Merit (Buddhism)

Merit (Sanskrit: puṇya; Pali: puñña) is a concept considered

fundamental to Buddhist ethics. It is a beneficial and protective
force which accumulates as a result of good deeds, acts, or
thoughts. Merit-making is important to Buddhist practice: merit
brings good and agreeable results, determines the quality of the
next life and contributes to a person's growth towards
enlightenment. In addition, merit is also shared with a deceased
loved one, in order to help the deceased in their new existence.
Despite modernization, merit-making remains essential in
traditional Buddhist countries and has had a significant impact on
the rural economies in these countries.
Merit, demerit and its retributions at the level of the individual.
Merit is connected with the notions of purity and goodness. Based on Spiro.[1]
Before Buddhism, merit was used with regard to ancestor
worship, but in Buddhism it gained a more general ethical
meaning. Merit is a force that results from good deeds done; it is capable of attracting good circumstances in a person's life, as well as
improving the person's mind and inner well-being. Moreover, it affects the next lives to come, as well as the destination a person is
reborn. The opposite of merit is demerit (papa), and it is believed that merit is able to weaken demerit. Indeed, merit has even been
connected to the path to Nirvana itself, but many scholars say that this refers only to some types of merit.

Merit can be gained in a number of ways, such as giving, virtue and mental development. In addition, there are many forms of merit-
making described in ancient Buddhist texts. A similar concept of kusala (Sanskrit: kusala) is also known, which is different from merit
in some details. The most fruitful form of merit-making is those good deeds done with regard to the Triple Gem, that is, the Buddha,
his teachings, the Dhamma (Sanskrit: Dharma), and the Sangha. In Buddhist societies, a great variety of practices involving merit-
making has grown throughout the centuries, sometimes involving great self-sacrifice. Merit has become part of rituals, daily and
weekly practice, and festivals. In addition, there is a widespread custom of transferring merit to one's deceased relatives, of which the
origin is still a matter of scholarly debate. Merit has been that important in Buddhist societies, that kingship was often legitimated
through it, and still is.

In modern society, merit-making has been criticized as materialist, but merit-making is still ubiquitous in many societies. Examples of
the impact of beliefs about merit-making can be seen in the Phu Mi Bun rebellions which took place in the last centuries, as well as in
the revival of certain forms of merit-making, such as the much discussed merit release.

Definition
Puñña literally translates as 'merit, meritorious action, virtue'.[2] It is glossed by the Theravāda Translations of
Commentator Dhammapāla as "santanaṃ punāti visodheti", meaning 'it cleans or purifies the Merit
life-continuity'.[3][4] Its opposites are apuñña (demerit) or pāpa ('infertile, barren, harmful, Sanskrit puṇya
bringing ill fortune'),[2][4][5] of which the term pāpa has become most common.[3] The term
Pali puñña
merit, originally a Christian term, has in the latter part of the twentieth century gradually been
used as a translation of the Buddhist term puṇya or puñña.[6] The Buddhist term has, Burmese ကောင်းမှု
however, more of an impermanent character than the English translation implies,[7] and the (MLCTS: káʊ̃ m̥ ṵ)
Buddhist term does not imply a sense of deserving.[8][9] Chinese 功德
(Pinyin: gōng dé)
Before the arising of Buddhism, merit was commonly used in the context of Brahmanical
sacrifice, and it was believed that merit accrued through such sacrifice would bring the Japanese くどく
devotee to an eternal heaven of the 'fathers' (Sanskrit: pitṛ, pitara).[10][11][12] Later, in the (Rōmaji: kudoku)
period of the Upanishads, a concept of rebirth was established and it was believed that life in Lao ບຸນ (bun)
heaven was determined by the merit accumulated in previous lives,[13][11][12] but the focus on
Tibetan བསོ ད་ནམས
the pitṛ did not really change.[10] In Buddhism, the idea of an eternal heaven was rejected, but
(bsod nams)
it was believed that merit could help achieve a rebirth in a temporary heaven.[11] Merit was no
longer merely a product of ritual, but was invested with an ethical meaning and role.[14][15] Thai บุญ [būn]
(RTGS: bun)
Vietnamese công đức
In the Tipiṭaka (Sanskrit: Tripitaka; the Buddhist scriptures), the importance of merit is often Glossary of Buddhism
stressed. Merit is generally considered fundamental to Buddhist ethics, in nearly all Buddhist
traditions.[5][16][17] Merit-making is very important to Buddhist practice in Buddhist societies.[18][19][20]

Merit is a "beneficial and protective force which extends over a long period of time" (B.J. Terwiel)—and is the effect of good deeds
(Pali: kamma, Sanskrit: karma) done through physical action, words, or thought.[21][22][23] As its Pāli language (the language of
Theravada Buddhism, as practiced in Sri Lanka, Thailand, Myanmar, etc.) definition indicates, this force is associated with goodness
and purity of mind.[24] In traditional Buddhist societies, it is believed that merit is more sustainable than that of magical rites, spirit
worship or worldly power.[25] The way merit works, is that acts of merit bring good and agreeable results, whereas demeritorious acts
bring bad and disagreeable results. A mixture of the two generates mixed results in a person's life. This karmic correspondence (Pali:
kamma-sarikkhatā) or "automatic cosmic reaction" (Brokaw) is a common idea found in Buddhist texts and Buddhist societies,[19][26]
and explains why people are different and lead different lives in many ways.[18][27] Karma is self-regulatory and natural: it operates
without divine intervention and human intention is fundamental to it.[8][6][28] Internally, merit makes the mind happy and
virtuous.[29][30][31] Externally, present good circumstances, such as a long life, health and wealth, as well as the character and abilities
someone is born with, arise from merits done in the past and vice versa, with demerits.[21][32][33] The merits and demerits a person has
done may take a while to bear fruit.[34] Merit or demerit may cause a good or bad future respectively, including in the next lives to
come.[6][32] A bad destination after rebirth may be caused by demerit, but merely a lack of merit may also lead a person to be born in
an unhappy destination.[35] When someone is reborn in a happy destination, however, one can only stay there as long as merits
last.[36] Thus, it is stated in the Tipiṭaka that people cannot take anything with them when they die, except for whatever merit and
demerit they have done, which will affect their future.[37][38][39] Merit can be accumulated in different quantities, and stored up, but
also has an impermanent character: it can run out.[22][40][41] Summarizing from the Buddhist text Milinda Pañhā, some scholars
conclude that merit is inherently stronger than demerit.[42][43] Moreover, many merits together have the power to prevent demerits
from having an effect, by pushing them "to the back of the queue" (Richard Gombrich), though demerits can never be
undone.[44][45][46]

All these benefits of merit (Pali: ānisaṁsa; Sanskrit: ānuśaṁsa), whether internal or external, are the aim in merit-making, and are
often subject of Dharma teachings and texts.[47][48] Thus, merit is the foundation of heavenly bliss in the future,[2] and in some
countries merit was also considered to contribute to the good fortune of the country.[49][50] Because merit is understood to have these
many beneficial effects, it is sometimes compared with cool water, which is poured or which is bathed in. This symbol is used in merit
transfer ceremonies, for example.[51][52]

Discussion in traditional texts

General

Merit is not only a concept, but also a way of living.[53] The Pāli canon identifies three bases of merit (puññakiriyā-vatthu),[2][38][39]
in order of difficulty:[54][note 1]

giving (dāna-maya)
virtue (sīla-maya)
mental development (bhāvanā-maya)

In Buddhist texts and practice, giving is considered the easiest of the three bases of merit.[56] It helps to overcome selfishness and stills
the mind; it prepares the mind for the practice of virtue.[17] It is also considered a form of saving, considering there is a rebirth in which
people receive back what they have given.[57] As for virtue, this comprises three out of eight aspects of the Noble Eightfold Path, the
path central in the Buddhist teaching: right speech, right action and right livelihood. Being the main criterion for moral behavior in
Buddhism, virtue is mostly about the undertaking of five precepts,[17][58] although the eight precepts may be kept now and then.[59]
The five precepts are part of many Buddhist ceremonies, and are also considered a merit itself, helping the practitioner to become
strong and healthy.[17][60][61] The benefits of practicing the three bases of merits are also summarized as three forms of happiness
(Pali: sampatti)—happiness as a human being, happiness in heaven, and happiness in Nirvana.[62] When people die, what world they
will be reborn into depends on how intense they practice these three bases of merit. It is, however, only mental development that can
take someone to the highest heavenly worlds, or to Nirvana.[63]

Post-canonical texts and commentaries[note 2] such as the Dhammasaṅganī and Atthasālinī,[64][65] elaborating on the three bases of
merit, state that lay devotees can make merit by performing ten deeds. Seven items are then added to the previous three:

Giving (Dāna-maya)
Virtue (Sīla-maya)
Mental development (Bhāvanā-maya)
Honoring others (Apacāyana-maya)
Offering service (Veyyāvaca-maya)
 Dedicating (or transferring) merit to others (Pāli:Pattidāna-maya;
Sanskrit: puṇyapariṇāmanā)
Rejoicing in others' merit (Pattānumodanā-maya)
Listening to Buddha's Teachings (Dhammassavana-maya)
Instructing others in the Buddha's Teachings (Dhammadesanā-
maya)
Straightening one's own views in accordance with the Buddha's
Teachings (Diṭṭhujukamma)[2][64][66]

These ten, the Commentator Buddhaghosa says, all fit within the three first
bases of merit: 'Giving' includes 'Transferring merit to others' and 'Rejoicing
in others' merit' by extension, whereas 'Virtue' includes 'Honoring others' and
Giving helps to overcome selfishness and stills the
'Offering service'. The remaining items 'Listening to Teachings', 'Instructing
others in the Teachings' and 'Straightening one's own views' are part of mind; it prepares the mind for the practice of virtue.[17]

'Mental development'.[64] Thus, in Theravāda Buddhism, merit is always

accrued through morally (good) actions. Such good deeds are also highly
valued in the other two Buddhist schools, that is Mahāyāna (China, Japan, etc.) and Vajrayāna (Tibet, Nepal, etc.). In some forms of
Mahāyāna or Vajrayāna it is believed, however, that even more merit will accrue from certain ritual actions, sometimes called the
'power of blessed substances' (Standard Tibetan: rdzas). These are considered an addition to the traditional list and can help protect
against calamities or other negative events caused by bad karma.[16][67]

A number of scholars have criticized the concepts of merit and karma as amoral, egoist and calculative, citing its quantitative nature
and emphasis on personal benefits in observing morality.[47][68][69] Other scholars have pointed out that in Buddhist ethics egoism and
altruism may not be as strictly separated as in western thought, personal benefit and that of the other becoming one as the practitioner
progresses on the spiritual path.[70][71][72] Buddhist ethics is informed by Buddhist metaphysics, notably, the not-self doctrine, and
therefore some western ethical concepts may not apply.[72] Besides, as Keown notices, moral action would not be possible if it was not
preceded by moral concern for others, as is illustrated by the example of the Buddha himself. Such moral concern is also part of the
Buddhist path, cultivated through loving-kindness and the other sublime attitudes (Pali: brahamavihāra).[73]

Accumulation and fruition

In post-canonical and vernacular Pāli literature, such as the Jātaka stories of the Buddha's
previous lives, the Avadānas and Anisaṃsa texts, as well as in many Mahāyāna texts, merit is
the main concept. It is regarded as something which can be accumulated throughout different
lifetimes in the process of attaining Buddhahood, and is also instrumental in attaining it. The
Bodhisatta intent on accomplishing Buddhahood and bringing other beings across the ocean of
suffering, must do so by accumulating all sorts of merits, in this context also called perfections
Merit is a "beneficial and protective
force which extends over a long
(Pali: pāramī; Sanskrit: pāramitā). This form of merit-making is always led by a vow for
period of time" (Terwiel)—and is the enlightenment (Pali: panidhāna; Sanskrit: praṇidhāna), and an intention to enlighten others as
effect of good deeds. [21] well, as well as the transferring of merits to all living beings to that effect.[74][75][76] Another
aspect of meritorious acts, emphasized more in later literature, is the idea that a single
meritorious act done will reap many fruits, as, for example, expressed in the Vimānavatthu.
Not only is the quality of people's next rebirth affected by their merits, but also the circumstances in which they are reborn; not only in
the next life, but also in adjacent lives after that. Wealth, lifespan, and position are all contingent on merit.[32][33]

In Buddhist texts further details are given in what way and to what extent a meritorious deed will bring results: this depends on the
spiritual quality of the recipient, the spiritual attitude of the giver, the manner in which one gives and the object given.[77][43][66] If the
recipient is a human, the gift yields more fruits than if the recipient is an animal, but a gift to a sāmaṇera (a young monk), a monk,
many monks, and the Buddha yield even more fruits, in ascending order.[78][79] If the giver is motivated by greed or other defilements
of the mind, the merit gained will be much less than if the giver is motivated by loving-kindness or other noble intentions.[80] Even the
intention of going to heaven, though in itself not considered wrong, is not seen as lofty as the intention to want to develop and purify
the mind. If the recipient is spiritually "not worthy of the gift", the gift will still be meritorious provided the giver's intention is good,
and this is also valid the other way around.[81][82] Good thoughts must also be maintained after the good deed is done, as regretting the
gift will also decrease the merit.[83] Whether the giver pronounces a certain wish or intention also affects the meritorious deed, as the
power of the merits can be channeled toward a certain purpose.[84][85][86][note 3] The manner in which people give is also important:
whether someone gives respectfully or not, and whether by giving someone is harming anyone. With regard to the size of the gift, a
larger gift is usually more meritorious than a smaller one, but purity of mind affects merit more than the gift's size.[87] It is therefore
recommended to give as much as you can afford, no more and no less.[88] Such care in choosing whom to give to and how to give, is
called being 'skilled in merit' (Pali: puññassa kovidā).[89]

Puñña, kusala and Nirvana

A teaching that exists in both Mahāyāna sūtras and Theravādin suttas is the teaching on the Ten Wholesome Ways of Action (Pali:
kusaladhamma). In Mahāyāna, this teaching is described as the way in which a Bodhisattva prevents "suffering in all evil destinies".
These ten wholesome ways are:

In giving up the taking of life, the practitioner will accomplish freedom from vexations;
In giving up stealing, the practitioner will find security in life, economically, socially and spiritually;
In giving up wrongful (sexual) conduct, the practitioner will find inner peace and peace in the family life;
In giving up lying, the practitioner will attain purity of speech and mind;
In giving up slander, the practitioner will be protected socially and spiritually;
In giving up harsh language, the practitioner's words will be more effective;
In giving up frivolous speech, the practitioner will become wise and dignified;
In giving up lust, the practitioner finds freedom in life through contentment and simplicity;
In giving up hatred, the practitioner will develop kindness and gentleness;
In giving up wrong views, the practitioner will not falter in the good and spiritual path.[90][91]

These ten actions are described as akusala ('unwholesome'; Sanskrit: akuśala), and when abstaining from them it is called kusala
('wholesome'; Sanskrit: kuśala).[92][note 4] Moreover, kusala and akusala are depicted as having 'roots' (mūla). Akusalamūla are the
roots of evil in the mind (the defilements), whereas the kusalamūla are roots connected with good qualities of the mind. Both of them
are called roots because they are qualities that can be cultivated and grown in the mind.[94][95]

Puñña and pāpa are close in meaning to kusala and akusala. Both pairs are used for distinguishing between ethically right and wrong.
However, even though the negatives akusala and pāpa have almost the same meaning, there are some differences between the
positives, kusala and puñña. According to P. D. Premasiri, Kusala is used to describe a more direct path to Nirvana than puñña.[96][97]
Damien Keown, however, believes they are merely different angles of the same concept: kusala refers to the moral status of an action,
whereas puñña refers to the experience of the consequences of the action.[98] He further points out that in the Pāli suttas (discourses)
mental development (bhāvanā) practices such as meditation are also included in the path of merit. It is unlikely that in the Tipiṭaka
meditation would be regarded as an indirect path or obstacle to Nirvana,[99][100] and there are passages that directly relate merit to
Nirvana.[101][102] Sometimes a distinction is made between worldly (Pali: lokīya) and transcendental (Pali: lokuttara) merit, in which
only transcendental merit leads to liberation.[103][104] The Thai scholar and monastic Phra Payutto believes that merit and kusala are
both used to describe the 'cleanliness of the mind' (RTGS: khwam sa-at mot chot). But whereas merit aims for the 'beautiful and
praiseworthy' (RTGS: suai-ngam na chuenchom) aspect of such cleanliness, with worldly benefits such as wealth, praise and happiness;
kusala aims for the 'purity' (RTGS: borisut) aspect of cleanliness, with enlightenment as its benefit. Phra Payutto does add that both
need to be accumulated on the Buddhist path. In making this comparison, he says this only holds for worldly merit, not for
transcendental merit. Collins equates transcendental merit with kusala.[105][106] In the earlier Pāli texts, kusala was much more
commonly used than puñña, puñña mostly being used in the context of the practice of giving.[107]

In a widely quoted theory, Melford Spiro and Winston King have distinguished two forms of Buddhism found in traditional Buddhist
societies, "kammatic Buddhism" focused on activities such as merit-making, and "nibbanic Buddhism" which focuses on the liberation
from suffering and rebirth.[108] In this theory, called the "transcendency thesis" (Keown), Buddhism has two quite separate aims,
which are pursued by separate groups, that is, laypeople (kammatic) and monks (nibbanic). This view has, however, been downplayed
or criticized by many other scholars, who believe that kammatic practices are in many ways connected to nibbanic practices, and the
aims of monks and laypeople cannot be that easily separated.[109][110][111]

This transcendency thesis has also been applied to scriptural interpretation. When discussing the path to the attainment of Nirvana, in
some passages in the Tipiṭaka merit is rejected. For example, in the Padhāna Sutta, the Bodhisatta (the Buddha Gotama to be) is
tempted by Māra to give up his self-torture practices to do meritorious acts instead. The Bodhisatta replies that even a bit of merit is no
use to him (Pali: "anumattenāpi puññena attho mayhaṃ na vijjati"). Some scholars, supporting the transcendency thesis, have
interpreted this to mean that merit can only lead to happiness and progress within Saṃsāra, but does not lead to Nirvana, and must in
fact be discarded before attaining Nirvana.[112][113][114] Marasinghe believes, however, that the word merit in this passage refers to
merit in the pre-Buddhist Brahmanical sense, connected with rituals and sacrifice, and the lay life.[115] Another example often quoted
in this context is the simile of the raft, which states that both dhamma and adhamma should be let go of in order to attain liberation.
Whereas the term adhamma in the text clearly refers to evil views, the meaning of dhamma is subject to different interpretations.
Considering that no other similar passage can be found in the Tipiṭaka, Keown believes that only this passage is not enough to base
the transcendency thesis on.[116]

In the Pāli Canon, an enlightened person is said to be neutral in terms of karma, that is, the person no longer generates karma, merit, or
demerit.[5][117][118] Some scholars have interpreted this to mean that an enlightened person attains a state where distinctions between
good and evil no longer exist. Other scholars have criticized this as making little sense, considering how the Buddha would normally
emphasize ethics. The fact that an enlightened person is neutral in terms of karma, does not mean he is ethically neutral.[119][120]
Indeed, the Buddha is quoted in the Tipiṭaka as saying he is foremost in 'higher morality' (adhisīla).[121] Keown attempts to overcome
this problem by proposing that enlightened people are beyond the accumulative experience of good deeds (merit, puñña), since they
are already perfected. They therefore do not need to accumulate goodness and the resulting happiness anymore. They no longer need
to strive for a happy rebirth in the next life, because they have gone beyond rebirth. Their enlightenment is, however, an ethical
perfection as well, though this is solely described as kusala, not as puñña.[122][123][124]

Field of merit
In pre-Buddhist Brahmanism, Brahmin priests used to perform yajñas (sacrifices) and thereby
generating merit for the donors who provided gifts for the sacrifice. In Buddhism, it was the
Buddhist monk who assumed this role, considered qualified to receive generosity from
devotees and thereby generating merit for them. He came to be described as āhuneyyo
('worthy of offering'), by analogy with the Brahmanical term āhavanīya ('worthy of sacrifice',
used in offerings to the ritual fire); and as dakkhiṇeyyo ('qualified to accept the offering'), by
analogy with the Brahmanical dakśiṇā, the sacrificial offering itself.[126][127][128] The Sangha
(monastic community) was also described as 'field of merit' (Pali: puññakkhetta; Sanskrit:
puṇyakṣetra).[129][130][131] The difference with the Brahmanical tradition was, according to The main concept of the field of
Marasinghe, that Buddhism did recognize other ways of generating merit apart from offerings merit is that good deeds done
to the monk, whereas the Brahmanical yajña only emphasized offerings to the Brahmin priest. towards some recipients accrue
more merit than good deeds to other
That is not to say that such offerings were not important in early Buddhism: giving to the
recipients. This is compared with a
Sangha was the first Buddhist activity which allowed for community participation, and
seed planted in fertile ground, which
preceded the first rituals in Buddhism.[126]
reaps more and better fruits than in
The main concept of the field of merit is that good deeds done towards some recipients accrue infertile ground.[49][125]
more merit than good deeds to other recipients. This is compared with a seed planted in fertile
ground which reaps more and better fruits than in infertile ground.[49][125][132] The Sangha is
described as a field of merit, mostly because the members of the Sangha follow the Noble Eightfold Path. But in many texts, the
Buddha and the Dhamma, and their representations, are also described as fields of merit. For example, Mahāyāna tradition considers
production and reverence of Dharma texts very meritorious—this tradition, sometimes referred to as the "cult of the book" (Gregory
Schopen), stimulated the development of print technology in China.[133][134][135] In other traditions a Buddha image is also
considered a field of merit, and any good deed involving a Buddha image is considered very meritorious.[136][137] A meritorious deed
will also be very valuable (and sometimes viewed in terms of a field of merit) if performed to repay gratitude to someone (such as
parents), or performed out of compassion for those who suffer.[16][138][139] Deeds of merit done towards the Sangha as a whole (Pali:
saṅghadāna) yield greater fruits than deeds done towards one particular recipient (Pali: pāṭipuggalikā dakkhiṇā) or deeds done with
favoritism.[77][66][140] Indeed, saṅghadāna yields even more fruits than deeds of merit to the person of the Buddha himself.[78][141]

Practice in Buddhist societies

Thus the Buddhist's view of his present activities

Merit-making
The ten bases of merit are very popular in Buddhist countries.[65] In China,
other similar lists are also well-known.[143][144] In Thai Buddhism, the word
"merit" (RTGS: bun) is often combined with "to do, to make" (RTGS: tham),
and this expression is frequently used, especially in relation to
giving.[145][146][147][note 5] In Buddhist societies, such merit-making is
common, especially those meritorious deeds which are connected to monks
and temples. In this regard, there is a saying in Burma, "Your hands are
always close to offering donations".[18][146][149] Contrary to popular
conceptions, merit-making is done by both monastics and laypeople
alike.[150][151][152] Buddhist monks or lay Buddhists earn merit through
mindfulness, meditation, chanting and other rituals. Giving is the fundamental
way of making merit for many laypeople, as monks are not allowed to cook
by themselves.[31] Monastics in their turn practice themselves to be a good
field of merit and make merit by teaching the donors. Merit-making has thus
created a symbiotic relationship between laypeople and Sangha,[77][66][153]
and the Sangha is obligated to be accessible to laypeople, for them to make
merit.[154]
Giving can be done in several ways. Some laypeople offer food, others offer
robes and supplies, and others fund ceremonies, build monasteries or
persuade a relative to ordain as a monk. Young people often temporary ordain
as monks, because they believe this will not only yield fruits of merit for
themselves, but also for their parents who have allowed them to
has a wider basis, they being but one group of
incidents in an indefinitely prolonged past, present
and future series. They are, as has been said, no
mere train of witnesses for or against him, but a
stage in a cumulative force of tremendous power.
He and his works stand in a mutual relation,
somewhat like that of child to parent in the case of
past works, of parent to child in the case of future
works. Now no normal mother is indifferent as to
whether or how she is carrying out her creative
potency. Nor can any normal Buddhist not care
whether his acts, wrought up hourly in their effect
into his present and future character, are making a
happy or a miserable successor. And so, without
any definite belief as to how, or in what realm of
the universe he will re-arise as that successor to
his present self, the pious Buddhist, no less than
his pious brethren of other creeds, goes on giving
money and effort, time and thought to good
works, cheerfully believing that nothing of it can
possibly forgo its effect, but that it is all a piling
up of merit or creative potency, to result,
somewhere, somewhere, somehow, in future
happiness—happiness which, though he be
altruistic the while, is yet more a future asset of
ordain.[155][156][157] In China, Thailand and India, it used to be common to his, than of some one in whom he naturally is less
offer land or the first harvest to a monastery.[158][153][159] Also, more socially interested than in his present self. He believes that,
oriented activities such as building a hospital or bridge, or giving to the poor because of what he is now doing, some one now
are included in the Tipiṭaka, and by many Buddhists considered in process of mental creation by him, and to all
meritorious.[112][151][160] In fieldwork studies done by researchers, devotees intents and purposes his future " self," will one
appreciated the merits of becoming ordained and supporting the building of a day taste less or more of life's trials. To that
temple the most. [157][161] Fisher found that building a temple was considered embryonic character he is inextricably bound ever
a great merit by devotees, because they believed they would in that way have making or marring it, and for it he is therefore and
part in all the wisdom which would be taught at that temple. [162] People may thus far responsible.
pursue merit-making for different reasons, as Buddhist orthodoxy allows for
various ideals, this-worldly or ultimate.[163] Although many scholars have C. A. F. Rhys Davids, A Study of the Buddhist
pointed out that devotees often aim for this-worldly benefits in merit-
Norm[142]
making,[164][165] it has also been pointed out that in old age, people tend to
make merit with a view on the next life and liberation.[165][166] Among lay
people, women tend to engage in merit-making more than men, and this may
be a way for them to enhance empowerment.[31][167][168] Very often, merit-making is done as a group, and it is believed that such
shared merit-making will cause people to be born together in next lives. This belief holds for families, friends, communities and even
the country as a whole.[169][170] In some cases, merit-making took the form of a community-wide competition, in which different
donors tried to outdo each other to prove their generosity and social status. This was the case during merit-making festivals in
nineteenth-century Thailand.[18][171] In modern Thailand, businesses and politicians often make merit to improve their public image
and increase confidence among customers or voters.[172] In Burma, lay devotees form associations to engage in merit-making as a
community.[173]

People were so intent on merit-making and giving, that in some societies,

In Thailand and Laos, a yearly festival is held, focused
on the Vessantara Jātaka, a story of a previous life of
the Buddha which is held sacred.[174]
people would even offer themselves and their family to a Buddhist temple, as
one high-ranking minister did in the ancient Pagan Kingdom (ninth until
fourteenth century Burma).[175][176] On a similar note, in Sri Lanka, kings
and commoners would offer slaves to the temple, and then donate money to
pay for their freedom, that way accruing two merits at once. Even more
symbolically, kings would sometimes offer their kingdom to a temple, which,
returned the gift immediately, together with some Dhamma teaching. Also in
Sri Lanka, King Mahakuli Mahatissa disguised himself as a peasant and
started to earn his living working on a paddy field, so he would be able to
gain more merit by working himself to obtain resources to give to Buddhist
monks.[177] In some cases, merit-making was even continued after a person's
death: in ancient Thai tradition, it was considered meritorious for people to
dedicate their corpses to feed the wild animals after death.[178]

Rituals

Many devout Buddhists observe regular "rest days" (Pali: uposatha) by keeping five precepts, listening to teachings, practicing
meditation and living at the temple.[179][180] Besides these weekly observances, ceremonies and festivities are yearly held and are
often occasions to make merit,[29][181] and are sometimes believed to yield greater merits than other, ordinary days.[182] In Thailand
and Laos, a yearly festival (RTGS: Thet Mahachat) is held focused on the Vessantara Jātaka, a story of a previous life of the Buddha
which is held sacred.[181][174] This festival, seven centuries old, played a major role in legitimating kingship in Thai society. Making
merit is the central theme of the festival. Since the period of Rama IV, however, the festival has become less popular.[183][184] Many
countries also celebrate the yearly Kaṭhina, when they offer robes, money and other requisites to the Sangha as a way to make
merit.[185][186] In Burma, the two yearly Light Festivals are typically occasions to make merit, as gifts are given to elders, and robes
are sewn for the Sangha.[187] In South Korea, a Buddha Day (Korean: seog-ga-tan-sin-il) is held, on which Buddhists pray and offer
alms.[188] Other kinds of occasions of merit-making are also upheld. A special form of merit-making less frequently engaged in is
going on pilgrimage, which is mostly common in Tibet and Japan. This practice is highly regarded and considered very
meritorious.[189][190]

Recording

In several Buddhist countries, it has been common to record merits done. In China, it was common for many centuries to keep record
of someone's meritorious deeds in 'merit ledgers' (pinyin: gōngguò gé). Although a belief in merit and retribution had preceded the
merit ledgers by many centuries, during the Ming dynasty, through the ledgers a practice of systematic merit accumulation was
established for the first time. The merit ledgers were lists of good deeds and bad deeds, organized in the form of a calendar for users to
calculate to what extent they had been practicing good deeds and avoiding bad deeds every day. The ledgers also listed the exact
retributions of every number of deeds done, to the detail. Through these ledgers it was believed someone could offset bad
karma.[191][192] In the fourth century CE, the Baopuzi, and in the twelfth century the Treatise On the Response of the Tao and the
Ledger of Merit and Demerit of the Taiwei Immortal introduced the basics of the system of merit ledgers. In the fourteenth century CE,
the Tao master Zhao Yizhen recommended the use of the ledgers to examine oneself, to bring emotion in harmony with
reason.[193][194] From the fourth to the sixteenth centuries, many types of ledgers were produced by Buddhist and Tao schools, and
the usage of the ledgers grew widespread.[195] The practice of recording merits has survived in China and Japan until the present
day.[196] In Theravāda countries, for example in Burma and Sri Lanka, similar customs have been observed.[197][198] In Sri Lanka, a
'book of merit' (Pali: puñña-potthaka, Sanskrit: puṇyapustaka) was sometimes kept by someone for years and read in the last
moments of life. This practice was based on the story of King Duṭṭhagāmaṇi, and was mostly practiced by the royalty and rich during
the period of the Mahāvaṁsa chronicle.[199][200][201] More recent practice has also been observed, for example, as a form of terminal
care.[202][203] or as part of the activities of lay merit-making associations.[204]

Merit and wealth

The association of wealth with merits done has deeply affected many Buddhist countries. The relation between giving and wealth is
ubiquitous in vernacular Pāli literature, and many stories of exemplary donors exist, such as the stories of Anāthapiṇḍika and
Jōtika.[205] In Buddhism, by emphasizing the usage of wealth for generosity, accumulating wealth for giving purposes thus became a
spiritual practice.[15] But using wealth in unrighteous ways, or hoarding it instead of sharing and giving it, is condemned extensively.
Taṇhā (thirst, desire, greed, craving) is what keeps a person wandering in Saṃsāra (the cycle of rebirth), instead of becoming
liberated. It is the attachment to wealth that is an obstacle on the spiritual path, not wealth per se. Stories illustrating these themes in
vernacular Buddhist literature, have profoundly influenced popular culture in Buddhist countries.[122][206][205] Several scholars have
described merit as a sort of spiritual currency or bookkeeping system.[44][197][207] Though objections have been made against this
metaphor,[203][208] it is not new. Similar comparisons have been made in the Milinda Pañhā, and in seventeenth-century China.
Moreover, Schopen has shown that Buddhism has had strong connections with the mercantile class, and Rotman thinks that a
mercantile ethos may have informed Buddhist texts such as the Divyāvadāna.[102][197] Gombrich objects to calling merit-making "dry
metaphysical mercantilism", but he does speculate on a historical relation between the concept of merit and the monetization of ancient
India's economy.[209]

Transfer

Description and origins

Two practices mentioned in the list of meritorious acts have

been studied quite extensively by scholars: dedicating (or
transferring) merit to others, and rejoicing in others'
merits.[211] Transferring merit is a widespread custom in all
Buddhist countries, Mahāyāna, Vajrayāna and
Theravāda.[212][213][214] In the Pāli tradition, the word
pattidāna is used, meaning 'giving of the acquired'.[215]
And in the Sanskrit tradition, the word pariṇāmanā is used
for transferring merit, meaning 'bending round or towards,
transfer, dedication'.[216] Of these translations, 'transfer of
merit' has become commonplace, though objected to by
some scholars.[217][218]
Sometimes transferring merit is symbolized by pouring water into a
Buddhist traditions provide detailed descriptions of how vessel.[51][210]
this transfer proceeds. Transferring merit to another person,
usually deceased relatives, is simply done by a mental wish.
Despite the word transfer, the merit of the giver is in no way decreased during such an act, just like a candle is used to light another
candle, but the light does not diminish.[64][74][219] The merit transferred cannot always be received, however. The dead relatives must
also be able to sympathize with the meritorious act. If the relatives do not receive the merit, the act of transferring merit will still be
beneficial for the giver himself. The transfer of merit is thus connected with the idea of rejoicing.[220] The other person who rejoices in
one's meritorious deeds, in that way also receives merit, if he approves of the merit done. Thus, rejoicing in others' merits, apart from
being one of the ten meritorious acts mentioned, is also a prerequisite for the transferring of merit to occur.[43][219][221] The purposes
for merit transfer differ. In many Buddhist countries, transferring merit is connected to the notion of an intermediate state. The merit
that is transferred to the deceased will help them to cross over safely to the next rebirth.[222] Some Mahāyāna traditions believe that it
can help deceased relatives to attain the Pure Land.[16] Another way of transferring merit, apart from helping the deceased, is to
dedicate it to the devas (deities), since it is believed that these are not able to make merits themselves. In this way it is believed their
favor can be obtained.[44][221][223] Finally, many Buddhists transfer merits to resolve a bond of revenge that may exist between
people, as it is believed that someone else's vengefulness may create harm in one's life.[196][224]
Initially in the Western study of Buddhism, some scholars believed that the transfer of merit was a uniquely Mahāyāna practice and
that it was developed only at a late period after the historical Buddha. For example, Heinz Bechert dated the Buddhist doctrine of
transfer of merit in its fully developed form to the period between the fifth and seventh centuries CE.[225] Scholars perceived that it
was discordant with early Buddhist understandings of karma,[213][225][226] and noticed that in the Kathāvatthu the idea is partly
refuted by Theravādins.[227][228] Other scholars have pointed out that the doctrine of the transfer of merit can be found early in the
Theravāda tradition.[214][229][230] Then there also scholars who propose that, although the transfer of merit did not exist as such in
early Buddhism, early doctrines did form a basis for it, the transfer of merit being an "inherent consequence" (Bechert) of these early
doctrines.[231][232][233]

The idea that a certain power could be transferred from one to another was known before the arising of Buddhism. In religious texts
such as the Mahābhārata, it is described that devas can transfer certain powers (Sanskrit: tejas). A similar belief existed with regard to
the energy gained by performing austerities (Sanskrit: tapas). Apart from these transfers of power, a second origin is found in
Brahamanical ancestor worship.[74] In the period preceding the arising of Buddhism, it was believed that after a person's death he had
to be transformed from a wandering preta to reach the blissful world of the pitṛs. This was done through the complex Śrāddha
ceremonies, which would secure the destiny of the deceased as a pitṛ. In Buddhism, however, ancestor worship was discontinued, as it
was believed that the dead would not reach heavenly bliss through rituals or worship, but only through the law of karma. Nevertheless,
the practice of transfer of merit arose by using the ethical and psychological principles of karma and merit, and connect these with the
sense of responsibility towards one's parents. This sense of responsibility was typical for pre-Buddhist practices of ancestor worship.
As for the veneration of dead ancestors, this was replaced by veneration of the Sangha.[234][235]

Application in the spreading of Buddhism

Sree Padma and Anthony Barber note that merit transfer was well-established and a very integral part of Buddhist practice in the
Andhra region of southern India.[236] In addition, inscriptions at numerous sites across South Asia provide definitive evidence that the
transfer of merit was widely practiced in the first few centuries CE.[237][238] In Theravāda Buddhism, it has become customary for
donors to share merits during ceremonies held at intervals, and during a teaching.[239][240][221] In Mahāyāna Buddhism, it is believed
that Bodhisattvas in the heavens are capable of transferring merits, and will do so to help relief the suffering of their devotees, who
then can dedicate it to others. This concept has led to several Buddhist traditions focused on devotion.[241][242][243] Mahāyāna and
Vajrayāna Buddhists transfer merits as part of the 'Seven-part-worship' (Sanskrit: saptāṇgapūjā),[244][245][246][note 6] and there is
almost no ceremony without some form of merit transfer.[23][248] Thus, merit transfer has developed to become a standard element in
the basic liturgy of all main schools of Buddhism. Indeed, the transfer of merits has grown that important in Buddhism, that it has
become a major way for Buddhism to sustain itself.[16] In Japan, some temples are even called ekōdera, which means a temple for
merit transfer.[249]

Kingship
In South and South-East Asia, merit-making was not only a practice for the mass, but was also
practiced by the higher echelons of society. Kingship and merit-making went
together.[175][251] In the Tipiṭaka, ideas about good governance were framed in terms of the
ideal of the 'wheel-turning monarch' (Pali: Cakkavatti; Sanskrit: Cakravartin), the king who
rules righteously and non-violently according to Dharma.[252] His roles and duties are
discussed extensively in Buddhist texts. The Cakkavatti is a moral example to the people and
possesses enough spiritual merit. It is through this that he earns his sovereignty, as opposed to
merely inheriting it.[253][254] Also, the Buddha himself was born as a prince, and was also a
king (Vessantara) in a previous life.[214][255][256] Apart from the models in the suttas, Pāli
chronicles such as the Mahāvaṃsa and the Jinakālamālī may have contributed to the ideals of
Buddhist kingship. In these vernacular Pāli works, examples are given of royalty performing
meritorious acts, sometimes as a form of repentance for previously committed wrongdoings.
The emperor Asoka (Sanskrit: Aśoka) is featured as an important patron supporting the
Sangha.[250]
The emperor Asoka (Sanskrit:
Because of these traditions, kings have had an important role in maintaining the Sangha, and Aśoka) is featured in later Pāli works
publicly performed grand acts of merit, as is testified by epigraphic evidence from South and as an important patron supporting the
South-East Asia.[216][251] In Sri Lanka, from the tenth century CE onward, kings have Sangha.[250]
assumed the role of a lay protector of the Sangha, and so have Thai kings, during the periods
of Sukhothai and Ayutthaya (fourteenth until eighteenth centuries). In fact, a number of kings
in Sri Lanka, Thailand, and Burma have described themselves as Bodhisattas, and epithets and royal language were established
accordingly.[175][257][258] In short, kingship in traditional Buddhist societies was connected with the Sangha as a field of merit: the
king assumed an exemplary role as a donor to the Sangha, and the Sangha legitimated the king as a leader of the state. Both facilitated
one another, and both needed each other.[259] In times of famine or other hardship, it was traditionally believed that the king was
failing, and the king would typically perform meritorious activities on a grand scale.[197][260][261] In this way the king would be able
to improve the kingdom's conditions, through his "overflow karma" (Walters).[262] A similar role was played by queens.[263]
In the last seven centuries in Thailand, the Vessantara Jātaka has played a significant role in legitimating kingship in Thailand, through
a yearly festival known as the 'Preaching of the Great Life' (RTGS: Thet Mahachat). Merit-making and pāramīs (doing good deeds,
developing good habits to become a Buddha) were greatly emphasized in this festival, through the story about Prince Vessantara's
generosity. During the reform period of Rama IV, as Thai Buddhism was being modernized, the festival was dismissed as not
reflecting true Buddhism. Its popularity has greatly diminished ever since. Nevertheless, the use of merit-making by the Thai monarchy
and government, to solidify their position and create unity in society, has continued until the late twentieth century.[264]

In modern society

19th–early 20th century

Buddhists are not in agreement with regard to the interpretation, role, and importance of merit. The role of merit-making in Buddhism
has been discussed throughout Buddhist history, but much more so in the last centuries. In the nineteenth century, during the rise of
Buddhist modernism and the Communist regimes, Buddhists in South and Southeast Asia became more critical about merit-making
when it became associated with magical practices, privileging, ritualism and waste of resources.[265][266][267][note 7] In pre-modern
Thailand, a great deal of the funds of temples were derived from the profits of land that were offered to temples by royalty and nobility.
During the period of religious reform and administrative centralization in the nineteenth and early twentieth century, however, Thai
temples were no longer supported in this manner and had to find other ways to maintain themselves.[159]

At the beginning of the twentieth century, perspectives of merit-making had changed again, as merit-making was being associated with
capitalism and consumerism, which had been rising in South and Southeast Asia.[270][271] Furthermore, in some Buddhist countries,
such as Thailand, there is a tendency among teachers and practitioners to dismiss and even revile merit-making in favor of teachings
about detachment and attaining Nirvana, for which L. S. Cousins has coined the term "ultimatism".[272][273][274]

From 1960s onward

Studies done in the 1960s and 1970s in Thailand, Sri Lanka and Burma showed that a great deal of time, effort and money was
invested by people in merit-making, e.g. Spiro described Burma's rural economy as "geared to the overriding goal of the accumulation
of wealth as a means of acquiring merit". In some studies done in rural Burma, up to thirty percent of people's income was spent on
merit-making.[275] In 2014, when Burma ranked highest on the World Giving Index (tied with the United States, and followed by
many other Buddhist countries), scholars attributed this to the Burmese habit of merit-making.[18][276] Studies done in Thailand,
however, showed that in the 1980s merit-making was declining, and a significant group did no longer believe in karma—though this
was not a majority.[277] Some scholars disagree with these findings, however, saying that Buddhist practices such as merit-making are
still very widespread.[271] Similar observations have been made about Cambodia and even about Thai people in the United
States.[278][279] As for Buddhist "converts" in the west, for example from the United Kingdom, the interest in merit is less than among
Asian Buddhists, but they strongly appreciate the generosity and reverence as exhibited by Asian Buddhists.[280][281]

Average expenses in merit-making per person, in

Discussion by scholars Thailand, 2005.[29]
Region Baht/Person/Year
Some scholars have suggested that merit-making may have affected the economies of
Buddhist countries in a negative way, because spending savings on the local temple Bangkok Metropolitan Area 1,512
would prevent consumption and investment and therefore stunt economic growth. Central 1,032
Other researchers have disagreed, pointing out that spending resources on a Buddhist
temple does stimulate economic growth through the investment in goods for the North 672

temple. [29][282][note 8] It has also been suggested that even if the economy of Buddhist Northeast 492
countries would be better off without merit-making, it would result in an economy that South 516
the majority of the population would not prefer. Another criticism often leveled at
merit-making in modern times is that it prevents people from using their resources to National average 804
help the poor and needy. Very often, however, temples do have many social roles in
society, and offer help to many groups in society—resources are therefore redistributed widely.[284][285] Moreover, since merit-making
is often done as a community, merit-making may strengthen social ties, which Walters calls "sociokarma".[286]

Scholars have often connected the notion of karma to the determinism in the caste system in India.[287] Just like in the case of karma,
some scholars believe that a belief in merit can cause social differences to stay unchanged. This would be the case when the poor, who
cannot make much merit, resign to their fate.[288][289] Other scholars point out that merit can be used to improve social status in the
present, as in the case of someone ordaining as a monk for a few years.[214] And vice versa, if someone's social status quickly
deteriorates, for example, due to quick changes in the bureaucratic structure, these changes might be justified in Buddhist societies
because someone's store of merit is believed to have run out.[290] Someone's position in society, even in the cosmos, is always subject
to the impermanent workings of merit and demerit. In traditional Buddhist societies, quick changes in position, status, or roles are
therefore considered part of life, and this insecurity is a motivator in trying to improve the situation through merit-making.[291][292]
Findly points out that in Buddhist ideals of merit-making, the earned value gained by doing good deeds is more important than the
assigned value gained by social status at birth.[293]

Phu Mi Bun movements

The idea of merit is also at the basis of the Phu Mi Bun movements as has been studied in Thailand and other Buddhist societies. Phu
Mi Bun are people who are considered to have much merit from past lives, whose influence morally affects society at
large.[294][295][296] Phu Mi Bun are in many ways similar to people declared Bodhisattvas in Buddhist societies, and in fact, the word
Phu Mi Bun is often used in traditional Thai texts about the previous lives of the Buddha. Besides the example of the king himself,
certain monks and shamans have assumed this role throughout history. In Thailand, around the turn of the twentieth century, a
millennialist movement arose regarding the coming of a Phu Mi Bun, to the extent of becoming an insurgency which was suppressed
by the government.[297][298][299] This insurgency became known to Thai historians as the "rebellion of the Phu Mi Bun"
(RTGS: Kabot Phu Mi Bun), commonly known in English as the Holy Man's Rebellion.[300] Several of such rebellions involving Phu
Mi Bun have taken place in the history of Thai, Laos, Cambodia and Burma. For example, in Cambodia, there were Phu Mi Bun–led
revolts against the French control of Cambodia.[301] Lucien Hanks has shown that beliefs pertaining to Phu Mi Bun have profoundly
affected the way Thai people relate to authority.[40] Indologist Arthur Basham, however, believed that in contemporary Thai society
the Phu Mi Bun is more of a label, and merit more of a secular term than a deeply-rooted belief.[302]

Merit release

One merit-making practice that has received more scholarly attention since the 1990s is the practice of "merit
release". Merit release is a ritual of releasing animals from captivity, as a way to make merit. Merit release is a
practice common in many Buddhist societies, and has since the 2010s made a comeback in some societies.[303]
Its origins are unclear, but traditionally it is said to originate from the Mahāyāna Humane King Sutra, among
other sources.[304][305] It often involves a large number of animals which are released simultaneously, as well as
chanting, making a resolution, and transfer of merits.[306][307] Though the most common practice is the
Merit release is a releasing of fish and birds back in nature, there are also other forms: in Tibet, animals are bought from the
ritual of releasing slaughterhouse to release.[308] However, the practice has come under criticism by wildlife conservationists and
animals from scholars. Studies done in Cambodia, Hong Kong and Taiwan have shown that the practice may not only be fatal
captivity, as a for a high percentage of the released animals, but may also affect the survival of threatened species, create a
way of making black market for wildlife, as well as pose a threat for public hygiene.[304][309] In Thailand, there are cases where
merit. [303]
animals are captured for the explicit purpose of being sold to be released—often into unsuitable ecosystems.[310]
Some Buddhist organizations have responded to this by adjusting their practices, by working together with
conservationist organizations to educate people, and even by pushing for new laws controlling the practice.[311]
In 2016, the Society for Conservation Biology (SCB) started discussing possible solutions with religious communities on how the
practice could be adapted. According to the SCB, the communities have generally responded positively.[304][312] In the meantime, in
some countries, laws have been issued to control the practice. In Singapore, to limit merit release on Vesak celebrations, people were
fined.[305]

Despite its critics, merit release continues to grow, and has also developed new forms in western countries. In 2016, it was widely
reported that the Canada-based Great Enlightenment Buddhist Institute Society (GEBIS) had released 600 pounds (270 kg) of lobsters
in the ocean. The release was planned in agreement with local lobster-men.[313] In the same year, Wendy Cook from Lincoln, United
States, bought about 135 rabbits from a farm to raise them under better conditions. The costly release, advertised on Facebook as The
Great Rabbit Liberation of 2016, was supported by Buddhist monastics from Singapore and the Tibetan tradition, and was based on
the idea of merit-making.[314] In a less successful attempt, two Taiwanese Buddhists released crab and lobsters in the sea at Brighton,
United Kingdom, to make merit. They were fined by the authorities for £15,000 for a wildlife offense that could have significant
impact on native species.[315]

See also
Three Refuges
Noble Eightfold Path
Sukha
Karma in Buddhism

Notes
1. In the Sangīti Sutta ("Chanting together discourse," Digha Nikaya 33), verse 38, the leading disciple Sāriputta is
described as teaching the same triad: dāna, sīla, bhāvanā.[55]
 2. See Digha Nikāya iii.218
3. The announcing of a certain intention in reference to the actions someone has done (Pali: saccakiriya) is a common
theme in all Indian religion [84]
4. There is some discussion as to the best translation of kusala, some preferring 'skilful' or 'intelligent' instead.[93]
5. However, the term merit-making may also originate from a translation of Pāli terms. In Pāli texts several of such terms
were used.[148]
6. There are also other forms that are practiced, varying from four to eleven parts.[247]
7. From the 1980s onward, the communist regimes in Laos and Cambodia no longer viewed Buddhism as an obstacle
to the development of the state, and many of the restrictions with regard to Buddhist practice were lifted. [50][268] In
Burma, the former military government approached merit-making practices differently: they justified their forced labor
camps by citing that the labor there yielded merit. At the same time, Aung San Suu Kyi referred to the struggle for
democracy as meritorious.[269]
8. Since the 2000s, studies in China have shown a growing interest among local government officials to promote merit-
making activities, believing it to stimulate local economy.[283]

Citations
1. Spiro 1982, p. 141.
2. Rhys Davids & Stede 1921, p. 86.
3. Marasinghe 2003, p. 461.
4. Harvey 2012, p. 44.
5. Nyanatiloka 1980b.
6. Pye & Strong 1987, pp. 5870, 5873.
7. Hanks 1962, p. 1247.
8. Harvey 2000, p. 18.
9. Cousins 1996, p. 155.
10. Holt 1981.
11. Marasinghe 2003, pp. 457–8.
12. Premasiri 1976, p. 66.
13. Shohin, V.K. (2010). ПАПА–ПУНЬЯ (http://iphras.ru/eli
b/2256.html#) [pāpa–puñña]. New Encyclopedia of
Philosophy (in Russian). Institute of Philosophy of the
Russian Academy of Sciences, National public and
Science Foundation.
14. Norman, K.R. (1992). "Theravāda Buddhism and
Brahmanical Hinduism: Brahmanical Terms in a
Buddhist Guise" (https://www.academia.edu/1572809
1). In Skorupski, Tadeusz (ed.). The Buddhist forum:
Seminar Papers 1988–90. New Delhi: Heritage
Publishers. pp. 197–8. ISBN 978-81-7026-179-7.
15. Findly 2003, p. 2.
16. Tanabe 2004, p. 532.
17. McFarlane 1997, p. 409.
18. Fuller, Paul (4 September 2015). "The act of giving:
what makes Myanmar so charitable?" (http://www.mmti
mes.com/index.php/lifestyle/16317-the-act-of-giving-wh
at-makes-myanmar-so-charitable.html). Myanmar
Times. Retrieved 13 October 2016.
19. Marasinghe 2003.
20. Basham 1989, p. 126.
21. Terwiel, B. J. (1 January 1976). "A Model for the Study
of Thai Buddhism" (https://doi.org/10.2307%2F205327
1). The Journal of Asian Studies. 35 (3): 391–403.
doi:10.2307/2053271 (https://doi.org/10.2307%2F2053
271). JSTOR 2053271 (https://www.jstor.org/stable/205
3271). S2CID 162810180 (https://api.semanticscholar.
org/CorpusID:162810180).
22. Egge 2013, p. 21.
23. Gutschow 2004, p. 14.
24. Gombrich 2009, p. 44.
25. Hanks 1962, p. 1254.
26. Brokaw 2014, p. 28.
27. Keyes 1973, p. 96.
28. Gombrich 1971, pp. 204–5.
29. "Thai Merit-Making: Bt3.3 Billion Cashflow for
Merchants" (https://web.archive.org/web/20161018200
510/https://www.kasikornresearch.com/en/k-econanaly
sis/pages/ViewSummary.aspx?docid=2092). Kasikorn
Research Center. 22 February 2005. Archived from the
original (https://www.kasikornresearch.com/en/k-econa
nalysis/pages/ViewSummary.aspx?docid=2092) on 18
October 2016. Retrieved 13 October 2016.
30. Keyes 1983, p. 268.
31. Cate & Lefferts 2006, p. 589.
32. Scott 2009, p. 29.
33. Williams 2008, p. 158.
34. Rao, K. Ramakrishna; Paranjpe, Anand C. (2015).
Cultural Climate and Conceptual Roots of Indian
Psychology. Springer India. pp. 47–8. doi:10.1007/978-
81-322-2440-2_2 (https://doi.org/10.1007%2F978-81-3
22-2440-2_2). ISBN 978-81-322-2440-2. {{cite
book}}: |work= ignored (help)
35. Elucidation of the intrinsic meaning so named the
Commentary on the Vimāna stories (Paramattha-dīpanī
nāma Vimānavatthu-aṭṭhakathā) (https://www.scribd.co
m/document/157802514/Elucidation-of-the-intrinsic-me
aning-so-named-the-commentary-of-the-vimana-storie
s). Translated by Masefield, Peter; Jayawickrama, N.A.
(1 ed.). Oxford: Pali Text Society. 1989. pp. xxxv, xlv.
ISBN 978-0-86013-272-1.
36. Gutschow 2004, p. 2.
37. The connected discourses of the Buddha: a new
translation of the Saṃyutta Nikāya (http://lirs.ru/lib/sutr
a/Connected_Discourses_of_the_Buddha(Samyutta_
Nikaya).Vol.I.pdf) (PDF). Translated by Bodhi, Bhikkhu.
Boston: Wisdom Publications. 2001. p. 78. ISBN 978-
0-86171-188-8.
38. Marasinghe 2003, p. 460.
39. Harvey 2000, p. 19.
40. Hanks 1962.
41. Keyes 1983, pp. 267–8.
42. Marasinghe 2003, p. 471.
43. Harvey 2000, p. 20.
44. Langer, Rita (2007). Buddhist Rituals of Death and
Rebirth: Contemporary Sri Lankan Practice and Its
Origins (https://books.google.com/books?id=dXB9AgA
AQBAJ). Routledge. Introduction. ISBN 978-1-134-
15872-0.
45. Gombrich 2006, p. 127.
46. Gutschow 2004, p. 15.
47. Patrick, Jory (1996). A History of the Thet Maha Chat
and its Contribution to a Thai Political Culture (https://o
penresearch-repository.anu.edu.au/handle/1885/1089
3) (original Ph.D. Thesis). Australian National
University. p. 74.
48. Skilling 2005, pp. 9832–3.
49. Salguero 2013, p. 342.
50. Cate & Lefferts 2006, p. 590.
51. Calkowski, Marcia (2006b). "Thailand" (https://web.arc
hive.org/web/20170302052853/http://www.politicalave
nue.com/PDF/ENCYCLOPEDIAS/Encyclopedia%20o
f%20Religious%20Practices%20Vol3.pdf) (PDF). In
Riggs, Thomas (ed.). Worldmark Encyclopedia of
Religious Practices. Vol. 3. Farmington Hills:
Thomson-Gale. p. 447. ISBN 978-0-7876-6614-9.
Archived from the original (https://www.politicalavenue.
com/PDF/ENCYCLOPEDIAS/Encyclopedia%20of%20
Religious%20Practices%20Vol3.pdf) (PDF) on 2
March 2017.
52. Anusaraṇaśāsanakiarti, Phra Khrū; Keyes, Charles F.
(1980). "Funerary rites and the Buddhist meaning of
death: An interpretative text from Northern Thailand" (ht
tp://www.siamese-heritage.org/jsspdf/1971/JSS_068_1
b_PhraKhruAnusaranasasanaKiartiKeyes_FuneraryRi
tesAndBuddhistMeaningOfDeath.pdf) (PDF). Journal of
the Siam Society. 68 (1): 18.
53. Mulder 1969, p. 109.
54. Mulder 1969, pp. 109–10.
55. Walshe 1995, p. 485.
56. Findly 2003, pp. 185, 250.
57. Lehman, F. K. (1 January 1972). "Doctrine, Practice,
and Belief in Theravada Buddhism (Review of
Buddhism and Society: A Great Tradition and its
Burmese Vicissitudes by Melford E. Spiro)". The
Journal of Asian Studies. 31 (2): 373–380.
doi:10.2307/2052605 (https://doi.org/10.2307%2F2052
605). JSTOR 2052605 (https://www.jstor.org/stable/205
2605). S2CID 162817978 (https://api.semanticscholar.
org/CorpusID:162817978).
58. Jones 1979, p. 372.
59. Namchoom & Lalhmingpuii 2016, p. 47.
60. Jones 1979, p. 374.
61. Salguero 2013, p. 344.
62. Skilling 2005, p. 9832.
63. Marasinghe 2003, pp. 460, 462.
64. Marasinghe 2003, p. 470.
65. Nyanatiloka 1980c, p. 275.
66. Pye & Strong 1987, p. 5873.
67. Gutschow 2004, pp. 14–5.
68. Spiro 1982, pp. 105–7.
69. Keown 1992, p. 13.
70. Neusner, Jacob; Chilton, Bruce (2008). The golden
rule: the ethics of reciprocity in world religions (https://b
ooks.google.com/books?id=b3ISBwAAQBAJ&pg=PA1
17). London: Continuum. p. 117. ISBN 978-1-4411-
9012-3.
71. Harris, Stephen E. (2015). "On the Classification of
Śāntideva's Ethics in the Bodhicaryāvatāra" (https://phil
archive.org/rec/HAROTC-8). Philosophy East and
West. 65 (1): 249–275. doi:10.1353/pew.2015.0008 (htt
ps://doi.org/10.1353%2Fpew.2015.0008).
S2CID 170301689 (https://api.semanticscholar.org/Cor
pusID:170301689).
72. Perrett, Roy W. (March 1987). "Egoism, altruism and
intentionalism in Buddhist ethics". Journal of Indian
Philosophy. 15 (1): 71–85. doi:10.1007/BF00213993 (h
ttps://doi.org/10.1007%2FBF00213993).
S2CID 170376011 (https://api.semanticscholar.org/Cor
pusID:170376011).
73. Keown 1992, pp. 74–6.
74. Pye & Strong 1987, p. 5874.
75. Williams 2008, pp. 45, 57, 59.
76. Skilling 2005, pp. 9833, 9839.
77. Heim, Maria (2004). "Dāna" (https://web.archive.org/we
b/20150912051354/http://www.ahandfulofleaves.org/d
ocuments/Encyclopedia%20of%20Buddhism_2%20Vo
ls_%20Buswell.pdf) (PDF). In Buswell, Robert E. (ed.).
Encyclopedia of Buddhism. Vol. 2. New York (u.a.):
Macmillan Reference USA, Thomson Gale. p. 196.
ISBN 978-0-02-865720-2. Archived from the original (ht
tp://www.ahandfulofleaves.org/documents/Encyclopedi
a%20of%20Buddhism_2%20Vols_%20Buswell.pdf)
(PDF) on 12 September 2015.
78. Brekke 1998, p. 301.
79. Spiro 1982, pp. 108–9.
80. Scott 2009, p. 94.
81. Harvey 2000, pp. 19, 21–2.
82. Brekke 1998, pp. 301, 309–10.
83. de La Vallée Poussin, Louis (1917). The way to
Nirvana: Six lectures on ancient Buddhism as a
discipline of salvation (https://books.google.com/book
s?id=JOxDp7SRYNUC). Hibbert lectures. Library of
Alexandria. ISBN 978-1-4655-7944-7.
84. Marasinghe 2003, p. 468.
85. Walters 2003, pp. 23–4.
86. Gómez 2002, pp. 30–1.
87. Harvey 2000, pp. 20–1, 192.
88. Spiro 1982, p. 110.
89. Findly 2003, p. 260.
90. Bhikkhu, Saddhaloka. "The Discourse on the Ten
Wholesome Ways of Action" (http://www.buddhistdoor.c
om/OldWeb/resources/sutras/wholesome_sutra.htm).
Buddhistdoor. Retrieved 13 November 2014.
91. "The discourse on the ten wholesome ways of action"
(http://undumbara.wordpress.com/2009/09/23/the-disco
urse-on-the-ten-wholesome-ways-of-action/).
Undumbara Garden. 23 September 2009. Retrieved
13 November 2014.
92. Marasinghe 2003, pp. 459, 464.
93. Cousins 1996, pp. 137–8.
94. Gómez 2002, pp. 324–5.
95. Thomas 1953, p. 120.
 96. Premasiri 1976. 133. Gummer, Nathalie (2005). "Buddhist Books and Texts:
97. Marasinghe 2003, pp. 463–5. Ritual Uses of Books" (https://web.archive.org/web/201
98. Keown 1992, p. 123. 70302073830/https://www.politicalavenue.com/PDF/E
NCYCLOPEDIAS/The%20Gale%20Encyclopedia%20
99. Marasinghe 2003, p. 467. of%20Religion%202nd%20Ed%20Vol.%202.pdf)
100. Keown 1992, p. 90. (PDF). In Jones, Lindsay (ed.). Encyclopedia of
101. Egge 2013, pp. 55–6. Religion. Vol. 2 (2 ed.). Detroit: Thomson Gale.
102. Collins 1997, p. 290. pp. 1261–4. ISBN 978-0-02-865735-6. Archived from
the original (https://www.politicalavenue.com/PDF/EN
103. Spiro 1982, p. 95.
CYCLOPEDIAS/The%20Gale%20Encyclopedia%20o
104. Collins 1997, p. 482. f%20Religion%202nd%20Ed%20Vol.%202.pdf) (PDF)
105. Collins 1997, p. 495. on 2 March 2017.
106. Payutto, Phra (1993). พจนานุกรมพุทธศาสน์ ฉบับประมวล 134. Williams 2008, pp. 45, 145, 149.
ศัพท์ พจนานุกรมพุทธศาสตร์ ฉบับประมาลศัพท์ (http://www. 135. Kieschnick, John (2003). The impact of Buddhism on
watnyanaves.net/uploads/File/books/pdf/dictionary_of_ Chinese material culture (https://books.google.com/boo
buddhism_vocabulary_version.pdf) [Dictionary of ks?id=sgkKbE-9EhAC&pg=PA180). New Jersey:
Buddhism, Vocabulary] (PDF) (in Thai) (7 ed.). University Presses of California, Columbia and
Bangkok: Mahachulalongkornrajavidyalaya University. Princeton. pp. 180–1. ISBN 978-0-691-09676-6.
pp. 25–6, 179. ISBN 978-974-575-029-6.
136. Morgan, David (2005). "Buddhism: Buddhism in Tibet"
107. Cousins 1996, pp. 154–5. (https://web.archive.org/web/20170302052223/http://w
108. Spiro 1982. ww.politicalavenue.com/PDF/ENCYCLOPEDIAS/Th
109. Aronson, Harvey B. (1 January 1979). "The e%20Gale%20Encyclopedia%20of%20Religion%202
Relationship of the Karmic to the Nirvanic in nd%20Ed%20Vol.%2014.pdf) (PDF). In Jones, Lindsay
Theravāda Buddhism". The Journal of Religious (ed.). Encyclopedia of Religion. Vol. 14 (2 ed.). Detroit:
Ethics. 7 (1): 28–36. JSTOR 40018241 (https://www.jst Thomson Gale. p. 9623. ISBN 978-0-02-865983-1.
or.org/stable/40018241). Archived from the original (https://www.politicalavenue.
110. Swearer 1995, p. 10. com/PDF/ENCYCLOPEDIAS/The%20Gale%20Encycl
opedia%20of%20Religion%202nd%20Ed%20Vol.%20
111. Keown 1992, pp. 85–105. 14.pdf) (PDF) on 2 March 2017.
112. Premasiri 1976, p. 68. 137. Skilling 2005, p. 9829.
113. Keown 1992, p. 89. 138. Salguero 2013, p. 345.
114. Egge 2013, p. 23.
139. Harvey 2000, p. 23.
115. Marasinghe 2003, pp. 462–3. 140. Harvey 2000, p. 22.
116. Keown 1992, pp. 94–105. 141. Adamek 2005, p. 140.
117. Marasinghe 2003, pp. 466, 471. 142. Rhys Davids, C. A. F. (1912). A Study of the Buddhist
118. McDermott 1975, pp. 431–2. Norm (https://archive.org/details/MN40132ucmf_6).
119. Premasiri 1976, p. 73. London: T. Butterworth. pp. 148 (https://archive.org/deta
120. Marasinghe 2003, pp. 465–6. ils/MN40132ucmf_6/page/n156)–9.
121. Keown 1992, p. 113. 143. Walsh 2007, p. 361.
122. Goodman, Charles (2009). Consequences of 144. Lamotte 1988, p. 72.
Compassion: An Interpretation and Defense of 145. Keyes, Charles F. (1987). "Thai religion" (https://web.ar
Buddhist Ethics (https://archive.org/details/consequenc chive.org/web/20170302073830/https://www.politicalav
esofco0000good). Oxford University Press. ISBN 978- enue.com/PDF/ENCYCLOPEDIAS/The%20Gale%20
0-19-988845-0. Encyclopedia%20of%20Religion%202nd%20Ed%20V
123. Keown 1992, pp. 90, 124, 127–8. ol.%202.pdf) (PDF). In Jones, Lindsay (ed.).
124. Spiro 1982, p. 43. Encyclopedia of Religion. Vol. 2 (2 ed.). Detroit:
Thomson Gale. p. 9094. ISBN 978-0-02-865735-6.
125. Brekke 1998, pp. 299–300. Archived from the original (https://www.politicalavenue.
126. Marasinghe 2003, p. 459. com/PDF/ENCYCLOPEDIAS/The%20Gale%20Encycl
127. Egge 2013, pp. 19–20. opedia%20of%20Religion%202nd%20Ed%20Vol.%20
128. Findly 2003, pp. 217–8, 222. 2.pdf) (PDF) on 2 March 2017.
129. Rhys Davids & Stede 1921, p. 87. 146. Seeger, Martin (2006). "Die thailändische Wat Phra
Thammakai-Bewegung" (https://www.buddhismuskund
130. Brekke 1998, p. 299.
e.uni-hamburg.de/pdf/4-publikationen/buddhismus-in-g
131. Egge 2013, p. 20. eschichte-und-gegenwart/bd11-k08seeger.pdf) [The
132. Adamek 2005, p. 141. Thai Wat Phra Dhammakaya Movement] (PDF). In
Mathes, Klaus-Dieter; Freese, Harald (eds.). Buddhism
in the Past and Present (in German). Vol. 9. Asia-Africa
Institute, University of Hamburg.
147. Mulder 1969, p. 110.
148. Findly 2003, pp. 256–7.
149. Marston 2006, p. 171.
150. Egge 2013, p. 61.
151. Mulder 1969, p. 115.
152. Schopen 1997, pp. ix–x, 31.
153. Namchoom & Lalhmingpuii 2016, p. 52.
154. Findly 2003, p. 226.
155. Kinnard, Jacob (2006). "Buddhism" (https://web.archiv
e.org/web/20170302030021/http://www.politicalavenu
e.com/PDF/ENCYCLOPEDIAS/Encyclopedia%20of%
20Religious%20Practices%20Vol1.pdf) (PDF). In
Riggs, Thomas (ed.). Worldmark Encyclopedia of
Religious Practices. Vol. 1. Farmington Hills: Thomson
Gale. p. 68. ISBN 978-0-7876-6612-5. Archived from
the original (https://www.politicalavenue.com/PDF/EN
CYCLOPEDIAS/Encyclopedia%20of%20Religious%2
0Practices%20Vol1.pdf) (PDF) on 2 March 2017.
156. Kapstein, Maththew T. (2005). "Buddhism: Buddhism in
Tibet" (https://web.archive.org/web/20170302073830/ht
tps://www.politicalavenue.com/PDF/ENCYCLOPEDIA
S/The%20Gale%20Encyclopedia%20of%20Religion%
202nd%20Ed%20Vol.%202.pdf) (PDF). In Jones,
Lindsay (ed.). Encyclopedia of Religion. Vol. 2 (2 ed.).
Detroit: Thomson Gale. p. 1155. ISBN 978-0-02-
865735-6. Archived from the original (https://www.politi
calavenue.com/PDF/ENCYCLOPEDIAS/The%20Gal
e%20Encyclopedia%20of%20Religion%202nd%20E
d%20Vol.%202.pdf) (PDF) on 2 March 2017.
157. Scott 2009, p. 95.
158. Walsh 2007, pp. 362–6.
159. Fuengfusakul 1998, pp. 53–4.
160. Scott 2009, p. 126.
161. Mulder 1969.
162. Fisher 2008, p. 148.
163. Swearer 1995, p. 6.
164. Scott 2009, p. 101.
165. Mulder 1979, p. 127.
166. Swearer 1995, p. 22.
167. Bao 2005, p. 124.
168. Marston 2006, p. 172.
169. Appleton 2014, pp. 127, 135–6.
170. Walters 2003, pp. 20–2.
171. Jory 2002, p. 61.
172. Fuengfusakul 1998, pp. 54–5.
173. Schober 1996, passim..
174. Jory 2002, p. 37.
175. Aung-Thwin & Aung-Thwin 2013, p. 84.
176. Bowie 2017, p. 19.
177. Rāhula 1966, pp. 255–6.
178. Igunma, Jana (2015). "Meditations on the Foul in Thai
Manuscript Art" (http://www.iabu.org/sites/default/files/5t
hJIABU.pdf) (PDF). Journal of the International
Association of Buddhist Universities. V: 69–70.
179. Holt, John C. (2006). "Sri Lanka" (https://web.archive.or
g/web/20170302052853/http://www.politicalavenue.co
m/PDF/ENCYCLOPEDIAS/Encyclopedia%20of%20R
eligious%20Practices%20Vol3.pdf) (PDF). In Riggs,
Thomas (ed.). Worldmark Encyclopedia of Religious
Practices. Vol. 3. Farmington Hills: Thomson Gale.
p. 379. ISBN 978-0-7876-6614-9. Archived from the
original (https://www.politicalavenue.com/PDF/ENCYC
LOPEDIAS/Encyclopedia%20of%20Religious%20Pra
ctices%20Vol3.pdf) (PDF) on 2 March 2017.
180. Ledgerwood, Judy (2008), Kent, Alexandra; Chandler,
David (eds.), "Buddhist Practice in Rural Kandal
Province, 1960 and 2003" (https://www.diva-portal.org/
smash/get/diva2:857291/FULLTEXT01.pdf) (PDF),
People of virtue: Reconfiguring religion, power and
moral order in Cambodia today, Copenhagen: NIAS,
p. 149, ISBN 978-87-7694-036-2
181. Swearer, Donald K. (1987). "Buddhist Religious Year"
(https://web.archive.org/web/20170302073830/https://w
ww.politicalavenue.com/PDF/ENCYCLOPEDIAS/Th
e%20Gale%20Encyclopedia%20of%20Religion%202
nd%20Ed%20Vol.%202.pdf) (PDF). In Jones, Lindsay
(ed.). Encyclopedia of Religion. Vol. 2 (2 ed.). Detroit:
Thomson Gale. p. 1306. ISBN 978-0-02-865735-6.
Archived from the original (https://www.politicalavenue.
com/PDF/ENCYCLOPEDIAS/The%20Gale%20Encycl
opedia%20of%20Religion%202nd%20Ed%20Vol.%20
2.pdf) (PDF) on 2 March 2017.
182. Powers, John (2007). Introduction to Tibetan Buddhism
(https://selfdefinition.org/tibetan/Intro-Tibetan-Buddhism
-John-Powers.pdf) (PDF) (2nd ed.). Ithaca, N.Y.: Snow
Lion Publications. p. 219. ISBN 978-1-55939-835-0.
183. Jory 2002, pp. 63–4.
184. Bowie 2017, p. 45.
185. Swearer 1995, pp. 19, 22–3.
186. Rāhula 1966, p. 285.
187. Calkowski 2006, p. 105.
188. Reinschmidt, Michael C. (2006). "South Korea" (https://
web.archive.org/web/20170302052853/http://www.polit
icalavenue.com/PDF/ENCYCLOPEDIAS/Encyclopedi
a%20of%20Religious%20Practices%20Vol3.pdf)
(PDF). In Riggs, Thomas (ed.). Worldmark
Encyclopedia of Religious Practices. Vol. 3.
Farmington Hills: Thomson Gale. p. 363. ISBN 978-0-
7876-6614-9. Archived from the original (https://www.p
oliticalavenue.com/PDF/ENCYCLOPEDIAS/Encyclop
edia%20of%20Religious%20Practices%20Vol3.pdf)
(PDF) on 2 March 2017.
189. Pommaret, Françoise (2005). "Worship and devotional
life: Buddhist devotional life in Tibet" (https://web.archiv
e.org/web/20170302052223/http://www.politicalavenu
e.com/PDF/ENCYCLOPEDIAS/The%20Gale%20Ency
clopedia%20of%20Religion%202nd%20Ed%20Vol.%
2014.pdf) (PDF). In Jones, Lindsay (ed.). Encyclopedia
of Religion. Vol. 14 (2 ed.). Detroit: Thomson Gale.
pp. 9840–1. ISBN 978-0-02-865983-1. Archived from
the original (https://www.politicalavenue.com/PDF/EN
CYCLOPEDIAS/The%20Gale%20Encyclopedia%20o
f%20Religion%202nd%20Ed%20Vol.%2014.pdf)
(PDF) on 2 March 2017.
190. Reader & Tanabe 1998, p. 200.
191. Brokaw 2014, pp. 3–4, 31–2.
192. Robinson, Richard H.; Johnson, Willard L. (1977). The
Buddhist religion: a historical introduction (https://archiv
e.org/details/buddhistreligion0000robi/page/215)
(4th ed.). Belmont, California: Cengage. p. 215 (https://
archive.org/details/buddhistreligion0000robi/page/21
5). ISBN 978-0-534-20718-2.
193. Bokenkamp, Stephen R. (2005). "Daoism: An
overview" (https://web.archive.org/web/201703020738
30/https://www.politicalavenue.com/PDF/ENCYCLOP
EDIAS/The%20Gale%20Encyclopedia%20of%20Reli
gion%202nd%20Ed%20Vol.%202.pdf) (PDF). In
Jones, Lindsay (ed.). Encyclopedia of Religion. Vol. 4
(2 ed.). Detroit: Thomson Gale. p. 2187. ISBN 978-0-
02-865737-0. Archived from the original (https://www.p
oliticalavenue.com/PDF/ENCYCLOPEDIAS/The%20G
ale%20Encyclopedia%20of%20Religion%202nd%20E
d%20Vol.%202.pdf) (PDF) on 2 March 2017.
194. Brokaw 2014, pp. 31–2.
195. Brokaw 2014, pp. 3–4.
196. Tanabe 2004, p. 533.
197. Rotman 2008.
198. Spiro 1982, pp. 111–2, 454.
199. Lamotte 1988, pp. 430–1.
200. Gombrich 2006, p. 140.
201. Rāhula 1966, pp. xxii–iii, 254–5.
202. Pandita, P., & Berkwitz, S. C. (2007). The History of the
Buddha's Relic Shrine: A Translation of the Sinhala
Thupavamsa. Oxford University Press. Quoted in:
Langer, Rita (2007). Buddhist Rituals of Death and
Rebirth: Contemporary Sri Lankan Practice and Its
Origins. Routledge. Introduction. ISBN 978-1-134-
15872-0.
203. Schlieter, Jens (October 2013). "Checking the
heavenly 'bank account of karma': cognitive metaphors
for karma in Western perception and early Theravāda
Buddhism". Religion. 43 (4): 463–86.
doi:10.1080/0048721X.2013.765630 (https://doi.org/10.
1080%2F0048721X.2013.765630). S2CID 171027951
(https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:171027951).
204. Schober 1996, p. 205.
205. Scott 2009, pp. 30–2, 97.
206. Davis, Winston (1987). "Wealth" (https://web.archive.or
g/web/20170302073830/https://www.politicalavenue.c
om/PDF/ENCYCLOPEDIAS/The%20Gale%20Encyclo
pedia%20of%20Religion%202nd%20Ed%20Vol.%20
2.pdf) (PDF). In Jones, Lindsay (ed.). Encyclopedia of
Religion. Vol. 14 (2 ed.). Detroit: Thomson Gale.
p. 9708. ISBN 978-0-02-865983-1. Archived from the
original (https://www.politicalavenue.com/PDF/ENCYC
LOPEDIAS/The%20Gale%20Encyclopedia%20of%20
Religion%202nd%20Ed%20Vol.%202.pdf) (PDF) on 2
March 2017.
207. Spiro 1982, p. 111.
208. Keyes 1983, pp. 18–9.
209. Gombrich 2006, pp. 127–8.
210. Gombrich 1971, p. 208.
211. Gethin 1998, pp. 109–10.
212. Buddhism. An Outline of its Teachings and Schools by
Schumann, Hans Wolfgang, trans. by Georg
Fenerstein, Rider: 1973, p. 92. Cited in "The Notion of
Merit in Indian Religions," by Tommi Lehtonen, Asian
Philosophy, Vol. 10, No. 3, 2000 pg 193
213. Williams 2008, p. 203.
214. Keyes 1977, p. 287.
215. Nyanatiloka 1980a.
216. Marasinghe 2003, p. 472.
217. Masefield, Peter (2004). "Ghosts and spirits" (https://we
b.archive.org/web/20150912051354/http://www.ahandf
ulofleaves.org/documents/Encyclopedia%20of%20Bud
dhism_2%20Vols_%20Buswell.pdf) (PDF). In Buswell,
Robert E. (ed.). Encyclopedia of Buddhism. Vol. 2. New
York (u.a.): Macmillan Reference USA, Thomson Gale.
pp. 309–10. ISBN 978-0-02-865720-2. Archived from
the original (http://www.ahandfulofleaves.org/document
s/Encyclopedia%20of%20Buddhism_2%20Vols_%20
Buswell.pdf) (PDF) on 12 September 2015.
218. Gombrich 2006, p. 126.
219. Malalasekera 1967, p. 85.
220. Gombrich 1971, pp. 209–10.
221. Harvey 2012, p. 45.
222. Cuevas, Brian J. (2004). "Intermediate state" (https://we
b.archive.org/web/20150912051354/http://www.ahandf
ulofleaves.org/documents/Encyclopedia%20of%20Bud
dhism_2%20Vols_%20Buswell.pdf) (PDF). In Buswell,
Robert E. (ed.). Encyclopedia of Buddhism. Vol. 2. New
York (u.a.): Macmillan Reference USA, Thomson Gale.
p. 379. ISBN 978-0-02-865720-2. Archived from the
original (http://www.ahandfulofleaves.org/documents/E
ncyclopedia%20of%20Buddhism_2%20Vols_%20Bus
well.pdf) (PDF) on 12 September 2015.
223. Gombrich 2009, p. 36.
224. Harvey 2000, p. 335.
225. Bechert 1992, note 34, pp. 99–100.
226. Gombrich 1971, p. 204.
227. Marasinghe 2003, p. 469.
228. Gombrich 1971, p. 216.
229. Egge 2013, p. 96.
230. Malalasekera 1967, p. 89.
231. Anālayo, Bhikkhu (2010). "Saccaka's Challenge–A
Study of the Saṃyukta-āgama Parallel to the
Cūḷasaccaka-sutta in Relation to the Notion of Merit
Transfer" (http://www.chibs.edu.tw/ch_html/chbj/23/Ana
layo%2039-70.pdf) (PDF). Chung-Hwa Buddhist
Journal. 23: 60–2. ISSN 1017-7132 (https://www.world
cat.org/issn/1017-7132).
232. Gombrich 1971, p. 210.
233. Bechert 1992, p. 105.
234. Holt 1981, pp. 5–10, 17, 19–20.
235. Bechert 1992, pp. 99–100.
236. Padma & Barber 2009, p. 116.
237. Fogelin, Lars (2006). Archaeology of Early Buddhism
(https://www.academia.edu/7649191). p. 43.
238. Basham, A.L. (1981). "The evolution of the concept of
the Bodhisattva" (https://web.archive.org/web/2017040
3014217/http://doc.thanhsiang.org/sites/default/files/att
ached%20file/L-Kawamura-The-Bodhisattva-Doctrine-i
n-Buddhism1981.pdf) (PDF). In Kawamura, Leslie S.
(ed.). The Bodhisattva Doctrine in Buddhism.
Bibliotheca Indo-Buddhica. Vol. 186 (1 ed.). Sri
Satguru Publications. pp. 33, 37. Archived from the
original (http://doc.thanhsiang.org/sites/default/files/atta
ched%20file/L-Kawamura-The-Bodhisattva-Doctrine-in
-Buddhism1981.pdf) (PDF) on 3 April 2017.
239. Keyes, Charles F. (1975). "Tug-of-war for merit
cremation of a senior monk". Journal of the Siam
Society. 63: 54.
240. Deegalle, Mahinda (2003). "Preacher as a Poet" (http://
www.khamkoo.com/uploads/9/0/0/4/9004485/constituti
ng_communities_-_theravada_buddhism_and_the_reli
gious_cultures_of_south_and_southeast_asia.pdf*pag
e158). In Holt, John Clifford; Kinnard, Jacob N.;
Walters, Jonathan S. (eds.). Constituting communities
Theravada Buddhism and the religious cultures of
South and Southeast Asia. Albany: State University of
New York Press. p. 158. ISBN 978-0-7914-5691-0.
241. Abe, Masao (1997). "Buddhism in Japan" (http://vedicill
uminations.com/downloads/Academic%20General/Car
r_Brian,_Mahalingam_Indira_(editors)_-_Companion_
Encyclopedia_Of_Asian_Philosophy.pdf) (PDF). In
Carr, Brian; Mahalingam, Indira (eds.). Companion
encyclopedia of Asian philosophy. London: Routledge.
p. 693. ISBN 978-0-203-01350-2.
242. Reynolds, Frank (2006). "Mahāyāna" (https://books.go
ogle.com/books?id=IDsk47MeksAC). In Doniger,
Wendy; Eliade, Mircea (eds.). Britannica encyclopedia
of world religions. Chicago, Illinois: Encyclopædia
Britannica. p. 683. ISBN 978-1-59339-491-2.
243. Pye & Strong 1987, pp. 5874–5.
244. Tuladhar-Douglas, William (2005). "Pūjā: Buddhist
Pūjā" (https://web.archive.org/web/20170302005458/ht
tps://www.politicalavenue.com/PDF/ENCYCLOPEDIA
S/The%20Gale%20Encyclopedia%20of%20Religion%
202nd%20Ed%20Vol.%2011.pdf) (PDF). In Jones,
Lindsay (ed.). Encyclopedia of Religion. Vol. 11 (2 ed.).
Detroit: Thomson Gale. pp. 7496–7. ISBN 978-0-02-
865740-0. Archived from the original (https://www.politi
calavenue.com/PDF/ENCYCLOPEDIAS/The%20Gal
e%20Encyclopedia%20of%20Religion%202nd%20E
d%20Vol.%2011.pdf) (PDF) on 2 March 2017.
245. Lamotte 1988, p. 433.
246. Thomas 1953, p. 196.
247. Skilling 2005, p. 9839.
248. Gómez 2002, p. 293.
249. Reader & Tanabe 1998, p. 85.
250. Salguero 2013, p. 346.
251. Scott 2009, pp. 98–102.
252. Harvey 2000, pp. 114–5.
253. Strong, John S. (2003). "Toward a Theory of Buddhist
Queenship" (https://web.archive.org/web/20200414082
807/http://www.khamkoo.com/uploads/9/0/0/4/900448
5/constituting_communities_-_theravada_buddhism_a
nd_the_religious_cultures_of_south_and_southeast_a
sia.pdf) (PDF). In Holt, John Clifford; Kinnard, Jacob N.;
Walters, Jonathan S. (eds.). Constituting communities
Theravada Buddhism and the religious cultures of
South and Southeast Asia. Albany: State University of
New York Press. p. 47. ISBN 978-0-7914-5691-0.
Archived from the original (http://www.khamkoo.com/up
loads/9/0/0/4/9004485/constituting_communities_-_the
ravada_buddhism_and_the_religious_cultures_of_sou
th_and_southeast_asia.pdf) (PDF) on 14 April 2020.
Retrieved 15 October 2016.
254. Harvey 2000, p. 115.
255. Rāhula 1966, p. 256.
256. Jory 2002.
257. Keyes 1977, p. 288.
258. Jory 2002, p. 52.
259. Harvey 2000, p. 117.
260. Jory 2002, p. 53.
261. Aung-Thwin & Aung-Thwin 2013, p. 183.
262. Walters 2003, p. 19.
263. Holt, John Clifford; Kinnard, Jacob N.; Walters,
Jonathan S. (2003). Constituting communities
Theravada Buddhism and the religious cultures of
South and Southeast Asia (https://web.archive.org/web/
20200414082807/http://www.khamkoo.com/uploads/9/
0/0/4/9004485/constituting_communities_-_theravada_
buddhism_and_the_religious_cultures_of_south_and_
southeast_asia.pdf) (PDF). Albany: State University of
New York Press. p. 3. ISBN 978-0-7914-5691-0.
Archived from the original (http://www.khamkoo.com/up
loads/9/0/0/4/9004485/constituting_communities_-_the
ravada_buddhism_and_the_religious_cultures_of_sou
th_and_southeast_asia.pdf) (PDF) on 14 April 2020.
Retrieved 15 October 2016.
264. Jory 2016, pp. 20, 181–2.
265. Kleinod, Michael (2015). "Laos" (https://books.google.c
om/books?id=-RfYBgAAQBAJ). In Athyal, Jesudas M.
(ed.). Religion in Southeast Asia: An Encyclopedia of
Faiths and Cultures. ABC-CLIO. p. 152. ISBN 978-1-
61069-250-2.
266. Scott 2009, pp. 90–1.
267. Cate & Lefferts 2006, p. 588.
268. Marston 2006, p. 169.
269. Calkowski 2006, pp. 106–7.
270. Scott 2009, pp. 90–1, 126.
271. Skilling 2005, p. 9833.
272. Cousins, L.S. (1997). "Aspects of Esoteric Southern
Buddhism" (https://web.archive.org/web/20160318213
328/http://www.ahandfulofleaves.org/documents/India
n%20Insights%20Buddhism,%20Brahmanism%20an
d%20Bhakti_Connolly_Hamilton.pdf) (PDF). In
Connolly, Peter; Hamilton, Sue (eds.). Indian insights:
Buddhism, Brahamanism and bhakti. London: Luzac
Oriental. p. 188. ISBN 978-1-898942-15-3. Archived
from the original (http://www.ahandfulofleaves.org/docu
ments/Indian%20Insights%20Buddhism,%20Brahmani
sm%20and%20Bhakti_Connolly_Hamilton.pdf) (PDF)
on 18 March 2016. Retrieved 13 October 2016.
273. McCargo, Duncan (2016). Haynes, Jeff (ed.). The
politics of Buddhism in Southeast Asia (https://books.g
oogle.com/books?id=g0C_DAAAQBAJ&pg=PA219).
Springer. p. 219. ISBN 978-1-349-27038-5. {{cite
book}}: |work= ignored (help)
274. Cousins, L.S. (1996b). Skorupski, T. (ed.). The Origins
of Insight Meditation (https://www.academia.edu/14173
59). London: University of London, School of Oriental
and African Studies. p. 39 n.10. {{cite book}}:
|work= ignored (help)
275. Harvey 2000, p. 192.
276. Cole, Diane. "You'll Never Guess The Most Charitable
Nation In The World" (https://www.npr.org/sections/goat
sandsoda/2015/11/28/457101304/youll-never-guess-th
e-most-charitable-nation-in-the-world). NPR. Retrieved
13 October 2016.
277. Basham 1989, pp. 128–9, 133.
278. Kent & Chandler 2008, p. 13.
279. Bao 2005.
280. Bell, Sandra (25 June 2008). "British theravada
Buddhism: Otherworldly theories, and the theory of
exchange". Journal of Contemporary Religion. 13 (2):
156. doi:10.1080/13537909808580828 (https://doi.org/
10.1080%2F13537909808580828).
281. Heine, Steven; Wright, Dale S. (2008). Zen ritual :
studies of Zen theory in practice (http://terebess.hu/zen/
ZenRitual.pdf) (PDF). New York: Oxford University
Press. p. 64. ISBN 978-0-19-530467-1.
282. Harvey 2000, p. 193.
283. Fisher 2008, p. 152.
284. Harvey 2000, pp. 193–4.
285. Fisher 2008, passim..
286. Fuengfusakul 1998, pp. 53, 57; Harvey 2000, pp. 193–
194; Walters 2003, p. 3.
287. Hanks 1962, p. 1248.
288. Nissen, Christine J. (2008). "Buddhist Practice in Rural
Kandal Province, 1960 and 2003" (https://www.diva-po
rtal.org/smash/get/diva2:857291/FULLTEXT01.pdf)
(PDF). In Kent, Alexandra; Chandler, David (eds.).
People of virtue: Reconfiguring religion, power and
moral order in Cambodia today (Reprint ed.).
Copenhagen: NIAS. p. 276. ISBN 978-87-7694-036-2.
289. Gutschow 2004, p. 18.
290. Basham 1989, pp. 127–8.
291. Hanks 1962, pp. 1247–8, 1252.
292. Keyes 1973, p. 97.
293. Findly 2003, pp. 261–2.
294. Harvey 2000, pp. 261–2.
295. Keyes 1983, p. 269.
296. Mulder 1979, p. 117.
297. Keyes 1977, pp. 288–90.
298. Keyes 1973, pp. 101–2.
299. Jory 2002, pp. 45–6.
300. Murdoch, John B. (1967). "The 1901–1902" Holy
Man's" Rebellion" (http://www.siamese-heritage.org/jss
pdf/1971/JSS_062_1e_Murdoch_1901to1902HolyMan
sRebellion.pdf) (PDF). Journal of the Siam Society. 5:
78–86.
301. Kent & Chandler 2008, p. 5.
302. Basham 1989, pp. 134–5 n.1.
303. "A religious revival: Animal spirits" (http://www.economi
st.com/node/21664239). The Economist. Originally
from China print edition. 12 September 2015. Retrieved
13 October 2016.
304. Nuwer, Rachel (8 January 2012). "Buddhist
Ceremonial Release of Captive Birds May Harm
Wildlife" (https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/bu
ddhist-ceremonial-release-captive-birds-may-harm-wil
dlife). Scientific American. Retrieved 13 October 2016.
305. Shiu & Stokes 2008, p. 184.
306. Severinghaus, Lucia Liu; Chi, Li (1999). "Prayer animal
release in Taiwan". Biological Conservation. 89 (3):
301. doi:10.1016/S0006-3207(98)00155-4 (https://doi.o
rg/10.1016%2FS0006-3207%2898%2900155-4).
307. Shiu & Stokes 2008, p. 186.
308. Darlington 2016, 25 min..
309. Darlington 2016, 30 min..
310. Mahavongtrakul, Melalin (7 October 2019). "Human
cruelty for a false belief" (https://www.bangkokpost.co
m/opinion/opinion/1766499/human-cruelty-for-a-false-b
elief) (Opinion). Bangkok Post. Retrieved 9 October
2019.
311. Darlington 2016, 29,32–33 min..
312. "Religion and Conservation Biology" (http://conbio.org/
groups/working-groups/religion-and-conservation-biolo
gy). conbio.org. Society for Conservation Biology.
Retrieved 13 October 2016.
313. Ross, Shane (13 July 2016). "P.E.I. monks buy 600 lbs
of lobster to release them into ocean" (https://www.cbc.
ca/news/canada/prince-edward-island/pei-monks-free-l
obsters-1.3672032). CBC News. CBC/Radio-Canada.
Retrieved 17 October 2016.
314. Wangsness, Lisa (17 September 2016). "The great
rabbit pardon of 2016" (https://www.bostonglobe.com/m
etro/2016/09/17/the-great-rabbit-pardon/O4cv6vYM9ss
mB3o0BRQRxK/story.html). Boston Globe. Retrieved
17 October 2016.
315. "Two Buddhists fined £15,000 for releasing
crustaceans into sea" (https://www.theguardian.com/uk
-news/2017/sep/23/two-buddhists-fined-15000-releasin
g-non-native-crustaceans-sea-brighton). The Guardian.
23 September 2017. Retrieved 20 November 2017.

References
Adamek, Wendi L. (1 January 2005), "The Impossibility of the Given: Representations of Merit and Emptiness in
Medieval Chinese Buddhism" (https://www.academia.edu/2218895), History of Religions, 45 (2): 135–180,
doi:10.1086/502698 (https://doi.org/10.1086%2F502698), JSTOR 10.1086/502698 (https://www.jstor.org/stable/10.10
86/502698), S2CID 170244626 (https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:170244626)
Appleton, Naomi (2014), Narrating karma and rebirth: Buddhist and Jain multi-life stories (https://books.google.com/b
ooks?id=tFytAgAAQBAJ), Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, ISBN 978-1-107-03393-1
Bao, Jiemin (2005), "Merit-Making Capitalism: Re-territorializing Thai Buddhism in Silicon Valley, California",
Journal of Asian American Studies, 8 (2): 115–142, doi:10.1353/jaas.2005.0035 (https://doi.org/10.1353%2Fjaas.200
5.0035), S2CID 143789655 (https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:143789655)
Basham, Richard (1989), " 'False Consciousness' and the Problem of Merit and Power in Thailand", Mankind, 19 (2):
126–137, doi:10.1111/j.1835-9310.1989.tb00101.x (https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fj.1835-9310.1989.tb00101.x)
Bechert, Heinz (July 1992), "Buddha-field and transfer of merit in a Theravāda source", Indo-Iranian Journal, Brill, 35
(2–3): 95–108, doi:10.1163/000000092790083606 (https://doi.org/10.1163%2F000000092790083606),
JSTOR 24659519 (https://www.jstor.org/stable/24659519), S2CID 161340415 (https://api.semanticscholar.org/Corpu
sID:161340415)
Brekke, Torkel (1 January 1998), "Contradiction and the Merit of Giving in Indian Religions", Numen, 45 (3): 287–
320, doi:10.1163/1568527981562131 (https://doi.org/10.1163%2F1568527981562131), ISSN 1568-5276 (https://ww
w.worldcat.org/issn/1568-5276)
Bowie, Katherine A. (2017), Of Beggars and Buddhas: The Politics of Humor in the Vessantara Jataka in Thailand (ht
tps://books.google.com/books?id=P_EZDgAAQBAJ), New Perspectives in South-East Asian Studies, University of
Wisconsin Press, ISBN 978-0-299-30950-3
Brokaw, Cynthia J. (2014), The Ledgers of Merit and Demerit: Social Change and Moral Order in Late Imperial China
(https://books.google.com/books?id=USgABAAAQBAJ), Princeton University Press, ISBN 978-1-4008-6194-1
Calkowski, Marcia (2006), "Buddhism" (https://web.archive.org/web/20170302052853/http://www.politicalavenue.co
m/PDF/ENCYCLOPEDIAS/Encyclopedia%20of%20Religious%20Practices%20Vol3.pdf) (PDF), in Riggs, Thomas
(ed.), Worldmark Encyclopedia of Religious Practices, vol. 3, Farmington Hills: Thomson Gale, ISBN 978-0-7876-
6614-9, archived from the original (https://www.politicalavenue.com/PDF/ENCYCLOPEDIAS/Encyclopedia%20of%2
0Religious%20Practices%20Vol3.pdf) (PDF) on 2 March 2017
Cate, Sandra; Lefferts, Leedom (2006), "Laos" (https://web.archive.org/web/20170302051611/http://www.politicalave
nue.com/PDF/ENCYCLOPEDIAS/Encyclopedia%20of%20Religious%20Practices%20Vol2.pdf) (PDF), in Riggs,
Thomas (ed.), Worldmark Encyclopedia of Religious Practices, vol. 2, Farmington Hills: Thomson Gale, ISBN 978-0-
7876-6613-2, archived from the original (https://www.politicalavenue.com/PDF/ENCYCLOPEDIAS/Encyclopedia%2
0of%20Religious%20Practices%20Vol2.pdf) (PDF) on 2 March 2017
Collins, Steven (1997), Nirvana and other Buddhist felicities : utopias of the Pali imaginaire (https://books.google.co
m/books?id=Z2go_y5KYyoC), Cambridge, U.K.: Cambridge University Press, ISBN 978-0-521-57054-1
Cousins, L.S. (1 July 1996), "Good or skilful? Kusala in Canon and Commentary" (http://blogs.dickinson.edu/buddhis
tethics/2010/04/06/good-or-skillful-kusala-in-canon-and-commentary-by-l-s-cousins/), Journal of Buddhist Ethics, 3:
136–164, ISSN 1076-9005 (https://www.worldcat.org/issn/1076-9005)
Darlington, Susan M. (28 July 2016), Interdependence, Impermanence, and Buddhist Responses to the
Environmental Crisis (https://beta.prx.org/stories/183583) (podcast), Chautauqua, New York: prx.org, retrieved
18 October 2016
Egge, James (2013), Religious Giving and the Invention of Karma in Theravada Buddhism (https://books.google.co
m/books?id=hkddAgAAQBAJ), Hoboken: Taylor and Francis, ISBN 978-1-136-85915-1
Findly, Ellison Banks (2003), Dāna: giving and getting in Pali Buddhism (https://books.google.com/books?id=88HcN
_9muXcC), Buddhist Traditions, vol. 52, Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass Publishers, ISBN 978-81-208-1956-6
Fisher, Gareth (13 February 2008), "The Spiritual Land Rush: Merit and Morality in New Chinese Buddhist Temple
Construction" (https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/journal-of-asian-studies/article/div-classtitlethe-spiritual-land-
rush-merit-and-morality-in-new-chinese-buddhist-temple-constructiondiv/DF2261EDE635DF1E53BA0608AE3AC47
1), The Journal of Asian Studies, 67 (1): 143–170, doi:10.1017/S0021911808000053 (https://doi.org/10.1017%2FS0
021911808000053), S2CID 145118995 (https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:145118995)
Fuengfusakul, Apinya (1998), ศาสนาทัศน์ของชุมชนเมืองสมัยใหม่: ศึกษากรณีวัดพระธรรมกาย (http://www.cubs.chula.ac.t
h/images/research/58_2/Dhammakaya_Full.pdf) [Religious Propensity of Urban Communities: A Case Study of Phra
Dhammakaya Temple] (PDF) (in Thai), Buddhist Studies Center, Chulalongkorn University
Gethin, Rupert (1998), Foundations of Buddhism (https://web.archive.org/web/20140802144412/http://www.ahandful
ofleaves.org/documents/The%20Foundations%20of%20Buddhism_Gethin_1998.pdf) (PDF), Oxford University
Press, archived from the original (http://www.ahandfulofleaves.org/documents/The%20Foundations%20of%20Buddh
ism_Gethin_1998.pdf) (PDF) on 2 August 2014
Gombrich, Richard F. (1 January 1971), " "Merit Transference" in Sinhalese Buddhism: A Case Study of the
Interaction between Doctrine and Practice", History of Religions, 11 (2): 203–219, doi:10.1086/462651 (https://doi.or
g/10.1086%2F462651), JSTOR 1061922 (https://www.jstor.org/stable/1061922), S2CID 161095621 (https://api.sema
nticscholar.org/CorpusID:161095621)
Gombrich, Richard F. (2006), Theravada Buddhism a social history: from ancient Benares to modern Colombo (http
s://web.archive.org/web/20160305032847/http://www.ahandfulofleaves.org/documents/Theravada%20Buddhism_G
ombrich.pdf) (PDF) (2 ed.), New York: Routledge, ISBN 978-0-203-08864-7, archived from the original (http://www.ah
andfulofleaves.org/documents/Theravada%20Buddhism_Gombrich.pdf) (PDF) on 5 March 2016
Gombrich, Richard F. (2009), What the Buddha thought (http://www.khamkoo.com/uploads/9/0/0/4/9004485/what_the
_buddha_thought.pdf) (PDF) (1st ed.), London [u.a.]: Equinox Publishing (Sheffield), ISBN 978-1-84553-612-1
Gómez, Luis O. (2002), Land of bliss: The paradise of the Buddha of measureless light (Sanskrit and Chinese
versions of the Sukhāvatīvyūha sutras) (https://books.google.com/books?id=ho3R9hYr3soC) (1st [Indian] ed.), Delhi:
Motilal Banarsidass Publishers, ISBN 978-81-208-1813-2
Gutschow, Kim (2004), Being a Buddhist nun: the struggle for enlightenment in the Himalayas (https://web.archive.or
g/web/20170123035633/http://www.znuns.org/documents/Gutschow_Being_Buddhist_Nun_Ch1.pdf) (PDF)
(online ed.), Cambridge (Mass.): Harvard university press, ISBN 978-0-674-01287-5, archived from the original (htt
p://www.znuns.org/documents/Gutschow_Being_Buddhist_Nun_Ch1.pdf) (PDF) on 23 January 2017, retrieved
18 October 2016
Hanks, Lucien M (1962), "Merit and power in the Thai social order", American Anthropologist, 64 (6): 1247–1261,
doi:10.1525/aa.1962.64.6.02a00080 (https://doi.org/10.1525%2Faa.1962.64.6.02a00080), ISSN 1548-1433 (https://
www.worldcat.org/issn/1548-1433)
Harvey, Peter (2000), An Introduction to Buddhist Ethics: Foundations, Values and Issues (https://web.archive.org/we
b/20160128181421/http://www.e-reading.club/bookreader.php/142060/An_Introduction_to_Buddhist_Ethics.pdf)
(PDF), New York: Cambridge University Press, ISBN 978-0-511-07584-1, archived from the original (http://www.e-re
ading.club/bookreader.php/142060/An_Introduction_to_Buddhist_Ethics.pdf) (PDF) on 28 January 2016, retrieved
2 April 2017
Harvey, Peter (2012), An Introduction to Buddhism: Teachings, History and Practices (https://books.google.com/book
s?id=8XAgAwAAQBAJ) (2 ed.), Cambridge University Press, ISBN 978-1-139-85126-8
Holt, John C. (1 January 1981), "Assisting the Dead by Venerating the Living: Merit Transfer in the Early Buddhist
Tradition", Numen, 28 (1): 1–28, doi:10.2307/3269794 (https://doi.org/10.2307%2F3269794), JSTOR 3269794 (http
s://www.jstor.org/stable/3269794)
Jones, Richard H. (1 September 1979), "Theravāda Buddhism and Morality", Journal of the American Academy of
Religion, 47 (3): 371–387, doi:10.1093/jaarel/XLVII.3.371 (https://doi.org/10.1093%2Fjaarel%2FXLVII.3.371),
ISSN 0002-7189 (https://www.worldcat.org/issn/0002-7189)
Jory, Patrick (2002), "The Vessantara Jataka, barami and the bodhisatta kings: The origin and spread of a Thai
concept of power", Crossroads: An Interdisciplinary Journal of Southeast Asian Studies, 16 (2): 36–78,
JSTOR 40860799 (https://www.jstor.org/stable/40860799)
Jory, Patrick (2016), Thailand's Theory of Monarchy: The Vessantara Jataka and the Idea of the Perfect Man (https://b
ooks.google.com/books?id=3x8iDAAAQBAJ), SUNY Press, ISBN 978-1-4384-6090-1
Kent, Alexandra; Chandler, David (2008), People of virtue: Reconfiguring religion, power and moral order in
Cambodia today (https://www.diva-portal.org/smash/get/diva2:857291/FULLTEXT01.pdf) (PDF) (Reprint ed.),
Copenhagen: NIAS, ISBN 978-87-7694-036-2
Keown, Damien (1992), The Nature of Buddhist Ethics (https://books.google.com/books?id=xvS-DAAAQBAJ)
(revised, published Ph.D. Thesis), Palgrave Macmillan, ISBN 978-1-349-22092-2
Keyes, Charles F. (1973), "The power of merit" (https://www.academia.edu/12140474), Annual Publication, Bangkok:
The Buddhist Association of Thailand
Keyes, Charles F. (1 January 1977), "Millennialism, Theravada Buddhism, and Thai Society", The Journal of Asian
Studies, 36 (2): 283–302, doi:10.2307/2053724 (https://doi.org/10.2307%2F2053724), JSTOR 2053724 (https://www.
jstor.org/stable/2053724), S2CID 162764851 (https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:162764851)
Keyes, Charles F. (1983), Keyes, Charles F.; Daniel, E. Valentine (eds.), Karma: an anthropological inquiry (https://bo
oks.google.com/books?id=49GVZGD8d4oC) (2nd ed.), Berkeley u.a.: University of California Press, ISBN 978-0-
520-04429-6
Lamotte, Etienne (1988), History of Indian Buddhism: from the origins to the Saka era (https://web.archive.org/web/20
150215111618/http://ahandfulofleaves.org/documents/History%20of%20Indian%20Buddhism_Lamotte.pdf) (PDF),
translated by Webb-Boin, Sara; Dantinne, Jean (English ed.), Université catholique de Louvain, Institut orientaliste,
ISBN 978-90-6831-100-6, archived from the original (http://www.ahandfulofleaves.org/documents/History%20of%20I
ndian%20Buddhism_Lamotte.pdf) (PDF) on 15 February 2015
Malalasekera, G. P. (1967), " "Transference of Merit" in Ceylonese Buddhism" (https://web.archive.org/web/2015032
8165659/http://enlight.lib.ntu.edu.tw/FULLTEXT/JR-PHIL/ew26012.htm), Philosophy East and West, 17 (1/4): 85–90,
doi:10.2307/1397047 (https://doi.org/10.2307%2F1397047), JSTOR 1397047 (https://www.jstor.org/stable/1397047),
archived from the original on 28 March 2015
Marasinghe, M.M.J. (2003), "Puñña" (https://books.google.com/books?id=k11WMQAACAAJ), in Malalasekera, GP;
Weeraratne, WG (eds.), Encyclopaedia of Buddhism, vol. 7, Sri Lanka: Government of Ceylon
Marston, John (2006), "Cambodia" (https://web.archive.org/web/20170302051611/http://www.politicalavenue.com/P
DF/ENCYCLOPEDIAS/Encyclopedia%20of%20Religious%20Practices%20Vol2.pdf) (PDF), in Riggs, Thomas
(ed.), Worldmark Encyclopedia of Religious Practices, vol. 2, Farmington Hills: Thomson Gale, ISBN 978-0-7876-
6613-2, archived from the original (https://www.politicalavenue.com/PDF/ENCYCLOPEDIAS/Encyclopedia%20of%2
0Religious%20Practices%20Vol2.pdf) (PDF) on 2 March 2017
McDermott, James P. (1 January 1975), "The Kathāvatthu Kamma Debates", Journal of the American Oriental
Society, 95 (3): 424–433, doi:10.2307/599354 (https://doi.org/10.2307%2F599354), JSTOR 599354 (https://www.jsto
r.org/stable/599354)
McFarlane, Stewart (1997), "Morals and society in Buddhism" (http://vedicilluminations.com/downloads/Academic%
20General/Carr_Brian,_Mahalingam_Indira_(editors)_-_Companion_Encyclopedia_Of_Asian_Philosophy.pdf)
(PDF), in Carr, Brian; Mahalingam, Indira (eds.), Companion encyclopedia of Asian philosophy, London: Routledge,
ISBN 978-0-203-01350-2
Mulder, Niels (1969), "Merit: An investigation of the motivational qualities of the Buddhist concept of merit in
Thailand", Social Compass, 16 (1): 109–120, doi:10.1177/003776866901600109 (https://doi.org/10.1177%2F00377
6866901600109), S2CID 143907554 (https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:143907554)
Mulder, Niels (1979), "The concepts of power and moral goodness in the contemporary Thai worldview" (http://www.
siamese-heritage.org/jsspdf/1971/JSS_067_1i_Mulder_PowerAndMoralGoodnessInContemporaryThaiWorldview.p
df) (PDF), Journal of the Siam Society, 67 (1)
Namchoom, Vijanti; Lalhmingpuii, Janet C. (8 December 2016), "Theravada Buddhism and Traditional Religion in
Lathao, A Tai Khampti Village in Arunachal Pradesh" (http://journals.dbuniversity.ac.in/ojs/index.php/jneic/article/vie
w/242), Journal of Northeast Indian Cultures, 3 (1), ISSN 2322-0988 (https://www.worldcat.org/issn/2322-0988)
Nyanatiloka (1980a), "Patti-dāna" (http://www.buddhanet.net/e-learning/e-books/palidictionary.zip), Buddhist
dictionary: manual of Buddhist terms and doctrines (4th rev. ed.), Kandy, Sri Lanka: Buddhist Publication Society,
ISBN 978-955-24-0019-3, retrieved 19 September 2016
Nyanatiloka (1980b), "Puñña" (http://www.buddhanet.net/e-learning/e-books/palidictionary.zip), Buddhist dictionary:
manual of Buddhist terms and doctrines (4th rev. ed.), Kandy, Sri Lanka: Buddhist Publication Society, ISBN 978-
955-24-0019-3, retrieved 19 September 2016
Nyanatiloka (1980c), "Puñña-kiriya-vatthu" (http://www.buddhanet.net/e-learning/e-books/palidictionary.zip),
Buddhist dictionary: manual of Buddhist terms and doctrines (4th rev. ed.), Kandy, Sri Lanka: Buddhist Publication
Society, ISBN 978-955-24-0019-3, retrieved 19 September 2016
Padma; Barber (2009), Buddhism in the Krishna River Valley of Andhra (http://www.khamkoo.com/uploads/9/0/0/4/90
04485/buddhism_in_the_krishna_river_valley_of_andhra.pdf) (PDF), State University of New York Press
Pye, Michael; Strong, John S. (1987), "Merit" (https://web.archive.org/web/20170302073830/https://www.politicalave
nue.com/PDF/ENCYCLOPEDIAS/The%20Gale%20Encyclopedia%20of%20Religion%202nd%20Ed%20Vol.%202.
pdf) (PDF), in Lindsay, Jones (ed.), Encyclopedia of religion, vol. 9 (2 ed.), Detroit: Thomson Gale, ISBN 978-0-02-
865742-4, archived from the original (https://www.politicalavenue.com/PDF/ENCYCLOPEDIAS/The%20Gale%20En
cyclopedia%20of%20Religion%202nd%20Ed%20Vol.%202.pdf) (PDF) on 2 March 2017
Premasiri, Pahalawattage D. (1976), "Interpretation of Two Principal Ethical Terms in Early Buddhism" (http://dlib.pd
n.ac.lk/handle/123456789/1135), The Sri Lanka Journal of the Humanities, 17 (1)
Rāhula, Walpola (1966), History of Buddhism in Ceylon: The Anuradhapura Period, 3rd Century BC-10th Century
AC (https://books.google.com/books?id=P3f-rQEACAAJ) (2 ed.), Colombo: MD Gunasena & Co. Ltd., ISBN 978-955-
663-433-4
Rhys Davids, Thomas W.; Stede, William (1921), The Pali-English Dictionary (https://dsal.uchicago.edu/dictionaries/
pali) (1 ed.), Chipstead: Pali Text Society, ISBN 978-81-208-1144-7
Rotman, Andy (2008), Thus Have I Seen: Visualizing Faith in Early Indian Buddhism (https://books.google.com/book
s?id=a-0JCAAAQBAJ), Oxford University Press, Moral economies and market moralities, ISBN 978-0-19-045117-2
Salguero, C. Pierce (November 2013), "Fields of Merit, Harvests of Health: Some Notes on the Role of Medical
Karma in the Popularization of Buddhism in Early Medieval China", Asian Philosophy, 23 (4): 341–349,
doi:10.1080/09552367.2013.831537 (https://doi.org/10.1080%2F09552367.2013.831537), S2CID 143624541 (http
s://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:143624541)
Schober, Juliane (1996), "Religious merit and social status among Burmese Buddhist Lay Associations" (https://archi
ve.org/details/meritblessinginm00kamm), in Kammerer, Cornelia Ann; Tannenbaum, Nicola Beth (eds.), Merit and
blessing in mainland Southeast Asia in comparative perspective, Monograph series, New Haven, Connecticut: Yale
University, Southeast Asia Studies, ISBN 978-0-938692-61-4
Schopen, Gregory (1997), Bielefeldt, Carl; Lopez, Donald S.; Schopen, Gregory; Stevenson, Daniel (eds.), Bones,
Stones, and Buddhist Monks (https://web.archive.org/web/20150911082445/http://www.ahandfulofleaves.org/docum
ents/Bones_Stones_and%20Buddhist%20Monks_Schopen.pdf) (PDF), Studies in the Buddhist Traditions,
Honolulu: University of Hawai'i Press, ISBN 978-0-8248-1748-0, archived from the original (http://www.ahandfuloflea
ves.org/documents/Bones_Stones_and%20Buddhist%20Monks_Schopen.pdf) (PDF) on 11 September 2015
Scott, Rachelle M. (2009), Nirvana for Sale? Buddhism, Wealth, and the Dhammakāya Temple in Contemporary
Thailand (https://web.archive.org/web/20150807034708/http://www.khamkoo.com/uploads/9/0/0/4/9004485/nirvana_
for_sale_-_buddhism_wealth_and_the_dhammakaya_temple_in_contemporary_thailand.pdf) (PDF), Albany: State
University of New York Press, ISBN 978-1-4416-2410-9, archived from the original (http://www.khamkoo.com/upload
s/9/0/0/4/9004485/nirvana_for_sale_-_buddhism_wealth_and_the_dhammakaya_temple_in_contemporary_thailan
d.pdf) (PDF) on 7 August 2015, retrieved 2 April 2017
Shiu, Henry; Stokes, Leah (November 2008), "Buddhist Animal Release Practices: Historic, Environmental, Public
Health And Economic Concerns", Contemporary Buddhism, 9 (2): 181–196, doi:10.1080/14639940802556529 (http
s://doi.org/10.1080%2F14639940802556529), S2CID 45950155 (https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:4595015
5)
Skilling, Peter (2005), "Worship and devotional life: Buddhist devotional life in East Asia" (https://web.archive.org/we
b/20170302052223/http://www.politicalavenue.com/PDF/ENCYCLOPEDIAS/The%20Gale%20Encyclopedia%20o
f%20Religion%202nd%20Ed%20Vol.%2014.pdf) (PDF), in Jones, Lindsay (ed.), Encyclopedia of Religion, vol. 14
(2 ed.), Detroit: Thomson Gale, ISBN 978-0-02-865983-1, archived from the original (https://www.politicalavenue.co
m/PDF/ENCYCLOPEDIAS/The%20Gale%20Encyclopedia%20of%20Religion%202nd%20Ed%20Vol.%2014.pdf)
(PDF) on 2 March 2017
Spiro, Melford E. (1982), Buddhism and society: a great tradition and its Burmese vicissitudes (https://books.google.c
om/books?id=GnYou0owQ5MC) (2 ed.), Berkeley u.a.: University of California Press, ISBN 978-0-520-04672-6
 Swearer, Donald K. (1995), The Buddhist world of Southeast Asia (https://books.google.com/books?id=kFBR2cMDD
8sC) (Rev. and expanded ed.), Albany, NY: State University of New York Press, ISBN 978-0-7914-2459-9
Reader, Ian; Tanabe, George J. Jr. (1998), Practically religious: worldly benefits and the common religion of Japan (ht
tps://books.google.com/books?id=-8zmlaQSEIwC) (online ed.), Honolulu: University of Hawai'i Press, ISBN 978-0-
8248-2090-9
Tanabe, George J. Jr. (2004), "Merit and merit-making" (https://web.archive.org/web/20150912051354/http://www.aha
ndfulofleaves.org/documents/Encyclopedia%20of%20Buddhism_2%20Vols_%20Buswell.pdf) (PDF), in Buswell,
Robert E. (ed.), Encyclopedia of Buddhism, vol. 2, New York (u.a.): Thomson Gale, ISBN 978-0-02-865720-2,
archived from the original (http://www.ahandfulofleaves.org/documents/Encyclopedia%20of%20Buddhism_2%20Vol
s_%20Buswell.pdf) (PDF) on 12 September 2015
The Group of Ones, 22 (Itivuttaka 1.22) (http://www.accesstoinsight.org/tipitaka/kn/iti/iti.1.001-027.than.html#iti-022),
translated by Bhikkhu, Thanissaro, 2001
Thomas, Edward J. (1953), The History Of Buddhist Thought (https://archive.org/details/historyofbuddhis031559mb
p) (2nd ed.), Routledge, OCLC 923624252 (https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/923624252)
Aung-Thwin, Michael; Aung-Thwin, Maitrii (2013), A History of Myanmar since Ancient Times Traditions and
Transformations (https://books.google.com/books?id=V3kfNYXwaGsC) (2nd ed.), London: Reaktion Books,
ISBN 978-1-86189-939-2
Uppalavanna, Sister, Dānavaggo: On giving gifts (Anguttara Nikaya 8.4) (http://www.metta.lk/tipitaka/2Sutta-Pitaka/4
Anguttara-Nikaya/Anguttara5/8-atthakanipata/004-danavaggo-e.html), retrieved 9 November 2007
Walsh, Michael J. (24 May 2007), "The Economics of Salvation: Toward a Theory of Exchange in Chinese
Buddhism", Journal of the American Academy of Religion, 75 (2): 353–382, doi:10.1093/jaarel/lfm002 (https://doi.org/
10.1093%2Fjaarel%2Flfm002), S2CID 143298553 (https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:143298553)
Walshe, Maurice O'C. (1995), The Long Discourses of the Buddha: A Translation of the Digha Nikaya (http://lirs.ru/lib/
sutra/Long_Discourses_of_the_Buddha(Digha_Nikaya).Walshe.pdf) (PDF), Somerville, MA: Wisdom Publications,
ISBN 978-0-86171-103-1
Walters, Jonathan S. (2003), "Communal Karma and Karmic Community in Theravada Buddhist History" (https://we
b.archive.org/web/20200414082807/http://www.khamkoo.com/uploads/9/0/0/4/9004485/constituting_communities_-
_theravada_buddhism_and_the_religious_cultures_of_south_and_southeast_asia.pdf) (PDF), in Holt, John Clifford;
Kinnard, Jacob N.; Walters, Jonathan S. (eds.), Constituting communities Theravada Buddhism and the religious
cultures of South and Southeast Asia, Albany: State University of New York Press, ISBN 978-0-7914-5691-0,
archived from the original (http://www.khamkoo.com/uploads/9/0/0/4/9004485/constituting_communities_-_theravada
_buddhism_and_the_religious_cultures_of_south_and_southeast_asia.pdf) (PDF) on 14 April 2020, retrieved
15 October 2016
Williams, Paul (2008), Mahayana Buddhism: The Doctrinal Foundations (https://web.archive.org/web/201806051609
01/http://www.khamkoo.com/uploads/9/0/0/4/9004485/mahayana_buddhism_-_the_doctrinal_foundations_second_e
dition.pdf) (PDF) (2 ed.), Taylor & Francis e-Library., ISBN 978-0-203-42847-4, archived from the original (http://www.
khamkoo.com/uploads/9/0/0/4/9004485/mahayana_buddhism_-_the_doctrinal_foundations_second_edition.pdf)
(PDF) on 5 June 2018, retrieved 30 September 2016

Further reading
Field research study on how merit-making practices benefit disabled people in a traditional Buddhist country (https://
books.google.com/books?id=UJy8DgAAQBAJ)

External links
Ten ways of making merit (http://www.beyondthenet.net/thedway/nyanadassana-ebooks/ten%20ways%20of%20mak
ing%20merit.pdf) by Mahinda Wijesinghe and Ven. Ñāṇadassana
What are the benefits of making merit? (http://www.dmc.tv/pages/en/good_questions_good_answers/benefit_of_meri
ts.html) by Luang Por Dattajivo, DMC.tv
Merit: A Study Guide (http://www.accesstoinsight.org/lib/study/merit.html) by Thanissaro Bhikkhu, Access to Insight
(Legacy Edition) 30 November 2013.
Merit: Does Happiness Need to Be Earned? (http://studybuddhism.com/en/tibetan-buddhism/path-to-enlightenment/k
arma-rebirth/merit-does-happiness-need-to-be-earned) by Dr. Alexander Berzin, Study Buddhism
May All Beings Be Happy (http://www.beliefnet.com/wellness/guided-meditations/may-all-beings-be-happy.aspx) by
Sharon Salzberg, Beliefnet

Lay Theravada practices for a fortunate rebirth

FAITH (Saddhā) GIVING (Dāna) VIRTUE (Sīla) MIND (Bhāvanā) DISCERNMENT (Paññā)
 Buddha · Charity · 5 precepts · Mettā · 4 Noble Truths ·
Dhamma · Sangha Almsgiving 8 precepts Vipassanā 3 Characteristics

Based on: Dighajanu Sutta, Velama Sutta, Dhammika Sutta

Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Merit_(Buddhism)&oldid=1187783596"