Results in Surfaces and Interfaces 6 (2022) 100038

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Results in Surfaces and Interfaces

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/rsurfi

Microstructure and properties of Ni-Al coatings obtained by conventional

and high-velocity atmospheric plasma spraying
Elena Kornienko a ,∗, Igor Gulyaev b , Alexander Smirnov a , Aelita Nikulina a , Alexey Ruktuev a ,
Viktor Kuzmin b , Andrey Tuezov a
a
Material Science Department, Novosibirsk State Technical University, Karl Marks av. 20, Novosibirsk, 630073, Russia
b
Khristianovich Institute of Theoretical and Applied Mechanics SB RAS, Institutskaya str. 4/1, Novosibirsk, 630090, Russia

ARTICLE INFO ABSTRACT

Keywords: In this paper, we report on the microstructure and properties study of the Ni-Al system (75/25 at. %) coatings
Ni-Al coating obtained by atmospheric plasma spraying (APS) and high-velocity plasma spraying (HV-APS) methods which
Atmospheric plasma spraying differ in the speed of the sprayed particles. The structure and phase composition were investigated using optical
High-velocity plasma spraying
microscopy (OM), scanning electron microscopy (SEM), transmission electron microscopy (TEM), and X-ray
TEM
phase analysis (XRD). The paper presents the measurements results of porosity and microhardness, as well
as the resistance of coatings to high-temperature oxidation. Additionally, we propose a phase transformations
model that explains the difference in structure formation. For HV-APS and APS coatings, the difference in
structure is shown to be due to different residence conditions of the sprayed particles in the plasma jet. Particles
in the HV-APS coatings were completely melted, while a significant proportion of unmelted particles was
observed in the APS coatings. HV-APS coatings have better high-temperature oxidation resistance compared
to APS coatings, which is explained by a decrease in their porosity to ∼2 %.

1. Introduction
Different types of steels are widely used in many industries for the
manufacture of critical machine elements due to their high mechanical,
technological, and physicochemical properties. However, the operation
of steel elements at high temperatures is limited by the decrease in their
properties leading to fast fracture. The formation of functional coatings
to protect the working surfaces of steel elements is the way to solve
this problem. Ni–Al-based materials are frequently used as protective
coatings due to their unique properties, such as high melting point,
relatively low density, high corrosion, and heat resistance (Abuwarda
et al., 2019; Saladi et al., 2018, 2014; Morgiel et al., 2020).
APS (Morgiel et al., 2020; Mehmood et al., 2018; Sidhu and Prakash,
2003; Poliarus et al., 2019), high-speed oxygen-fuel spraying (HVOF)
(Abuwarda et al., 2019; Saladi et al., 2018; López et al., 2014), and
high-speed air-fuel spraying (HVAF) (Sadeghimeresht et al., 2016a;
Wang et al., 2007; Sadeghimeresht et al., 2016b) are the most fre-
quently used techniques for obtaining Ni-Al coatings. The correct
choice of a suitable coating process is very important. The use of
various methods of spraying has a significant effect on the microstruc-
ture and properties of coatings, which is explained by substantial
differences in the conditions of powder particles’ interaction with a
thermal jet (Sadeghimeresht et al., 2016a; Fantozzi et al., 2017; Yen
et al., 2020). The temperature and velocity of the sprayed particles are
of the greatest importance. APS is the ‘‘hottest’’ and ‘‘slowest’’ method:
the particle velocity is 200–400 m/s, and their temperature is 2200–
2700 ◦ C (Dolmatov et al., 2017). In the HVOF method, which has
become the industry standard for the forming of dense metal-based
coatings, particles are accelerated up to 600–800 m/s at temperatures
1800–2000 ◦ C. The relatively new HVAF method increases the velocity
of particles up to 800–1100 m/s (Kumar et al., 2016), avoiding their
overheating above the temperature of 1500–1700 ◦ C. The method of
detonation spraying (Kornienko et al., 2020) forms high-density coat-
ings on a metal base, although it is rarely used due to the overall low
productivity of the process. Most commonly, the velocity of the sprayed
particles tends to be increased as this leads to porosity and roughness
decreasing, as well as to the increase in hardness, gas impermeability,
and other functional properties of the coatings.
Non-porous coatings with homogeneous microstructure and high
adhesion are required for high-temperature corrosion protection to
isolate the base material from the environment (Schütze et al., 2006;
Koivuluoto et al., 2013; Zavareh et al., 2016, 2015). The high require-
ments for coatings are essential since the presence of any discontinuities
in the material facilitates the diffusion of working environment ele-
ments to the surface of the part (Zhang et al., 2015; Rajendran, 2012).
The relatively low spraying rates obtained with APS do not allow

∗ Corresponding author.
E-mail address: e.kornienko@corp.nstu.ru (E. Kornienko).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rsurfi.2022.100038
Received 7 September 2021; Received in revised form 22 October 2021; Accepted 3 January 2022

2666-8459/© 2022 The Author(s). Published by Elsevier B.V. This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license
(http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/).
E. Kornienko, I. Gulyaev, A. Smirnov et al.
Fig. 1. The particles of powder Ni75Al25.
achieving dense coatings. Works (Sadeghimeresht et al., 2016a; Ko-
rnienko et al., 2016) show that Ni-Al coatings obtained by APS are char-
acterized by high porosity (more than 5%) and a significant amount of
oxide films along the particle boundaries, which negatively affects their
properties. In contrast to APS, during the implementation of the HVOF
and HVAF processes, particle velocity is much higher (Sdeghimeresht
et al., 2017), and the temperatures of the jet and the heating time
of particles in it are lower (Zeng et al., 2008), which can signifi-
cantly reduce the porosity and oxides in the coatings (Ghadami et al.,
2020; Movahedi, 2014; Saladi et al., 2015; Tavoosi et al., 2015). In
comparison with Ni-20Al APS coatings, the porosity of HVOF coat-
ings made of the same material is significantly lower (0.95%) (Saladi
et al., 2018). The minimal porosity (0.1%) in NiAl-based coatings is
obtained using the HVAF technology (Sadeghimeresht et al., 2016a).
Works (Abuwarda et al., 2019; Kumar et al., 2018; Janka et al., 2018;
Zhang et al., 2008) demonstrate that HVOF coatings serve as excellent
protection against high-temperature corrosion and wear.
An increase of the plasma flow velocity to a supersonic value up to
1800–2500 m/s (using Laval nozzle) and a simultaneous decrease of
its temperature to 2000–2200 ◦ C (Gulyaev et al., 2018) allows using
HV-APS for the deposition of high-density coatings with the properties
comparable to HVOF and HVAF methods (Caliari et al., 2017; Xiao
et al., 2018; Kuzmin et al., 2021). At the same time, the possibility
of using air as a plasma-forming gas, high spraying rate at the level of
15–20 kg/h makes this technology feasible.
In this work, we compare the structure and phase composition, as
well as the properties of high-temperature APS and HV-APS coatings
of the Ni-Al system. The key differences between the spraying modes
are the velocity and temperature of the sprayed particles. So far, no
experimental data on the structural transformations of plasma coatings
obtained by this technology can be found in the literature.
2. Material and methods
2.1. Materials preparation
A commercially available low carbon steel 20 (0.2% C) was used as
the substrate material. To improve the adhesion between the coating
and the substrate, the flat surface of 8 mm-thick steel discs of 20 mm
in diameter was cleaned in acetone and sandblasted before spray-
ing. A commercially available gas-atomized powder Ni75Al25 with a
dispersion of 40–100 μm was used for the spraying of coatings (Fig. 1).
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Results in Surfaces and Interfaces 6 (2022) 100038
2.2. APS and HV-APS spraying
Plasma spraying was performed using the Thermoplasma-50 plasma
spraying equipment manufactured by the Institute of Theoretical and
Applied Mechanics of the Siberian Branch of the Russian Academy of
Sciences. This equipment uses the PNK-50 plasma gun equipped with
a unit of annular powder injection with gas-dynamic focusing (Kuzmin
et al., 2012). Air was used as a working and powder transporting gas
in all experiments. Addition of 2.5 wt. % (4.5 vol. %) methane to the
anode shielding gas was applied to eliminate electrode erosion and
create a neutral redox environment in the plasma jet. We provided a
supersonic regime (HV-APS) using a plasma gun with a Laval nozzle.
Plasma spraying regimes for APS and HV-APS are given in Table 1. Pre-
viously, the optimal parameters for APS were determined (Kornienko
et al., 2016). Additional experiments were carried out to determine HV-
APS parameters. The velocity and temperature of the sprayed particles
were measured using the Yuna diagnostic system (Dolmatov et al.,
2017; Gulyaev and Dolmatov, 2018).
2.3. Characterization of coating
Structural research was carried out using an optical microscope
(Carl Zeiss Axio Observer A1 m), a scanning electron microscope (Carl
Zeiss EVO50 XVP with an EDS X-Act microanalyzer), and a transmission
electron microscope (FEI Tecnai G2 20 TWIN). The samples for OM and
SEM were cut from steel discs with coatings. The analyzed surfaces
were mechanically ground and then polished using SiO2 suspension
(grain size 0.05 μm). The fine structure of coatings was studied with
TEM. Blanks for foils were cut by electrospark cutting from the middle
of the coatings, mechanically thinned using abrasive paper to the
thickness of 100 μm. The foils suitable for TEM studies were obtained
using the standard dimple-grinding technique.
The phase composition of coatings was studied using an ARL X’TRA
X-ray diffractometer in CuK 𝛼 radiation. The coatings were scanned
with a step size of 0.05◦ and a step time 𝑡 = 3 s.
The porosity and volume fraction of oxide films of the coatings
was calculated by analyzing cross-sectional images of each coating at
different magnifications using Axio Vision Multiphase software (Carl
Zeiss). The average of 5 measurements at magnification x200 and 5
measurements at magnification x500 was reported as coating porosity
value for each sample.
The microhardness of the Ni-Al coatings was tested by a Wolpert
Group 402MVD microhardness tester under a 50 g load and 10 s dwell
time.
2.4. Oxidation test
Oxidation tests were performed on the as-sprayed coatings at 600,
800, and 1000 ◦ C during 1 h heating in SNOL-1,6.2,5.1/11-I3 labo-
ratory electric chamber furnaces. After oxidation testing, the samples
were cooled to room temperature in the air. The oxides volume fraction
in the coatings was investigated by analyzing cross-sectional images
using Axio Vision Multiphase software (Carl Zeiss). As it was impossible
to separate pores and oxides in optical microscope image a total volume
fraction of oxides and pores was reported. Individual contribution
of oxides can be estimated by subtracting porosity measured at «as
sprayed» samples.
3. Result and discussion
3.1. As-sprayed coatings microstructure
Fig. 2 Shows a typical cross-sectional microstructure of APS and
HV-APS Ni-Al coatings. Their thickness is approximately 600–700 μm.
HV-APS Ni-Al coatings (Fig. 2, b) are denser and have a better met-
allurgical interface with the substrate. The porosity of APS coatings
E. Kornienko, I. Gulyaev, A. Smirnov et al. Results in Surfaces and Interfaces 6 (2022) 100038

Table 1
The plasma spraying regimes of powder Ni75Al25.
Spraying regimes APS HV-APS
Nozzle diameter, mm 8 6
Gas flow rates: primary air/anode 3.0/0.45/1.8 5.0/0.75/3.0
shielding/powder transport + focusing, g/s (slpm) (150/28/90) (250/47/150)
Arc current/voltage, A/V 200/220 200/350
Spraying distance, mm 170 170
Particles velocity, m/s 247 ± 56 478 ± 84
Particle temperature, ◦ C 2270 ± 280 2077 ± 160
Spray spot diameter, mm 14.7 9.6

Fig. 2. OM images of the cross-section of Ni-Al coatings: (a, c) — APS, (b, d) — HV APS. A — melted particles, B — unmelted particles.

exceeds 6%, while the porosity of HV-APS is less than 2%. APS coatings
(Fig. 2, c) consist of both splats (A), which were completely melted at
the moment of collision with the substrate, and particles of the initial
spherical shape, which were not heated to the melting point (B). HV-
APS coatings entirely consist of particles completely melted in a plasma
jet (Fig. 2,d)
According to the measurements, the average particle temperatures
in the plasma jet are 2270 ◦ C at APS and 2077 ◦ C at HV-APS, which
is significantly higher than the liquidus line in the Ni-Al system. Thus,
in theory, all the particles that form the coatings should be melted.
The spray jet diagnostics showed that the particle flux at the APS
mode is less concentrated: the spray spot diameter is 14.7 mm, which
is 1.5 times larger than at the HV-APS mode (Table 1). Such a wide
variety of particle parameters leads to the possibility of partially or
even completely unmelted particles reaching the surface. Owing to the
low temperature, the thermal radiation of such particles is very weak
and the diagnostic system may not register them. Thus, the average
temperature of the sprayed particles can be lower than that presented
in Table 1. The spray jet in the HV-APS mode provides a small spread
of the particles’ speed and temperature in the spray spot and a uniform Fig. 3. XRD patterns of powder and Ni-Al coatings.
coating structure without unmelted particles.
XRD analysis (Fig. 3) showed that the main phase, both in the initial
powder and in each type of coatings, is nickel aluminide 𝛾 ′ -Ni3 Al. In
addition, reflections corresponding to the Ni5 Al3 phase were recorded

3
E. Kornienko, I. Gulyaev, A. Smirnov et al.
Fig. 4. SEM images of structure (a) APS coating and (b) HV-APS coating. 1 — one-phase region 𝛽-NiAl; 2 — two-phase region 𝛽 ′ -NiAl + 𝛾 ′ -Ni3 Al.
on the diffraction patterns of the powder and APS coatings. The pres-
ence of this phase can be associated with a significant proportion of
unmelted particles that form the APS coatings.
An SEM image of APS and HV-APS coatings is shown in Fig. 4.
The structure of APS coating particles unmelted in a plasma jet is
shown in Fig. 4, a: dark gray dendrites with a martensitic structure
are visible, with a light gray phase distributed along the boundaries.
Melted particles also have a dendritic structure, but not all dendrites
have undergone a martensitic transformation. In HV-APS coatings, most
of the particles are dendritic. Some particles consist of two different
regions varying in phase composition (Fig. 4, b). Areas of dark gray
color (region 1) located in the center of the particles are surrounded
by two-phase areas (region 2). Since the volume fraction of region 1 in
HV-APS coatings is not large, it was not revealed by XRD analysis.
X-ray microanalysis revealed that the Ni content in the two-phase
regions (2) of APS and HV-APS coatings varies from 60 to 70 at.%,
which, according to the Ni-Al phase diagram (Alloy Phase Diagrams,
2016), can correspond to the following phases: 𝛽-NiAl enriched with
nickel; 𝛽 ′ -NiAl; Ni5 Al3 or 𝛾 ′ -Ni3 Al. The ratio of Ni and Al in the
single-phase regions (1) of HV-APS is approximately the same (51 and
49 at.%), which corresponds to the phase with the chemical formula
𝛽-NiAl.
The banded structure of dendrites in the APS coatings was captured
using TEM. Fig. 5 shows that each lamella of martensite in dendrites is
internally microtwinned. The thickness of each lamella does not exceed
50 nm, and the length is limited by the size of the 𝛽-cells. Due to the
high dispersion of dendrites, one 𝛽-cell usually contains one lamella
of pairwise twinned plates, although in some cases more complex
martensite structure appears (Fig. 5, b). Sometimes, there are areas of
finely twinned martensite, which are not divided into plates. An image
of the structure of two-phase areas is shown in Fig. 5, c. According
to X-ray analysis, the amount of Ni in the interdendritic space (region
1) is 72.3 at.%, that corresponds to the chemical compound 𝛾 ′ -Ni3 Al.
This is also evidenced by the diffraction pattern taken from the same
area (Fig. 5, d). The amount of Ni in the martensite (Fig. 5, c, region
2 and 3) is lower: 69.3 at.% (region 2) and 64.6 at.% (region 3).
According to Ding et al. (2018), the chemical composition of these
regions corresponds to the 𝛽-NiAl (or Ni5 Al3 ) phase.
The areas with a martensite structure are practically not found
in HV-APS coatings. Fig. 6 shows an individual grain with lamellar
martensite. The coating consists of the Ni3 Al phase. Fig. 6, b–d shows
the structure of the areas located at the junctions of the particles. High
cooling rates of the particle surface favor the formation of nanostruc-
tured areas of the 𝛾 ′ -Ni3 Al phase. Sometimes there are also regions with
an amorphous structure (Fig. 6, b). Fig. 6, c–d shows an image of a
junction between particles, in which free-form grains up to 50 nm in
size are distributed in the matrix. The diffraction pattern of this area
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Results in Surfaces and Interfaces 6 (2022) 100038
indicates the presence of two phases: 𝛾-Ni and 𝛾 ′ -Ni3 Al. Presumably,
the grains represent the 𝛾 ′ -phase, and the matrix is the 𝛾-phase, which
agrees with the data of Ding et al. (2018) and Zhang et al. (2019).
3.2. Mechanism of coating structure formation
Based on the performed experiments, as well as the analysis of liter-
ature data, we proposed a mechanism for the formation of the structure
of APS and HV-APS Ni-Al coatings. The Ni content in the initial powder
is about 75 at.% that upon cooling under equilibrium conditions should
correspond to the 𝛾 ′ -phase, although, as shown above, in real coatings,
the phase composition may differ.
Metal particles in the sprayed flow can be considered uniformly
heated due to the high thermal conductivity of metals of the Biot
number Bi ≪ 1. Temperature variation in particle volume is not more
than 100 ◦ C. In the process of particle collision with the base, a drop
of low Prandtl numbers Pr ≪ 1 metal melt spreads and solidifies
simultaneously. The crystallization rate of particles at the HV-APS
process (∼13⋅109 ◦ C/s) is approximately twice as high as at the APS
process (7⋅109 ◦ C/s).
In the center of highly overheated particles (Fig. 7, type A), whose
volume fraction in HV-APS coatings is small and in APS coatings is
practically negligible, the most refractory 𝛽-phase of the region 1 (A1)
composition is initially crystallized from the liquid. The liquid, which
surrounds this phase, is depleted in aluminum; therefore, dendrites
are crystallized in it; the dendrite’s chemical composition corresponds
to the 𝛽-phase enriched with Ni by regions 2 or 3 (A2). Notably, in
most particles heated to lower temperatures (type B), crystallization
immediately begins with the formation of dendrites of the regions 2 and
3 (B1) composition omitting the formation of a higher-temperature 𝛽-
phase. The chemical composition of dendrites in both types of particles
depends on the crystallization temperature: dendrites crystallized at
higher temperatures contain less nickel (region 2). Since at the HV-APS
process the particles’ cooling rate is approximately 2 times higher than
at the APS process, the volume fraction of dendrites and their sizes in
HV-APS coatings are smaller.
The interdendritic space (to an even greater degree depleted in
aluminum) crystallizes as the 𝛾 ′ -phase (A3 and B2). In binary Ni-Al
alloys containing 61.5 at.% Ni and more, the B2 lattice of the 𝛽-
phase loses its stability and, upon quenching from high temperatures,
undergoes a diffusionless martensitic transformation of the ordered B2
lattice into tetragonal martensite L10 (Khadkikar et al., 1993). Thus,
there is a martensitic transformation (A4 and B3) at temperatures below
the 𝑀s line in dendrites, whose chemical composition corresponds to
region 3.
Additionally, the material of the particles can evaporate at overheat-
ing in a plasma jet, while the evaporation rates of nickel and aluminum
E. Kornienko, I. Gulyaev, A. Smirnov et al.
Fig. 5. TEM images of APS coating: a, b – 𝛽 ′ -phase, c — two-phase area 𝛽 ′ +𝛾 ′ , d — two-phase area 𝛽 ′ +𝛾 ′ and microdiffraction pattern.
differ. For example, the evaporation temperature (at which the vapor
pressure reaches 10−2 mm Mercury) for aluminum is 996 ◦ C and for
nickel is 1510 ◦ C. For this reason, the material on the particles’ surface
heated up to temperatures of 2000 ◦ C is depleted in aluminum. The
chemical composition of such regions corresponds to the single-phase
region 𝛾 ′ or the two-phase region 𝛾 + 𝛾 ′ (C). The rapid crystallization
of this volume of material can result in obtaining metastable structures
such as a nanostructure or an amorphous state.
Similar structural changes are observed within one particle because
there is no common liquid bath forming the coating. On average, the
content of nickel and aluminum within a particle does not change.
Importantly, APS coatings, as opposed to HV-APS ones, mainly con-
sist of particles that do not fall into the arc discharge column, thus,
their degree of overheating is insignificant. This can explain the al-
most identical X-ray diffraction patterns of the initial powder and APS
coatings.
3.3. Microhardness
The formation of a different structure has a significant effect on the
mechanical properties of coatings. The obtained data are confirmed
by microhardness measurements: the APS coatings microhardness is
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Results in Surfaces and Interfaces 6 (2022) 100038
470 HV, which corresponds to the microhardness level of Ni3 Al coat-
ings (Saladi et al., 2018; Sidhu and Prakash, 2003; Sadeghimeresht
et al., 2016a), the HV-APS coating microhardness is lower and equals
303 HV. Higher microhardness values of APS coatings, as compared to
HV-APS coatings, can be explained by the presence of martensite or
Ni5 Al3 phase, which is characterized by higher microhardness (Saladi
et al., 2015; Khadkikar et al., 1993).
3.4. Microstructure of coatings after oxidation
Fig. 8 Shows images of the cross-section of the coating after heating
to 600, 800, and 1000 ◦ C and a one-hour holding. In the case of APS
coatings, even at 600 ◦ C, a black oxide film is visually detected along
the boundaries of particles (Fig. 8, a); its volume fraction increases with
the increased temperature (Table 2). X-ray microanalysis shows the
presence of Al, Ni, and O in these films. The number of these elements
in different areas is not the same: the average composition of the oxide
film is 31 at.% Al, 15 at.% Ni, 54 at.% O, that suggests that the NiAl2 O4
spinel is formed upon heating.
The sequence of spinel formation is as follows: Ni and Al, reacting
with oxygen, are oxidized to form oxides NiO and Al2 O3 according to
the reactions (1,2):
2Ni + O2 →2NiO (1)
E. Kornienko, I. Gulyaev, A. Smirnov et al. Results in Surfaces and Interfaces 6 (2022) 100038

Fig. 6. TEM images of HV-APS coating: a – grain of 𝛽 ′ -phase, b–d — areas located at the junctions of the particles and microdiffraction patterns.

Table 2 The porosity of HV-APS coatings is three times lower, which dras-
The volume fraction of oxides in the coatings after heating up to different temperatures.
tically reduces oxygen diffusion into the depth of the coatings and
Temperature,◦ C APS HV-APS decreases oxidation of both the coating and the substrate. Fig. 8, e
Oxides (and pores) volume fraction, % (highlighted area) shows that insignificant oxidation is observed only
600 7.52 4.01 after heating to 800 ◦ C along the boundaries of particles in the upper
800 10.8 4.25 part of the coatings to a depth of 100 μm. An increase of the heating
1000 21.87 4.37
temperature up to 1000 ◦ C promotes a slight increase in the width of
the oxide layers in the same regions (Fig. 8, f). The formation of oxides
in the surface layer up to 100 μm deep can be explained by the fact
4Al + 3O2 →2Al2 O3 (2) that this is the last sprayed layer which has a higher porosity since
it does not undergo compaction by particles when the next layer is
Then a solid-state reaction (3) occurs between the oxides NiO and applied. The discontinuity of the metallurgical bond is not observed
Al2 O3 with the formation of spinel: at the interface between the coating and the substrate (Fig. 8, d).
NiO + Al2 O3 →NiAl2 O4 (3)
4. Conclusions
The amount of spinel increases throughout the entire thickness of
the APS coating as the temperature rises. This indicates that the formed The protective coatings of the Ni-Al system (75/25 at.%) obtained
oxide films do not provide reliable protection and permit oxidative by the APS and HV-APS methods had considerably varied properties
processes (oxygen diffusion) to occur. A continuous strip on the side that were associated with a twofold increase of the sprayed particles
of the substrate is observed at the interface between the substrate and speed (from 250 m/s at APS to 500 m/s at HV-APS). The coatings
the coating at a temperature of 1000 ◦ C (Fig. 8, c). According to X-ray were examined in terms of porosity, microstructure, microhardness,
microanalysis data, the formed oxide is the Fe2 O3 phase. Its formation and resistance to high-temperature oxidation. The main conclusions
can lead to coating stripping during operating. are:

6
E. Kornienko, I. Gulyaev, A. Smirnov et al. Results in Surfaces and Interfaces 6 (2022) 100038

Fig. 7. A part of a Ni-Al phase diagram and scheme of structure formation in particles heated to different temperatures.

Fig. 8. Microstructure of APS coatings (a–c) and HV-APS coatings (d–f) after heating up to temperature 600 (a, d), 800 (b, e), and 1000 (c, f).

1. HV-APS coatings have three times less porosity (∼2%), as well
as a denser metallurgical bond between the coating and the sub-
strate than coatings obtained by the conventional APS method.
2. The phase composition of the initial powder and APS coatings
is the same, which is explained by the considerable proportion
of unmelted particles in these coatings. HV-APS coatings consist
only of particles completely melted in a plasma jet. The structure
of both types of coatings is mainly represented by dendrites of
the 𝛽 ′ -phase and 𝛽-phase enriched with nickel, between which
the 𝛾 ′ -phase is distributed. The volume fraction of dendrites
and their sizes in HV-APS coatings is less than in APS coatings.
There are also particles with 𝛽-phase in their center in HV-APS
coatings. A two-phase structure 𝛾 + 𝛾 ′ , as well as regions with a
nanostructured and amorphous structure, can be formed along
the boundaries of particles.
3. The microhardness of HV-APS coatings is 303 HV, and that of
APS coatings is 470 HV, which is associated with the presence
of the harder phases 𝛽 ′ - and Ni5 Al3 .

7
E. Kornienko, I. Gulyaev, A. Smirnov et al.
4. HV-APS coatings showed better high-temperature oxidation per-
formance. The proportion of the oxidized material is 5 times less
than that of the APS coating after heating to 1000 ◦ C.
Declaration of competing interest
The authors declare that they have no known competing finan-
cial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to
influence the work reported in this paper.
Acknowledgments
This work was supported by the Council on grants of the President
of the Russian Federation for young scientists (grant number MK-
2226.2020.8) and the Ministry of Science and Higher Education of the
Russian Federation (state assignment No. 121030500145-0).
The research was conducted at the core facility ‘‘Structure, mechani-
cal and physical properties of materials’’ in Novosibirsk State Technical
University.
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