CHAPTER 5

Systematic Pathology of Fish

Definition:
Pathology - the study of disease. It is the bridge of science and medicine.
Gill - the paired respiratory organ of fishes and some amphibians, by which oxygen is
extracted from water flowing over surfaces within or attached to the walls of the pharynx.
White blood Cells - are part of the body’s immune system. They help the body fight infection and other
diseases.
Red blood Cells - cellular component of the blood that carries oxygen from the lungs to the tissues
and gives vertebrates blood its characteristic color.

Objective:
 To understand the pathological changes which can occur in fish
 To understand underlying clinical disease manifestation
VI. The respiratory System
Gills are the primary respiratory organs in fishes. Gill being very delicate in structure, its external
location and direct contact with the water is liable to damage by any irritant materials, whether dissolved or
suspended in the water. The gills are also supplied with a rich source of nutrients and has relative safety of
location for the pathogens and so are a favored site for external protozoan and monogenean trematode
parasite.
Gill forms a ready route for bacterial and viral infection, both as a site of primary infections or as site
of invasion leading to vascular or lymphoid dissemination. Gill primarily consists of a gill arch, gill filaments
(primary and secondary gill filaments) and gill rakers

Figure 1 the opercular cavity of a rainbow trout showing the gill arches, with rakers and primary lamellae
Secondary gill filaments or gill lamellae act as the primary site of gaseous exchange. Pillar cells give
support to the secondary gill lamellae. Pillar cells contain contractile protein which help the secondary
lamellae to withstand the high pressure at which it receives blood supply from ventral aorta. Pillar cells have
also been suggested to play a role in controlling lamellar perfusion.

Figure 2Diagrammatic representation of segments of two adjacent gill arches, showing the flow patterns of
water and blood.

Pathology
Gill arch is a highly calcified or ossified organ, hence does not exhibit much of pathology. The main
pathology happens in primary lamellae and secondary lamellae.
Three types of pathological changes are well recognized in fish gill lamellae.
a) Lamellar oedema:
It is the fluid accumulation in the interstitial space of lamella mainly due to alteration in gill membrane
permeability. It is reversible and most frequent following the exposure to chemical pollutants such as heavy
metal, certain pesticide etc. Oedematous separation of primary and secondary gill lamellae with necrosis of
lamellar epithelial cells leading to severe respiratory and osmoregulatory distress.

Figure 3Thickening of individual secondary lamellae in gill of sea bass exposed to particulate irritants.
b) Lamellar hyperplasia
Lamellar hyperplasia is generally due to an increase in numbers and migration of the malpighian
cells of primary lamella. As the thickness of the lamella increases, the entry of the pathogen into the blood is
minimised. In some cases of lamellar hyperplasia caused due to acidification of water it has been found that
chloride cells extend on to the surface of the secondary lamellae, and instead of being located in shrunken
pits, bulges out on to the surface. This type of hyperplasia may interfere with the ionic flux across the epithelia
and normal chloride cell function.

Figure 4Effects of heavy formalin over dosage on rainbow trout gills.

c) Lamellar fusion
Secondary lamellar fusion may take place as an ultimate result of massive lamellar hyperplasia
which result in a solid fusion of many or all of the lamellar capillaries within a mass of hyperplastic epithelium.
It is irreversible.

Figure 5 Lamellar hypertrophy and hyperplasia in rainbow trout gill in response to toxic water conditions. A: Slight early lamellar
hypertrophy. B: Extensive lamellar hypertrophy following prolonged exposure to high ammonia levels.
Pathology
Lamellar fusion reduces the surface area of lamella exposed to outside and hence lamellar exchange
efficiency comes down. In order to fulfill the oxygen demand fish has to increase its water pumping rate, thus
diverting more energy towards basic metabolism. Fish with above pathological symptoms may survive well
under normal circumstances but as the water temperature increases with consequent increase in metabolic
oxygen demand chances of mortality increases.

VII. The Circulatory System

1. Haemopoietic Tissue

Since teleost fish have no lymph nodes and their bones usually have no medullary cavity,
haemopoietic tissue is located in the stroma of the spleen and the interstitium of the kidney. To a lesser extent
it is also found in the perioral areas of the liver, the intestinal submucosa and the specialized lymphoid organ,
the thymus.
Haemopoietic tissue is located in the stroma of the spleen and the interstitium of the kidney and to a
lesser extent found to be associated with periportal areas, intestinal submucosa and specialized lymphoid
organ. It concerns with production of RBC, which is present in animal tissue. RBC level is maintained or
retained by haemopoietic tissue.

Types of Haemopoietic tissue

a. Renal haemopoietic tissue

The anterior kidney is mainly haemopoietic in nature. The corpuscles of stannius and the internal
tissue are embedded within the haemopoietic tissue. Another cellular structure found throughout the
teleost haemopietic tissue but not in higher vertebrates is the melanomacrophage center.

b. Splenic haemopoietic tissue

Spleen is the only lymph node like organ to be found in the teleost fish. Main elements of the spleen are
the ellipsoids, the pulp and the melanomacrophage centers.
 c. Thymus haemopoietic tissue
The thymus is a paired organ, an ovoid pad of paired lymphoid tissue situated subcutaneously in the
dorsal commissure of the operculum. Thymus is thought to be the site of immunocompetent T cell maturation.

2. Lymphoid tissue

WBCs are generated or synthesized or maintained by lymphoid tissue.

1) Renal lymphoid tissue
2) Splenic lymphoid tissue
3) Thymic lymphoid tissue

Pathology
Renal tissue associated with haemopoietic and lymphatic functions are mainly present in head or
anterior kidney. Any inflammation affecting renal, splenic and thymus tissue will have an effect on blood
vascular system. Thus RBC production is less and often results in anemia. If spleen and thymus are affected
it results in change in immune response of the animal.

VIII. Blood
Anemia is the reduction in the total mass of hemoglobin-bearing erythrocytes with resultant
deficiency in oxygen transport. Anemias are either due to abnormal blood cell loss, which cannot be
compensated sufficiently by normal erythropoiesis, or to decreased blood cell production, which fails to allow
sufficient replacement of red blood cells which are lost normally. Palor of gills is the main presenting sign in
fishes suffering with anemia.

There are three types of anemia

a. Haemorrhagic anemia
This is due to the loss of blood in excess of the rate at which they can be replaced. Physical injury,
pathogens or blood sucking parasites promote this situation. If the condition is mild there is hematopoiesis in
ancillary haemopoietic tissue in the liver and increased production of immature stages in the circulating blood.
If it is more severe, then the loss of iron results in an iron deficiency anemia. Haemorrhagic anemia is a
characteristic feature of diseases such as VHSV of rainbow trout, SVCV of carp and CCVD of channel cat
fish.

b. Hemolytic anemia
Increased rate of erythrocyte destruction leads to such a situation. In such cases although the
production of erythrocytes is usually increased to compensate the loss their size and hemoglobin content are
not significantly altered. Immature stages of blood cell develop and spleen is enlarged. Heavy deposits of
hemosiderin in melanomacrophage centers can be visualized on staining with Perl’s Prussian blue. Main
cause of hemolytic anemia are bacteria producing hemolysis especially Vibrio anguillarum and blood
protozoa.

c. Hypoplastic anemia
This is mainly associated with the failure of the haemopoietic tissue to produce adequate number of
cells and may affect any or all of the blood cell elements. Hypoplastic anemia may develop due to nutritional
deficiency (vitamin B12, iron deficiency), damage by radiation, renal and splenic diseases.
 1. Leucocytes
If there is an increase in production of WBC it results in leukemia. Leukemia is the increase of
leucocytes in the blood and is usually neoplastic. There are three main types, related to the three main types
of circulating leucocyte, the polymorph nuclear leucocyte, the monocyte and the lymphocyte.

2. Neoplasia
Uncontrolled production of WBC mainly associated with abnormal increase in number of monocytes
and lymphocytes.

IX. Pathology in vessels and Heart

Heart
It is the major component of circulatory system.
a) Oedemo
Oedema due to cardiac failure, manifested clinically by swelling of the abdomen, exophthalmia and
softening of the myotomal musculature, is common in a variety of fish diseases.
b) Myocardial necrosis (Myopathy)
Degeneration of muscle in the heart leads to loss of pumping efficiency of the heart. This necrosis is due
to bacterial or viral infection on the tissue.
c) Nutrition deficiency of vitamin E
Gives rise to nutritional myopathies, where cardiac muscle undergoes atrophy with loss of
striations and eosinophilia and coagulative necrosis of the ventricular myocardium.

Vessel

 Fibrosis
Fibrous tissue gets deposited in the internal area of the blood vessels increasing the thickness of
blood vessels and resulting in narrowing of the lumen.

 Punctate hemorrhages
Small holes or pores in the damaged area of capillaries leads to slow loss of blood from capillaries.

 Peripheral circulatory failure

It results from excessive destruction of the osmotic barrier of the skin. When the capillaries are exposed
to the aquatic environment, the difference in osmotic pressure may result in both inflow of water from exterior
and loss of tissue fluids in case of fresh water fishes.

 Endarteritis obliterans
It is a frequently observed histopathological lesion in healing wounds in which degeneration of the media
of larger vessels occur resulting in loss of potency. Rhabdo viruses are primarily known to affect the
circulatory system such as heart and endothelial tissue of the capillaries.
X. The Digestive System
The digestive system consist of (1) oral cavity or mouth (2) esophagus (3) gut or stomach (4) intestine
(5) rectum (6) intestinal glands (liver and pancreas) Depending upon species, feeding habits and associated
structure may vary.

Pathology

1) Oral cavity
Traumatic lesions develop at times but heal quickly. Damage by fishing hooks may cause ulcers and
necrotic fungal infections particularly on the upper jaw. Polluted water may cause odontoblastoma and fibrous
traumatic lesions of the lips or of the pharynx.

a. Mechanical injuries leading to ulcer

This is mainly due to of hard objects. Mechanical injury leads to damage of skin exposing the animal to
attack by secondary pathogen and causing ulcer formation.

b. Enteric red mouth disease

It is caused by the bacteria Yersinia ruckeri, and is associated with septicemic infection. The mouth gets
highly reddened and inflamed and feeding stops, lysis of cell may occur leading to mortality. It can be easily
identified by looking at or observing the animal.
c. Tumors
Perioral tumors may occur. This may be due to virus, environment and non-infectious pathogens or
may be due to system failure.

2) Esophagus
 Esophagus myopathy. Myo-muscle pathy-pathology. It means pathology in muscle and denotes
the disease condition in muscles lining the esophagus. It affect the swallowing ability of the fish.

 Calcified plaques and granuloma formation involving large necrotic areas have been described in
the stomach wall of rainbow trout in CO2 mediated nephrocalcinosis.

3) Swim bladder
Obstruction of pneumatic duct or loss of gaseous secretion is the most commonly reported idiopathic
condition in swim bladder of fish. It may sometimes results in clinical bloat, impairing the ability of the fish to
maintain position in water. It may be due to nutritional reasons or due to fungal or parasitic infections.
Due to genetic reasons in certain fishes (cyprinodonts) swim bladder fails to develop properly and is
present as a vestigial organ and thus impairing the ability of the fish to position in the water. Affected fish
show characteristic ‘belly sliding’ movement which gives the condition its name.

Swim bladder inflammation

This is found in cyprinids, it develops as a necrotizing chronic inflammatory lesion of one or both the
chambers of the bladder in the farmed carp and eventually bladder wall collapses and reddish brown fluid
exudates which seen in the lumen.
4) Stomach
Not much of pathology due to the presence of gastric epithelium and the acidic pH which
prevents pathogen attack. Fewer pathologies which are noticed occur in the muscles of the stomach wall.
a. Intestine
Intestine is the area where the absorption of digested materials takes place. Small finger like projections
found in intestine known as villi helps to increase the absorptive surface area of the intestine. It is covered
by a layer of membrane known as intestinal epithelium. Rodlet cells are frequently seen in the lining of the
intestine.
In intensive culture conditions protozoan diseases such as coccidiosis or hexamitiasis, nematode or
acanthocephalan infection may cause severe necrotic damage and hemorrhage are seen as a result of the
excess of the thorns of the parasite’s head. Mycobacterium infection may cause granuloma formation with
small whitish nodules extending along the viscera of the intestine resembling that of Glugea infection of the
intestine.
b. Intestinal glands

Liver
Fish liver consists of two or in some cases three i.e. the parenchymatous hepatic tissue, the biliary
drainage tree and where the organ is hepatopancreas, the exocrine and endocrine pancreatic tissues. Biliary
or vascular tissue is vestigial in adult unless there is an anemia, when compensatory hepatic hematopoiesis
occurs. The parenchymatous hepatic tissue involves in intermediary metabolism of protein, carbohydrate and
lipids, the synthesis of plasma proteins such as albumins and reproductive protein ovalbumin and also the
formation and secretion of bile. It also carries out the detoxification of endogenously derived waste products
as well as externally derived toxins, drugs, heavy metals and pesticides. Teleost liver lacks fixed kupffer cells.

a. Hepatic necrosis - May develop as a result of both primary liver disease and in
reactive hepatitis in response to systemic infection with primary focus elsewhere.

b. Focal necrosis - Only a small area of liver gets damaged. Small clusters of necrotic
hepatocytes may be found within normal hepatic tissue or infiltrate by inflammatory cells.

c. Confluent necrosis - A large area of liver tissue is necrotized. Where the necrosis is
large, but does not have an inflammatory infiltrate associated with it, it is generally
the result of infarctive process. Infarction follows obstruction of the vascular supply, and is usually
the result of thrombosis of hepatic arterial vessels.

d. Lipid infiltration -Lipid gets accumulated in the liver. This happens more in
carnivorous fish which has large supplementation of lipid in its diets. Lipid infiltration is commonly
reported in farmed fishes but may also occur in wild fishes especially in those who store large
amount of lipid during the active feeding stage. Enlargement of liver and loss of sharp edges of
its lobes characteristic feature of this pathology. It may be caused by feeding highly rancid trash
fish, toxic conditions or vitamin deficiencies.

e. Hepatic Granuloma - Hepatic granuloma are caused by a wide range of pathogens. To

prevent the progression of damage by pathogen to adjacent tissue the causative agent and
damaged tissues are surrounded by a very narrow flattened bed of epithelioid and fibrous cells
this is referred to as granuloma.
 f. Pigment Accumulation - Most commonly reported is the accumulation of ceroid and
lipofuscin. These by-products of catabolism are seen extensively in the liver cells and
haemopoietic tissue, following starvation or wasting disease.
g. Cirrhosis - Cirrhosis is a diffuse increase in the fibrous tissue of the liver,
usually associated with chronic damage and destruction of liver cells (hepatic cells or
hepatocytes). The damage can result from a wide range of stimuli, from long standing biliary
obstruction, heavy metal or pesticide poisoning to chronic parasitism which leads to the loss of
function of hepatocytes.
h. Hepatic carcinoma - Hepatoma may be caused by a variety of pathogens. It is an
increased proliferation of cells in liver. One of the toxin known as Aflatoxin produced by a fungus
known as Aspergillus flavus is the main or primary causative agent of hepatomas.
i. Cystic growth - Unidentified growth of cyst in liver is associated mostly with some
of the metazoan parasites. Sometimes these cysts may be so large that it causes cachexia and
wasting.

Billary ducts Gall Bladder

Bile empties into the gall bladder through bile ducts and release into gastro intestinal tract. If the
stone is formed in the gall bladder it is known as gall stone (cholelithis). Stone formation is generally
termed lithiasis.

Pancreas
The pancreas has two separate organs

 Exocrine pancreas
 Endocrine pancreas
 Exocrine pancreas

It is directly associated with digestive system which helps in digestion by producing enzymes like
lipase, amylase, typsinogen, chymotrypsinogen which is produced in inactive form and are activated by
certain enzymes.

Endocrine pancreas
It produces hormone for different functions; the main hormones are glucagon secreted by a cells
and insulin secreted by b cells. Inflammation of pancreas is known as pancreatitis.
Pathology
1. Exocrine pancreas
 Acinar necrosis
Focal necrosis normally occurs in association with a number of conditions but the most significant
and the most acute are the viral conditions. It leads to the loss of control on production of enzyme in
pancreatic tissue. Uncontrolled production of enzymes cause lysis of organelles and release granules which
cause necrosis of pancreas. This may happen due to bacterial infection and viral infection especially IPNV (-
Infectious pancreatic necrosis virus) which causes damage to pancreas and lead to fatal problem. This
happens mostly in temperate water fishes like salmon and trout.
 Pancreatic Atrophy
Shrinkage in size of pancreatic cell by loss of cell substance is called pancreatic atrophy. In case of
chronic pancreatitis such as IPN, individual acinar cells become pyknotic and generally undergo autolysis
with little in the way of cellular response, other than fibrosis. In some cases acinar structure is disturbed, and
acini may shrink and become very darkly stained. In case of Pancreas disease or polymyopathy syndrome
of salmon there is loss of exocrine secretion into the gut, manifested by failure to digest protein and absence
of faecal trypsin.
 Neoplasia
Uncontrolled production of acinar cells. Neoplasia of pancreatic acini is rare.

2) Endocrine pancreas
The hormone production is altered and this may result in hyperglycemia or diabetes (increased blood
glucose level).

3) Peripancreatic lipid tissue

Peritonitis can result in infiltration and fibrosis of the pancreatic lipid tissue, a distinctive infiltrative
condition is pancreatitis, where there’s acute inflammatory infiltration of all lipid tissue, but particularly the
peripancreatic fat. Acini and islets are unaffected but the walls of fat cells are thickened and there is an
infiltration of lymphocytes and macrophages.

XI. The Excretory System

Kidney
It has mainly three functions.

Excretion
Hematopoiesis
Endocrine

The basic functional unit of kidney is the nephron. Nephron is a tubular structure having a cup
like Bowman’s capsule which contains glomerulus, which has coiled branched capillaries. Head kidney
functions for hematopoiesis while mid kidney and posterior kidney are excretory in function.

Pathology
a. Glomerular nephritis - The epithelial layer will be sloughed off (detachment of epithelial
layer) from the basement membrane and forms wide mass in the Bowman’s capsule which reduces
the filtration efficiency. This may be happen due to some toxin produced by bacteria, virus and due
to pollution.
b. Parasitic deposition - The pathology leads to deposition of glomerulus in the Bowman’s
capsule, which block the filtration capacity and finally damage the tissue. The parasitic deposition
blocks the movement of the generated fluids in collecting ducts, etc.
c. Renal tubules - Renal cell tubules get damaged causing tubular necrosis. This is
due to antibiotics like erythromycin, sulphamerazine which cause kidney problem.
d. Urolithiasis/Nephrocalcinosis - Formation of calcite stones in nephrons, nephric duct etc. This
happens due to high CO2 and a diet rich in calcium.
e. Interstitial fibrosis - This pathological change results due to proliferative kidney
disease (PKDC). This may also be due to bacterial infection, leading to degradation of haemopoeitic
tissue, haemopoeitic hyperplasia, vascular changes and diffused inflammation.
f. Tumor generation - Aflatoxin can generate tumor in liver.
Nervous System
The nervous system consist of brain, spinal cord, nerves and all other associated cell components.

Brain

The brain or encephalon is placed inside the cranial cavity or skull.

Pathology
 Encephalitis / Encephalopathy - The brain is covered by a thick layer of fat and meninges
which protects the brain from any traumatic damage as well as protects from the invasion by
pathogens. Brain is richly supplied with blood by a network of blood vessels which at times may also
act as a source of entry for pathogens to the brain. Encephalopathy is a term referring to any of the
various diseases of the brain while encephalitis refers to the inflammatory response in the brain. In
response to an infection eosinophilic granular cells migrate into the brain and cause allergic reaction
called as encephalitis. This may sometimes cause disfunctioning of brain cells and partial damage
to the brain.
 Vacuolating Encephalopathy - The brain cells i.e. nerve cells get destructed by means
of vacuolation which disrupts its function. It is mainly caused by viral infections such as (EHN)
Epizootic hematopoietic necrosis in rainbow trout and noda virus infection in Sea Bass.
 Hydrocephalus - Fluid accumulation in brain. The blood vessels in brain
undergo hemorrhage there by leading to an increase in volume of fluid in brain.

Spinal cord

Pathology is caused due to damage to spinal vertebrae. In case of whirling disease spinal vertebrae
may get distorted along with compression and lesions in the spinal cord.

 Meningitis - Pathological changes involving the meninges are more frequently

observed in fish than encephalitis. Meninges is normally subdivided into two categories, depending
on the particular layer of meninges involved.
 Pachymeningitis - refers to inflammation of the pia and arachnoid
 Leptomeningitis - refers to inflammation of the pia and arachnoid
 Leptomeningitis - is more frequently seen than pachymeningitis.

Sense organ
In Whirling disease - caused by a parasitic protozoan Myxosoma cerebralis, the parasite is
present in the semicircular canals in the internal ear (which normally regulates the buoyancy). This parasite
normally infects the juvenile fish where the ossification / calcification is not yet complete. The parasite gets
migrated into the semicircular canals causing damage and leads to loss of buoyancy and eventually death.
Lateral line (Sense organ)

It is liable to damage by detergents, heavy metals, petroleum hydrocarbons, pesticides and other
pollutants. Severe oedema, spongiosis, necrosis and sloughing are the usual acute responses with
hyperplasia and metaplasia of sensory epithelium occurring in the longer standing cases.
 Eye
Lesions of the eye are numerous and varied in their etiology. The most frequent clinically apparent eye
lesion involves swelling of the orbit or discoloration of the cornea. Blind fish usually darken in color because
of their loss of external stimuli to color control.
Ulcers in cornea can give way to secondary infections such as parasitic, fungal or bacterial. Corneal
damage is also associated with deficiency of the B group vitamin riboflavin, which is essential for the
respiration of the vascularized cornea. Deficiency leads to corneal oedema and sloughing of the outer
epithelium.
The lens is affected by a number of pathological processes, all leading to progressive degenerative
cataract formation. One of the most common eye infection seen in cultured fish is cataract of farmed
salmonids caused by the metacercarial stages of the various strigeoid metacercaria.
Nodavirus is known to cause vacuolar retinal degeneration in a number of fin fishes mainly involving the
cellular components of the retina especially the bipolar and ganglionic nuclear layers. However small lesions
can be found in rod and cone layers.
a) Exophthalmia - Bulging out of the eyes from the eye socket. This may be due to
virus, bacterial toxins or due to pollutants.
b) Pop eye/ Gas bubble disease - One of the most important and frequently reported eye condition
in fish is gas bubble disease associated with super saturation of the water with air.