2/16/2019

Road Construction and

Quality Control

Presented by: San Nwe

B.E (Civil), P.E (Construction)
1

TOPIC 1 TOPIC 2 TOPIC 3 TOPIC 4

Specificati Quality Tests &

ons Inspection Road
Control Safety
s

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Standard Specifications (Typical)

Standard Specifications for (Typical)

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Embankment on Existing Road

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Embankment (Trial Compaction)

15t Roller 6 Passes 8 Passes 10 Passes

13t Roller 6 Passes 8 Passes 10 Passes

10t Roller 6 Passes 8 Passes 10 Passes

Embankment (Trial Compaction)

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Embankment

Embankment –Slope Protection

Sod with 300mm thk top soil

10

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Embankment –Slope Finishing

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Embankment –Slope Protection

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Standard Specifications for Subgrade (Typical)

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Quality Control Frequency of Test and Standard Criteria (Laboratory)

Laboratory Test for Embankment, Sub-grade, Sub-base and Base Course Materials

Test Item Standard Embankmen Shoulder Lower Upper Cement Stablized Base Course
t Sub-grade Sub-grade Sub-base
Moisture - Density JIS A 1210 Find MDD & Optimum Water Content
Relation @ Soil Type @ Material
Plasticity Index AASHTO LL≦25, PI≦ 9 LL≦25, PI≦6
T89/T90 @ Material
Sieve Analysis AASHTO T27 See Note See Note 1 Grade A, B, C
1. of T.S Table 2.1.3-1
@Material @Material @ 3000 m³
Abrasion AASHTO T96 ≦40%
(Aggregate) @ Material
CBR JIS A 1214 ≧4.0% ≧19.5% >66% >80%
at 95% at 95% at 95% at 98%
@ Material
Unconfined AASHTO ≧11 kg/cm2
Compression T208 @ Material

Note 1.
Classification:
Type A : -75µm <20%
Type B : 20% ≦-75µm<50%
Type C : 50%≦-75µm

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Laboratory Test for Asphalt Pavement Material

Test Item Test Method Criteria Frequency

Binder and Surface Course
Sieve Analysis AASHTO T27 TS Table 2.1.7-1 @ 3000t
Abrasion AASHTO T96 ≦ 40% @ Material
Combined Aggregate
Sand Equivalent ASSHOT T176 ≧ 50 @ Material
Coarse Aggregate
Water Absorption AASHTO T85 < 5% @ Material
Flakiness Index BS 812 < 35% @ Material
Elongation Index BS 812 < 35% @ Material
Coating AASHTO T182 ≧ 95% @ Material
& Stripping
Asphalt Concrete Mix
Marshall Test Standard Density Daily

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Field Test for Embankment ~ Base Course

Upper: Criteria Lower: Frequency

Standard Embank Shoulder Lower Upper * Sub- Base

Test Item ment Sub-grade * Sub-grade base Course
Field AASHTO Va < Va < 10% Type A: Type A: 4 of 5 D≧98%
Compactio T191 10% Sr > 85% D≧90% D≧95% D≧95%
n Test Sr > Type B: Va Type B: 5th
85% < 15% Va< 15% D≧92%
Type C: Va Type C: Va
<10% <10%
3 per 3 per 3 per 3 per 3 per
5000m³ 1000m² 1000m² 1000m² 1000m²
Moisture ASTM D +1% ± 2% of ± 2% of ± 2% of ± 2% of ± 2%
Content 4959 and -2% Wopt Wopt Wopt Wopt of Wopt
Va : Air VoidSr : Saturation of Wopt D: Field Density Wopt : Optimum Moisture
Content 1 per 1 per day 1 per day 1 per day 1 per day 1 per
day day

* Control Criteria vary depend on type of Filling Materials Classified as follows

Type A : -75µm <20%
Type B : 20% ≦-75µm<50%
Type C : 50%≦-75µm
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Quality Control Frequency and Standard Criteria for

Road Works (Earthwork)

Control Method of Frequency Control Action for

Item Test or Criteria for unsatisfactory
Control Ordinary test result is
Case
C.B.R J I S A 1211 When required
Field J I S A 1214 One test per 1000 Embankment Additional
density m³ for 85% min. Compaction or
embankments to be Subgrade 90% replacement of
increased to one min material
test per 500-1000
m³ for subgrade
layers.
Layer Measuring Tape Whenever 30cm (max.) Filling or Cutting
thickness (or) Level materials spreaded loose materials
instrument measurement
Maximum J I S A 1210 Whenever material 1.65 gm/cc (min.)
dry density changed

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Allowable Tolerance (Workmanship)

Consulta
Frequen nt
Elevation Thickness Width Others
cy Inspectio
n
Lower Sub-
N/A ± 50 mm -100 mm
grade
Upper Sub- Proof Rolling Test :
± 50 mm ± 50 mm -100 mm
grade All Area by Consultant

Sub-base N/A -45 mm -50 mm @100 m @300 m

Base Course N/A -25 mm -50 mm

Evenness
Asphalt
N/A -5 mm -25 mm ± 3 mm, by 3.5m
Pavement
Straight Edge
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Quality Control Frequency and Standard Criteria

for Road Works (Sub-base)

Control Method of Frequency Control Action for

Item Test or Criteria for unsatisfactory
Control Ordinary test result is
Case
Moisture JIS A 1203 Whenever any Aeration or
Content irregularity is application of water
observed
Grading JIS A 1204 Whenever any Check received
irregularity is material or modify
observed job mix formula
Density J I S A 1214 Every 1,000 m² 95% or more Additional
compaction or
replacement of
material

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Quality Control Frequency and Standard Criteria

for Road Works (Sub-base) Cont’d

Control Method of Frequency Control Action for

Item Test or Criteria for unsatisfacto
Control Ordinary ry
Case test result is
Proof Any time required
Rolling

Modified J I S A 1211 Whenever material 30% Min. at Change

CBR changed or any 95% material or
irregularity is compaction modify job mix
observed formula
Layer 250mm (Max.)
Thickness

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Quality Control Frequency and Standard Criteria

for Road Works (Base Course)

Control Method of Frequency Control Action for unsatisfactory

Item Test or Criteria for test result is
Control Ordinary
Case
Moisture JIS A 1203 Whenever Aeration or application of
Content any water, according to
irregularity is moisture content/ change
observed material, or stabilize with
lime PI is high.
Liquid JIS A 1205 L. L < 25
Limit
Plastic JIS A 1206 P. I < 6
Limit
Soundness J I S A 1122 Whenever - 10% Max. Change Source of Material

Abrasion J I S A 1121 material - 40% Max.

Test changed
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Quality Control Frequency and Standard Criteria

for Road Works (Base Course)
Control Method of Frequency Control Action for
Item Test or Criteria for unsatisfactory
Control Ordinary test result is
Case
Modified J I S A 1211 Whenever 80% min. Change material or
CBR Test materi- al change at 98% modify job mix
or any irregularity compaction formula
is observed
Layer Measuring Whenever 250 mm Filling or cutting
thickness tape or level material is (max.) comp- materials
instrument spreaded acted layer
Grading JIS A 1204 Every 1,000 m² M - 30 Check received
Sample during material or modify
spreading job mix formula
Field J I S A 1214 Every 1,000 m² 98% or more Additional
Density compaction or
replacement of
material 22

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Grading for Base Material

100

90
Test Result

80
Lower Limit

70 Upper Limit
% Passing

60

50

40

30

20

10

0
0.01 0.1 1 10 100

Particle Size (mm)

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Grading for Base Material

Cummu. Retained (Wt.) Cummu. Cummu. Design

Sieve size 1st 2nd Average retained passing Cummulative
(mm) (gm) (gm) (gm) (gm) (%) (%) passing

50.00 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0% 100.0 100 ~ 100

10.00 2600.0 2635.2 2617.6 2617.6 46.6% 53.4 30 65
2.00 920.4 917.5 919.0 3536.6 63.0% 37.0 15 ~ 40
0.425 1248.5 1243.8 1246.2 4782.7 85.2% 14.8 8 ~ 20
0.075 665.7 671.4 668.6 5451.3 97.1% 2.9 2 ~ 8
Pan 163.6 160.7 162.2 5613.4 100.0%

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ASPHALT MIX DESIGN (CONT’D)

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Design and Testing of Bituminous Mixtures

(The Marshall Method)
1. Sampling Temperature
Bring all mix constituents and
compaction mold assembles to
the required temperature. e.g
for 60/70 penetration grade
bitumen a temperature of
130°C to 170°C.
2. Mix
Mix the heated constituents for each batch
separately ensuring that the specimen is at the
correct temperature for compaction.
The bowl temperature should be maintained by
adjusting the Heater. Time from charging the
bowl to compacting the mix procedure is 2
minutes.
Mix and subsequently compact the specimens in
progressively increasing or decreasing order of
bitumen content.

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Design and Testing of Bituminous Mixtures

(The Marshall Method) Cont’d
3. Compact 4. Extrude and Store
Charge the heated mold assembly with Extrude the specimen from the
mixture; apply 75 blows of the hammer at mold and store at ambient
a rate of 60 blows/minute. Reverse the temperature until ready to test.
mold, apply 75 blows to the lower face of
the specimen. On completion, immerse the
mold and specimen in cold water for at
least 10 minutes.

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Design and Testing of Bituminous Mixtures

(The Marshall Method) Cont’d
5. Density 6. Curing Temperature
Weight in air and water; calculate the Prior to testing immerse specimens in
relative density and compacted water at 60°C for 45 to 75 minutes.
aggregate density. Bring the Breaking Head to the same
temperature immediately prior to testing.

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Design and Testing of Bituminous Mixtures

(The Marshall Method) Cont’d
7. Stability and Flow 8. Evaluate and Report
Test each of the specimen in turn Stability, mix density, aggregate density
commencing with richer bitumen and flow value are all used to determine
contents. Test for stability and flow at a the optimum bitumen content for the mix
nominal rate of strain of 50 mm/minute. design. These are usually presented in
Complete each test within 40 seconds of graphical form.
removing the specimen from the water
bath to recording the reading.

900
Stability (kgf)

800
700
600
500

5.0 5.5 6.0 6.5 7.0 (%)

Asphalt content (%)

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Quality Control Frequency and Standard Criteria for

Road Works (Asphalt Concrete)

Control Method of Frequency Control Criteria Action for

Item Test or for Ordinary unsatisfactory
Control Case test result is
Temperatu Thermome Any time Plant 160  5
re ter required at C
the plant Site >130 C
and Site Compactable
temp  90 C
Gradation Extraction 1~2 times a Check
and Sieve day stockpiles, or
analysis adjust cold
feeder gates

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Quality Control Frequency and Standard Criteria

for Road Works (Asphalt Concrete) Continues
Control Method of Frequency Control Action for unsatisfactory
Item Test or Criteria for test result is
Control Ordinary
Case
Core Core 3 cores / day B/W*  94% Control should be based on
Density C/W*  92% core test data during initial
construction phase. Then
material temperature and
degree of compaction
should be regulated
Visual Visual Any time Particular attention should
appearance required be paid to the presence of
material segregation and
hairline cracking

* B/W : Bike Way, C/W : Carriage Way

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Concrete Trial Mix

(Based on AASHTO Tests)
1. Aggregates
Prepare Fine and Coarse Aggregates to
Saturated and Surface-Dry (SSD)
condition according to AASHTO T-84 for
fine aggregate and T-85 for Coarse
aggregate.
2. Mix
Mix by the batching Plant at following
orders. (AASHTO T-126)
1) Put Coarse Aggregates and some of
water+Admixture to the mixer before
rotation.
2) Start the Mixer.
3) Add Fine Aggregate, Cement and
Water with mixer running.
4) Mix for 3 minutes.
5) Rest for 3 minutes (Cover top
opening).
6) Final Mix 2 minutes.
7) Discharge to mixing pan.

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Concrete Trial Mix

(Based on AASHTO Tests), Cont’d
3. Slump Test (T-119)*
1) Remix by trowel until it
appeared to be uniform in
the mixing pan.
2) Check slump test
immediately after mixing.
For Class A1; Slump ≥15
cm.
For Class B1(Bored
Piles); 17.5cm to 22.5cm.
For others ; Slump = 5
cm. to 10 cm.
4. Molding for Compressive Test (T-23)
Mold specimens as near as practicable to the place
where they are to be stored during the first 24 hrs.
1. Place the concrete in the mold using a scoop in
3 equal layers.
2. Consolidate each layer by 25 strokes by 16mm
Rod.
3. Tap the outsides of the mold lightly 10 to 15
times with the mallet to close any holes left by
rodding and to release air bubbles.
4. Strike-off the surface with temping rod.
5. Go to curing.
Sample required for all classes;
2 days : 3 nos (for Class A1 only)
7 days : 3 nos (for other than Class A1 only)
28 days : 3 nos (for all Classes)
Spare : 3 Nos (for all Classes)

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Concrete Trial Mix

(Based on AASHTO Tests), Cont’d
6. Temperature (ASTM-C1064)
Determine the temperature of the concrete.

7. Curing (T-126) 8. Compressive Test (T-22

1. Initial curing 24 hrs in the mold and
cover by wet burlap.
2. Remove mold, put cylinder in the
sealed casing and transport to
laboratory.
3. Put in the curing tank until test.
(231.7°C)
1. Take out cylinders from curing
tank.
2. Wipe surface water by cloth.
3. Make sulfur capping.
4. Test compressive strength.

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Histogram for Concrete Class A1,

 28= 40 Mpa

9 8
8 7
7
6
No. of Data

5 5
5 4 4
4 3
3
2 1
1 0
0
36-38 38-40 40-42 42-44 44-46 46-48 48-50 50-52 x >52

Compressive Strength, Mpa

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110
Upper control limit
106
Compaction (%)

102
Central line
98

Lower control limit Abnormality

94

90
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15
Test No.

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Laboratory Test for Concrete Material

Test Item Test Method Criteria Frequency
Coarse Aggregate
Abrasion AASHTO T96 < 35% @ Material
Water Absorption AASHTO T85 < 5% @ Material
Specific Gravity AASHTO T84 N/A @ Material
Soundness AASHTO T104 < 12% @ Material
Finer than 75µm AASHTO T11 < 1% @ Material
Clay lumps AASHTO T112 < 3% @ Material
Unit Mass AASHTO T19 N/A @ Material
Sieve Analysis AASHTO T27 AASHTO M43 Biweekly
Fine Aggregate
Sieve Analysis AASHTO T27 M-6 @ Material
Specific Gravity AASHTO T84 N/A @ Material
Clay lumps AASHTO T112 3%
Finer than 75µm AASHTO T11 < 4% @ Material
Concrete Mix A1 : 40 MPa B1 : 30 MPa
Compressive Test AASHTO T22 B2 : 24 MPa B3 : 21 MPa 1 time/60m³/class
D : 18 MPa
Slump Test AASHTO T119 Class A1>15 cm 1 time/30m³/class
Other Class 10±2 cm
Air Content AASHTO T152 4±1% 1 time/60m³/class

Temperature ASTM C1064 10°C ~ 35°C 1~2 times/casting

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Concrete Work Allowable Tolerance

(Workmanship)

With of Consult
Span
Base Girder Bed Frequen ant
Thickness Width Height Length at
Elevation cy Inspecti
Center
on

Substructure
- 50 mm - 50 mm
Bridge ± 20
- 20 mm - 20 mm - 50 mm (Bridge (Bridge
Box Culvert mm Each Each
only) only)
Pipe Culvert Structur Structur
e e

± 20 + 20 ~ -5 ± 30 -100
Deck Slab N/A N/A
mm mm mm mm

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4. PROPERTIES
AND
CHARACTERISTIC
S OF MATERIALS
4.1 Soil

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4. PROPERTIES AND CHARACTERISTICS OF

MATERIALS

Particle Size Moisture

4.1 Soil Soil Type Distribution Dry Density Content
Factors
Affecting Soil
Strength
• Granular • The Size, Shape • The Degree • Higher
Soils have and Distribution of moisture
of the Particles
generally Determine the compaction content
higher Internal Friction & governs its means lower
strength Cohesion strength to soil strength
than fine a great
grained soils extent

43

Common Soil Tests Required for Road

Works

1. Phases in soil (Solid + Air + Water)

2. Grain size distribution (Sieve Analysis/Hydrometer
analysis)
3. Consistency limits ( Plastic & Liquid Limits)
4. Specific Gravity
5. Los Angeles Abrasion Test
6. Soundness Test
7. CBR Test
8. Unconfined Compression Test (only for cohesive soil
or cement-stabilized sands)
9. Field Density Test
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Common Soil Tests Required for Road

Works
AASHTO T2
Sampling of Aggregates
Sampling from the Conveyor Belt / Stock Pile

Stop conveyor belt

Obtain at least three equal increments, randomly selected and
combine to form field sample.

Remove surface

h/3

h
h/3

h/3

Required size of Samples depend on size of Aggregate as shown in Table 1.

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Common Soil Tests Required for Raod

Works

Reducing Field Samples of Aggregate to Testing Size

2 3

4 5

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Common Soil Tests Required for Raod

Works
Table 1 . Required Size of Samples AASHTO T2

Maximum Nominal Size Approximate Minimum

of Aggregates Mass of Field Samples (kg)
Fine Aggregate
No.8 (2.36mm) 10
No.4 (4.75mm) 10
Coarse Aggregate
9.5 mm 10
12.5 mm 15
19.0 mm 25
25.0 mm 50
37.5 mm 75
50 mm 100
63 mm 125
75 mm 150
90 mm 175
47

Common Soil Tests Required for Road

Works
AASHTO T88
Particle Size Analysis of Soils

Sieve Analysis

#10 Sieve, 2.00mm

Hydrometer Test

Required size of Samples

Nominal size of Largest Approximate Minimum
Particles (mm) Weight, (kg)
9.5 0.5
25 2
50 4
75 5
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Common Soil Tests Required for Road

Works

Sieve Analysis

49

Common Soil Tests Required for Raod

Works

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Common Soil Tests Required for Road Works

Compaction Test (To find Optimum Moisture)
Compaction
Test Mainly Two Methods (AASHTO T99/180 JIS A1210)
• 10cm mold with 2.5 kg Rammer ( max. particle size
(Laboratory) 19mm)
• 15cm mold with 4.5 kg Rammer (max. particle size
37.5mm)

51

Common Soil Tests Required for Road Works

Compaction Test (To find Optimum Moisture)
Compaction
Test Mainly Two Methods (AASHTO T99/180 JIS A1210)
• 10cm mold with 2.5 kg Rammer ( max. particle size
(Laboratory) 19mm)
• 15cm mold with 4.5 kg Rammer (max. particle size
37.5mm)

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Common Soil Tests Required for Road Works

CBR Test (California Bearing Ratio Test)
Laboratory • Developed by California Division of Highways
CBR Test
• Used for evaluating the stability of Soils
AASHTO T193 • Can be conducted in field or in laboratory
JIS A1210 Test Procedure
• Find Optimum Moisture Content (OMC)
in accordance with JIS A 1210
• Compact 3 molds @17,42 & 92 blows x
3 layers at OMC (@10,30,65 in
AASHTO)
• Soak in water for 4 days (in case of
cement-stablized, 3 days in air + 4 days in
water)
• Penetration of the plunger at constant
rate of 1mm/min.
• Calculate CBR at 2.5mm & 5.0mm
penetration

53

Common Soil Tests Required for Road Works

Laboratory
CBR Test
Test Load
AASHTO T193
CBR= x 100
Standard Load
JIS A1210

Penetration (mm) Standard Load (kgf)

2.5 1370
5.0 2030

➢ If CBR @2.5mm > 5.0mm, retest again

➢ If retest CBR @2.5mm still higher, apply CBR
@2.5mm, otherwise Report CBR @5.0mm

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Common Soil Tests Required for Road Works

Laboratory
CBR Test

AASHTO T193
JIS A1210

55

Common Soil Tests Required for Road Works

Laboratory
CBR Test

AASHTO T193
JIS A1210

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Common Soil Tests Required for Road Works

Laboratory
Putting the Two together (Density & CBR)
CBR Test
2.50

Moisture-Density relationship CBR-Dry density relationship

AASHTO T193
2.40
JIS A1210
2.162 2.292 ##
2.30 r dmax=2.294
85.1 196.8 ##
r dmax x 98% =2.248
Dry Density, rd (g/cm³)

2.20

Modified CBR=160%
2.10 W opt=5.3

2.00

1.90

1.80
100
120
140
160
180
200
220
240
260
280
300
320
340
360
80
80

1.0 2.0 3.0 4.0 5.0 6.0 7.0 8.0 9.0 10.0

Water Content, w (%) CBR (%)

57

Common Soil Tests Required for Road Works

Field CBR Test

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Common Soil Tests Required for Road Works

Atterberg
Limit Test

(Laboratory)
AASHTO
T89/T90

59

Common Soil Tests Required for Road Works

Atterberg
Limit Test

(in Laboratory)

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Common Soil Tests Required for Road Works

Field
Density
Test
(Sand
Cone
Method)
JIS A1214

Sand Cone Method

61

Common Soil Tests Required for Road Works

Verification of Measuring Apparatus
1. Assemble the measuring apparatus and weigh
Field (m1).
Density 2. Stand the apparatus funnel up/jar down)and open
Test the valve.
(Sand 3. Pour water to fill the jar and pycnometer top
Cone 4. Close the valve, remove water from funnel and
Method) wipe out.
JIS A1214 5. Weigh the apparatus filled with water (m2) and
measure the temperature (t) of water inside.
6. Calculate the Volume (V1) of the Jar &
Pycnometer top.

7. V1= K (m2-m1)

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Common Soil Tests Required for Road Works

Verification of Density of Standard Sand
Field
Density 1. Dry the inside of measuring apparatus and stand
Test funnel up.
(Sand 2. Pour the sand up to upper end of funnel and open
Cone the valve to sand flow down, supply sand so that
Method) sand surface not less than half height of funnel.
JIS A1214 3. When the movement of sand stops, close the valve,
discard the remaining sand in funnel & weigh the
mass (m3) of apparatus with sand.
4. Calculate mass (m4) of sand in apparatus; m4 =m3-
m1
5. Calculate Density of Sand.

63

Common Soil Tests Required for Road Works

Field Test Procedure in the field

Density Excavation of Test Hole
Test 1. Level the surface by straight edge.
2. Place the base plate.
(Sand
3. Dig the soil inside the hole.
Cone
4. Weigh the total mass (m1) of the soil dug.
Method)
5. Test moisture content.
JIS A1214 6. Fill up the standard soil in the apparatus and measure
the weigh (m3).
7. Place apparatus to cover the hole of base plate.
8. Open the valve until movement of sand in the jar stops,
then close valve.
9. Weigh the mass (m8) of apparatus with remaining sand
10. Calculate the wet & dry density then Degree of
compaction as shown in the form.
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Common Soil Tests Required for Road Works

Field Density
Test How does the Nuclear
Density Gauge work?
(Nuclear The radioactive sources in
Method)
NDG’s are always emitting
radiation.

When the NDG is not

making readings, the source
must always be retracted to
the “Safe” position, with the
Neuclear Gauge
source secured inside the
tungsten shielding block.

65

Common Soil Tests Required for Road Works

Field
Wet density is measured using a Cesium
Density
Test 137 (Cs-137) gamma radiation source, a
pea-sized pellet fixed in the bottom of the
source rod, and two Geiger-Muller tube
(Nuclear gamma detectors at the rear of the gauge.
Method) The source is lowered to the desired test
depth by releasing the handle.
When the test is started, the detectors in
the gauge record the count rate of the
radiation transmitted directly through the
soil layer, displaying wet density readings
on the keypad.
A more dense material absorbs more
gamma radiation, resulting in a lower
gamma count reading, which converts to a
higher wet density value

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Common Soil Tests Required for Road Works

Plate Bearing ASTM D 1194 – 94 and AASHTO Standards.
Test (PBT)
In the design of shallow foundation or traffic surface,
design engineer need to know the bearing capacity of
soil underneath. Plate bearing test is carried out in the
field to serve this purpose.

Result from the test

can be used as design
parameter or used to
confirm the design
assumption..

67

Common Soil Tests Required for Road Works

Plate Bearing Testing Procedure
Test (PBT)
• Select test location and depth at the point where
the real foundation will be constructed, if
possible. If the test is performed in a test pit,
width of the pit should be at least 4 to 5 times of
plate diameter.
• Apply the load to the plate in steps by means of
hydraulic jack pushing against the counter
weight until reaching the maximum test load.
Unloading should also be done in the backward
steps. Read and record the load of every step
from proving ring.
• Read settlement from the dial gauges. 3 to 4 dial
gauges should be placed separately at 120° or 90°
respectively.
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Common Soil Tests Required for Road Works

Dynamic
Cone
Penetratio
n Test
DCPT

69

Common Soil Tests Required for Road Works

Dynamic In-situ penetration tests have been widely used in
Cone geotechnical and foundation engineering for site
Penetratio investigation in support of analysis and design.
n Test
DCPT The standard penetration test (SPT) and the cone
penetration test (CPT) are two typical in-situ
penetration tests.

The Dynamic Cone Penetration test (DCPT)

shows features of both the CPT and the SPT.

The DCPT is similar to the SPT in test.

It is performed by dropping a hammer from a certain fall height

and measuring a penetration depth per blow for
each tested depth.

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Common Soil Tests Required for Road Works

Dynamic
Cone
Recommendations
Penetratio For clayey sand classified in accordance with the United Classification
n Test System, the equation for the dry density in terms of PI can be used
DCPT for predicting d using field DCP tests.

(2) Since such predictions using the DCPT are subject to

considerable uncertainty, DCPT should be performed for
compaction control in combination with a few conventional test
methods, such as the nuclear gage. These can be used to anchor or
calibrate the DCPT correlation for specific sites, reducing the
uncertainty in the predictions. Site-specific correlations do appear to
be of better quality.

(3) The DCPT should not be used in soil with gravel. Unrealistic PI
values could be obtained and the penetrometer shaft could be bent.

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Common Soil Tests Required for Road Works

Dynamic
Cone Depth
m
Number Number
of Blows
k
Constant
Rd
2
Dynamic Break Resistance Rd, Mpa
Kg/cm 0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180 200
Penetratio
n Test 0.00 1 5.76 0.00
0.25 0.00
DCPT 0.50 0.00
0.75 2 6 5.30 31.80
1.00 7 37.10
1.25 27 143.10
1.50 13 68.90
1.75 3 7 4.91 34.37
2.00 9 44.19
2.25 8 39.28
2.50 6 29.46
2.75 4 9 4.57 41.13
3.00 9 41.13
3.25 8 36.56
3.50 8 36.56
3.75 5 12 4.27 51.24
4.00 14 59.78
4.25 16 68.32
4.50 16 68.32
4.75 6 4.01

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Common Soil Tests Required for Road

Works
Trial
Compaction
on Different
Soil Type by
Different
Compaction
Equipment

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ROAD CONNECTING PHNOM PENH – HOCHI MINH

75

Road Safety

Road safety analysis has contributed to the

international experience on identifying
relationships among;

 Various road design elements and accident

risk, and
 Best practices towards improving road
safety.

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Road Safety

Road safety issues related to road

characteristics and road infrastructure
features are discussed.
The issues presented are based on a synthesis
of the international literature. It should be
noted that the following sections are a
synopsis of the international experience and
practice, and they are not exhaustive on the
effect of road design elements on road
safety.
77

Road Safety

 Road sections
 Road design optimization aims at the
selection of geometric design parameters
resulting in a road environment that is "non-
surprising"

 in the sense that users are not faced with

unexpected situations, as well as "forgiving",
in the sense that users' mistakes can be, if
not avoided, corrected.

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Road Safety

 Road sections (Cont’d)

 The selected design speed, on which road

alignment parameters are determined, needs to
be realistic and compatible to the expected
operational speed.

 Moreover, the design speed should be in

accordance to the type and functional
requirements of the road, and compatible to
the roadway environment.

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Road Safety

Horizontal Alignment
The three basic components;

straight lines

circular curves

transition curves

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Road Safety
 Horizontal Alignment

The main objective of horizontal alignment

should be to ensure consistency and
uniformity along the alignment, in order to
avoid the creation of sections demanding an
important adjustment of travel speed.
In general, uniformity on the alignment is
achieved by avoiding steep changes of
alignment features.

81

Road Safety
Road Safety
 Horizontal Alignment

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Road Safety

 Horizontal Alignment
Several studies have been conducted to
estimate the accident risk in horizontal
curves. Their main conclusions are:
the limited sight distance and the increased
probability of skidding, increased accident
rates are observed.
The majority of accidents on horizontal
curves concern single vehicle run-off
accidents and head-on collisions.

83

Road Safety

Horizontal Alignment
Horizontal curves of low radii lead to road
safety problems, while the related risk rates
increase significantly for radii <200 m .
Research results show that the number of
road accidents tends to increase when the
radii of horizontal curves decreases.

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Road Safety
Road Safety
Horizontal Alignment
 A transition curves (clothoides) are defined as a transition
from a tangent section to a circular curve.
 In a transition curve, the road will gradually curve more
and more.
 The design standards recommend that a transition curve
should be constructed in horizontal curves, designed as a
clothoide.
 A clothoide is a curve where the radius of curvature
decreases linearly as a function of the arc length.
 When driving in this type of curve, the driver will follow
the curve by turning the wheel at a constant rate in the
direction of the curve. Consequently, the need for abrupt
movements, in order to negotiate the curve, is eliminated

85

RoadSafety
Road Safety (Superelevation)

➢The number of accidents on wet pavements to be

abnormally high in curves with a superelevation of
less than 2%.
➢Improving the superelevation reduces the number
of accidents by 5 to 10%.
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RoadSafety
Road Safety(Vertical Alignment)

87

RoadSafety
Road Safety(Vertical Alignment)
Several studies have been conducted to estimate the
accident risk in vertical curves. Their main
conclusions are;
On sections with high gradient, safety problems may
occur from speed differentials between passenger
cars and heavy vehicles (e.g. heavy vehicles idling on
upgrade sections), as well as vehicles braking on
downhill sections (e.g. increases in braking distances
and possibility of heavy vehicle brake overheating).
It should be noted that road sections with gradients
higher than 4% tend to present an increased road
accident risk.
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RoadSafety
Road Safety(Vertical Alignment)

On crest curves of the longitudinal section, because

of the limited radius of the transition curve, the
available sight distance may not be sufficient for safe
overtaking. It is important that values of the radius,
for which appropriate overtaking distances are not
assured, are avoided.

89

RoadSafety
Road Safety(Vertical Alignment)

➢On sag curves of the longitudinal section, critical

parameters include the range of vehicle lights, the
presence of bridges or other constructions limiting
sight distance.
➢Other elements to be considered are water
accumulation and accelerated erosion of shoulders
due to water run-off.

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RoadSafety
Road Safety(Vertical Alignment)

A study on vertical curves has shown higher

accident rates for sag curves than for crest curves.
Moreover, according to a study , accident rates are
higher when entering the curve than when leaving
the curve, for both crest and sag curves.

91

RoadSafety
Road Safety(Horiz + Vert. Curve)
Combination of horizontal and vertical alignment

In particular, the coincidence of a horizontal and a

crest vertical curve may, under certain conditions,
lead to significant limitation of the available sight
distance and prevent the prompt perception of the
curve.
Accordingly, the coincidence of a horizontal and a
sag vertical curve may create a false impression of
the degree of curvature (i.e. the horizontal curve
may seem to have a higher radius than the actual),
and may contribute to increased accident rates .
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Road Safety
Road Safety (Cross Sections)
This section summarizes the known relationships between
accident experience and cross-sectional roadway elements.
Such elements include;

Lane Shoulder
width width

Shoulder Roadside
type features

Median
Others
design
93

Road Safety
Road Safety (Cross Sections)
Lane width should be examined in relation to the
expected operational speed. Very narrow lanes cause
problems, especially as far as heavy vehicles are concerned.
In general, increasing lane width results to a certain
improvement of road safety.
However, very large lanes may lead to important increase of
travel speeds.

Research results have shown that accident risk decreases

when lane width increases. Results for two-lane roads
indicated that increasing lane width beyond 3,3 m may not be
justified in terms of road safety benefit.

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Road Safety
Road Safety (Cross Sections)
The implementation of a shoulder (especially paved) or
an emergency lane also contribute to improved road safety
on interurban roads .

Research results indicate that very narrow shoulders (e.g. 0,5

m) or very wide emergency lanes (e.g. 3 m), which may end
up being used by drivers as regular lanes in increased traffic,
are related to increased accident rates.

Moreover, research results have shown that accident risk

decreases when shoulder width increases.
Results for two-lane roads indicated that increasing shoulder
width beyond 2,5 m may not be justified in terms of road
safety benefit.
95

Road Safety
Road Safety (Cross Sections)

Effect of roadway (lane plus shoulder) width on accident risk of two

lane low volume rural roads, (Zegeer et al 1994)

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