What is the name,'
proceeded he, 'of the province from which they are brought?' It was replied that the natives of that
province were called Deiri. Truly are they de ira' said he, 'plucked from wrath, and called to the mercy of
Christ.

How is the king of that province called?' They told him his name was Alla; and he, alluding to the name, said
'Alleluia, the praise of God the Creator, must be sung in those parts. "'[Baugh & Cable, 1993:80-81]

Christianization of Britain, the

The conversion of Britain to Roman Christianity began in 597 though the religion was not entirely new in
the island. This religion had already been introduced through the Romans, and the Celts were the first to be
influenced by this faith. There is no evidence of when the first Christian arrived in Britain, but the earliest
archaeological evidence of British Christianity dates from around

200 AD. However, some Anglo-Saxons were not converted until the middle of the eighth century, and some
pagan customs held out for centuries. The process of Christianization took place at least in two waves.
According to Bede, Pope Gregory the Great sent a mission to Britain, of about forty monks, headed by St.
Augustine. They made Canterbury a centre of their religion and gradually spread it throughout the country.
The success of their mission can be explained by the support of the royal court. The second wave was
spreading from the North, where Irish monks started preaching the gospel and establishing monasteries.
Unlike St Augustine's campaign, their preliminary goal was the conversion of simple inhabitants. Christianity
in its Roman form was particularly attractive to Anglo-Saxon rulers who wanted to strengthen links
between their kingdoms and the more developed areas of the Continent. The introduction of Christianity
had an immediate and great impact on the English language. It is not merely that a new religion enriched
Old English with new words, which are estimated as up to 400 lexemes, but also that it gave the possibility
to express abstract ideas. Thus the semantics of vocabulary were increased. Conversion to Christianity
changed the language in the following ways: it brought a large church vocabulary; it introduced words and
ideas from different countries; and it caused the Anglo-Saxons to change the meaning of existing words.
Church words came from Latin, Greek and Hebrew. Of Latin origin are the words: munuc (monk), biscop,
disciple. But Psalter, pope, apostle are loan-words from Greek. Sabbath came from Hebrew.

The Old English words: God, hell, heaven were given a more subtle meaning.

The introduction of Christianity was a cultural revolution which through building monasteries and schools
stimulated education, literacy and writing manuscripts.

Christians after all were supposed to read and understand the Bible and that, in itself, intensified interest
for learning. The manuscripts registered the dialects and served the unification of the language. In fact,
there are no written records available which are not connected with Christianity. The most remarkable
achievement of the Conversion is the borrowing of the Roman alphabet and the translation of famous
religious books into Old English. This is a very poorly documented period in British history, and the rise of
Christianity and decline and eventual end of British paganism is difficult to comprehend from a short
description.

Quotations:

Difficulties in the introduction of Christianity:

"It is not easy to appreciate the difficulty of the task that lay before this small band. Their problem was not
so much to substitute one ritual for another as to change the philosophy of a nation. The religion that the
Anglo-Saxon shared with the other Germanic tribes seems to have had but a slight hold on the people at
the close of the sixth century: but their habits of mind, their ideals and the action to which these gave rise
were often in sharp contrast to the teachings of the New Testament. Germanie philosophy exalted physical
courage, independence even to haughtiness, loyalty to one's family or leader that left no wrong unavenged.
Christianity preached meekness, humility and patience under suffering and said that if a man struck you on
one cheek you should turn the other. Clearly it was no small task that Augustine and his forty monks faced
in trying to alter the age-old mental habits of such a people. They might even have expected difficulty in
obtaining a respectful hearing.

But they seem to have been men of exemplary lives, appealing personality, and devotion to purpose, and
they owed their ultimate success as much to what they were as to what they said." [Baugh & Cable,
1993:81

Scandinavian Influence

The change in the English language which was caused by the Scandinavian invasions. Though the invasions
took place from 787 until 1041 evidence of its influence can be traced much later in the twelfth century. For
300 years the influx of Scandinavians was unevenly spread throughout time, as well as the areas. Thus the
intensity of the impact on English is not the same at all times. After a certain stage of assimilation with
British locals the Scandinavians gave up their language.

In other places, however, their language was spoken for a remarkably long time.

The gradual fusion of two peoples in Britain was facilitated by having a common language group and the
resemblance of their languages. The Anglo-Saxons and the Danes mainly did not have linguistic obstacles.
Some scholars doubt that their respective languages were mutually intelligible. Some scholars, however,
express a revolutionary view that an Anglo-Danish creole was established. One way or the other, a linguistic
fusion took place. It had a considerable effect on all language levels in English - phonetics, lexis and
grammar. The full extent of the invasions can be measured by the considerable number of place-names in
the north-eastern part of England, in Danelaw. They are one of the most important linguistic developments
of this period. Modern estimates suggest over 2,000 place-names found throughout the area. Over 600
place-names in modern Britain have the suffix -by, which in Old Norse means 'town', as in Derby, Grimsby,
Westerby, Appleby and Whitby. Lots of place-names end in -thorpe, "village', as in Millthorpe,
Bishopsthorpe, Linthorpe; -thwaite isolated piece of land', as in Braithwaite and Langthwaite. Some 300
names like Sandtoft, Lowestoit contain the ending -toft, meaning 'homestead'

• Sometimes place-names can

be a combination of Anglo-Saxon and Scandinavian names, but sometimes the whole word is a purely
Norse word. Similarly, a high percentage of Scandinavian words can be found in personal names, such as in
-son, Johnson, Widowson and Anderson. Since the two peoples lived intimately and their languages were
simila, it is very difficult to determine with accuracy Scandinavian borrowings in English.

Some words, however, can be identified as of Scandinavian origin. Often, a word of Scandinavian origin can
be determined by the fact that it does not occur in Old English, but does occur in Scandinavian. An example
is the verb, "to take", which is Scandinavian taka. This is not found in Old English, which uses the verb
niman. Many of the Scandinavian words have since disappeared from the English language, but quite a
number remain. We find the legal and administrative terms, such as the words -- thrall, law, by-law, crave
and riding. The largest group of words represents seafaring, words like barda (ship), ceanerr (small
warship), lip (fleet), dreng (warrior), orrest (battle) and ran (robbery). Many of the words adopted were
homely and everyday lexemes. Thus the word sister is taken from Scandinavian. So are the names of parts
of the body leg and neck. Other common names from Old Norse include: sky, knife, skin, dirt, cake and
fellow, anger, are, awe, awkward, bag, billow, birth, blunder, both, bulk, bull, call, cast, club, crawl, creek,
die, dirt, egg, gawk, get, gift, give, gosling, guest, gust, hack, hit, husband, knife, lad, law, loose, low, mire,
mistake, muck, mug, oat, odd, plough (plow), raft, raise, ransack, reindeer, rive, root, rune, scarf, score,
scrap, scrape, seem, skate (fish), skill, skin, skirt, slaughter, sleight, snub, stagger, steak, take, talk, tarn,
their, they, thrift, troll, wand, want, weak, whirl, whisk, window, wing. Everyday adjectives include wrong,
low, loose, odd, flat and ugly. Among the everyday verbs are: get, give, call, want, take, drag, smile, thrive,
die etc. The conjunction though is also from Scandinavian. So are more remarkably the pronouns they,
them and their.

As Jespersen claims, such words as pronouns are rarely borrowed by one language from another, which
once more proves the mixture of two peoples, their linguistic fusion and pidginization of the language. On
the phonological level Old English had a palatal g and Scandinavian a velar g. An example is the word for
'egg', which was in Old English ag and in Scandinavian egg. Obviously, therefore, the modern word, egg
comes from Scandinavian. Similarly Old English sometimes had palatal c where Scandinavian retained the
velar k. That is why church is English and kirk is Scandinavian. Again Germanic sk did not become palatalized
in Scandinavian as it did in Old English. Thus shirt is English and skirt, Scandinavian. The influence on English
morphology is also obvious. The suppletive form of to be, which is, are, has a Scandinavian origin. But of all
the effects the shift of English from the synthetic into the analytical type of language is the most
remarkable feature. The lexical similarity between the two languages on the one hand, and the differences
in endings, on the other, stimulated the dropping of inflections, and thus, the simplification of the
grammatical system. No wonder that the decay of the OE declension started from northern dialects and
ended up with the southern ones. See also: Scandinavian Invasions; Viking Invasions;

Danelaw, the; Scandinavian Loan words

scandinavian Invasions
The same as Viking Invasions. The invasions of Britain by the inhabitants of the Scandinavian peninsula and
Denmark who were closely related to British population in language and culture. The Invasions took place
from the middle of the eighth century to the beginning of the eleventh century. The invaders were called by
the English the Danes, although, apart from the Danes, there were considerable Norwegian settlements in
north-west England. The fight by English against Scandinavian attacks on Britain lasted over 300 years.
Traditionally the whole period of invasion is divided into three. The first stage, according to the Anglo-
Saxon Chronicle, started in 787. These first invaders were small bands who attacked and plundered the
north-east areas of England. They also raided and ruined the monasteries at Lindisfarne and at Jarrow, the
centres of education and religion. There was no permanent settlement during that time and the attacks
were not organized. The second stage started with the arrival of a Danish fleet of 350 ships in 850. In this
period there were a number of attacks and battles which ended in victories and defeats for both sides.
During King Alfred's reign (871-

899) the Danes made an attempt to capture Wessex. The battle at Ethandum (now Edington) resulted in an
overwhelming victory for the English and a capitulation by the Danes. The treaty of Wedmore which was
signed by Alfred and the Danish king Guthrum is a milestone in the second stage of the invasions. According
to this treaty the north-eastern part of England remained under the Danish legal system and is known as
the Danelaw. The south-western part of Britain was ruled by Alfred. The border ran along the ancient road,
known as Watling Street, from Chester to London. In addition, the Danes agreed to be converted to
Christianity and Guthrum was baptized into the Christian church. His conversion was of great significance. It
was not only a means of controlling the fulfilment of the treaty, but also led to intermarriages and thus the
intermingling of the Anglo-Saxon and the Danish peoples in the area. The third stage of Danish invasions
lasted from 878 till 1042, and is characterized by new attacks and battles as well as rather peaceful
settlement of the Danish aristocracy and farmers. The arrival of the Viking fleet under Olaf Tryggvason, the
Battle at Maldon, the joint attack on London by the king of Norway and the king of Denmark, Svein, were
landmarks of that period. In 1014 Svein made himself King of England. Three years later his son Cut
succeeded him and for the next twenty-five years England was under the reign of Danish kings.

It is quite risky to generalize about the Scandinavian settlements. First of all, the invasion was not a product
of one large enterprise, but of different waves of invasions and settlements. The relationship of the English
population with the newcomers was different depending on the circumstances of the settlement:
intermarriage and intermingling were much more likely when the lands was bought by the Vikings or
otherwise legally acquired; contact was less likely when the newcomers had violently taken the land. No
matter what, favourable conditions for amalgamating the two races were established. This amalgamation
was largely facilitated by a close kinship in the style of life and between the English and the Scandinavian
languages. See also: Scandinavian Influence; Danelaw, the; Alfred, King; "The Battle of Maldon";
Scandinavian Loan Words; Viking Invasions

Quotations:

"It is clear that some sort of change occurred in Scandinavia that spurred on the Viking dispersals, but we
cannot be sure whether it was famine or some other economic crisis, or a need to explore and conquer, or
a combination or succession of these. There are two possible etymologies for the word Viking: one is that it
could derive from the Old Norse word vik, which means, 'bay', suggesting a man from the bays or inlets of
the North Sea', while the other is that it derives from the Anglo-Frisian word wic, meaning settlement, so
that means quite simply, ' settlers'. These possible etymologies reinforce the ambiguity surrounding the
nature of the Scandinavian invader, one suggesting the marauding seafarer, and the other the farmer who
settles side by side with his Germanic kin. " [Fennell,

2004:587

"We also have to be careful about assuming that a Scandinavian name always reflects an original Danish or
Norwegian settlement. It is likely that a local Danish aristocracy sometimes imposed a Scandinavian name
on an Anglo-Saxon community, as the mark of a local 'empire'. Some of the relational names, such as
Netherby "lower farmstead' and Westby 'west farmstead', could easily have arisen in that way. It is also
possible that some native Anglo-Saxon communities voluntarily adopted a Norse name, perhaps because of
social relationship which had evolved with the incomers.

But whatever the social situation, the Danelaw displays a significant level of place-name influence
throughout. " [Crystal, 2005:67-68/

...in spite of certain native customs that the Danes continued to observe, they assimilated to most of the
ways of English life. That many of them early accepted Christianity is attested by the large number of
Scandinavian names, found not only among monks and abbots, priests and bishops, but also among those
who gave land to monasteries and endowed churches.

ДІАЛЕКТИ

KENTISH DIALECT

One of the four Old English dialects which were spoken in the area now known as Kent and Surrey and in
the Isle of Wight. It derived from the tribal dialects of the Frisians and the Jutes. The dialect is known from
limited sources, mainly charters and glosses of the eighth century and medical recipes, the Kentish Hymn,
the Kentish Psalm and the Kentish Proverb of the tenth century.

Quotations:

"The evidence for a Kentish dialect is thin, with just a few documents, glosses, and poetic texts, chiefly
ninth/tenth century, displaying features that seem to be south-eastern in character. Although not
numerous, these features are none the less among the most interesting in the early history of English.
Several, indeed, exercise a permanent influence on the language, being taken up by some Middle English
writers (notably, Chaucer) and eventually entering Standard English. "[Crystal, 2004:37]

Mercian dialect

One of the four Old English dialects which was developed and spoken by the Angles between the rivers
Humber and Thames. Like the Northumbrian dialect, it had Anglian features. However, being similar, they
still differed a great deal.

This difference testifies to a new dialectal subdivision: not tribal but regional.

The dialect is registered in the Charters and the Corpus and Epinal glosses of the eighth century, in the
Vespasian Psalter and Lorica glosses of the ninth century, and in Royal and Rushworth Gospel glosses of the
tenth century.

Quotations:

"The growth of Mercia as a political power and a centre of culture and learning, during the eighth century,
is reflected in the survival of several texts from that period. The most important are glossaries in which
many of the forms display a distinctive West Midlands character, notably the Corpus and Vespasian Psalter
texts. A surprising number of charters, land records, and other official documents have also survived... and
they show many Mercian features. By no means, all of these texts were actually written in Mercia, but they
do contain features which could only have been produced by people who were either from Mercia or
whose speech had been influenced by Mercians. Canterbury, in particular, attracted scholars from all over
the country, given its status as an authoritative religious centre within England.
Several eighth-century archbishops, indeed, were from the Midlands, and we can well imagine that their
speech would have provided a prestigious model. Mercian dialect features would easily find their way into
Kentish lexts, as a consequence. The same influence was later apparent in Wessex, at the end of the eighth
century, when Alfred began to realize his vision of a cultural renaissance. To achieve his aims, in the
absence of local expertise, he needed help from outside, which he found by employing such scholars as
Waerferp and Plegemund, who came from Mercia.

Northumbrian dialect

One of the four Old English dialects which was spoken by the Angles north of the river Humber. It had
Anglian features but still differed from the Mercian dialect, which was also Anglian by origin. This difference
testifies to a new dialectal subdivision: not tribal but regional. The dialect is also presented in runic
inscriptions: the Ruthwell Cross, the Frank's Casket; in poetry attributed to Cadmon and Cynewulf, in
Beowulf and in the elegiac poems the Seafarer and the Wanderer.

Quotations:

"The early appearance of Northumbrian texts is not surprising when we recall that by 700 several major
centres of learning had emerged in the north, notably at Jarrow, Durham, and Lindisfarne, with Bede and
later Alcuin producing influential works. The amount of language in these texts is not large, but there are
enough variant forms used in a consistent way to indicate that a distinctive Northumbrian dialect existed by
the beginning of the eighth century...Interlinear glosses from the late tenth century confirm the character
of the dialect, notably those added to the Lindisfarne and Rushworth Gospels.

The absence of Northumbrian texts between the eighth and tenth centuries is a further result of the Viking
burnings. "[Crystal, 2004:38]

"Northumbria was the first area of Anglo-Saxon efflorescence. The historian known as the Venerable Bede,
who completed his Ecclesiastical History of the English Church and Peoples in 731, was a Northumbrian
(though he wrote in Latin). So, too, was Caedmon, perhaps the first known poet in the English language.
The great Bibles and Gospels of early English life were produced in Northumbria, enormous hand-made
manuscripts, rich with illumination and color. The earliest written records we have in Old English are
interlinear glosses or translations of these Latin texts written in the Northumbrian dialect." [Lerer, 2008:31]

West Saxon dialect

One of the four Old English dialects. It was spoken in Wessex from the fifth till the eleventh centuries. It is
the main dialect of the Saxons as other Saxon dialects have not survived in written forms and so remain
obscure. The boundaries of the dialect are to the south of the Thames and the Bristol Channel, except for
Cornwall, where the Celts lived. It was the dominant dialect in writing when Wessex became a centre of
culture and education. Most Old English literature that exists now is written in the West Saxon dialect.
Therefore it serves as a source for Old English Studies. Samples of the dialect are represented in the
Charters, the Cura Pastoralis, and the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle, as well as in medical recipes.

It seems that all scribes wrote and copied manuscripts in this prestigious written form. Well-known poems
appear to have been written originally in other Old English dialects, but they were later "translated" into
the standard Late West Saxon literary language. There were two stages of the West Saxon dialect: Early
West Saxon (9th century) and Late West Saxon (10th century). Early West Saxon was the language of King
Alfred (849-899). By the eleventh century, the language had evolved into Late West Saxon, which is
sometimes referred to as Classic West-Saxon. Late West Saxon was the dialect that became the first
"standardised" written English (called "the Winchester standard"). This dialect was spoken mostly in the
south and west of England around the important monastery at Winchester, which was also the 'capital city'
of the English kings.