SCIENCE CAREER COACHING Umesh Rajorla SCIENCE CAREER COACHING Umesh Rajoria

Silicon (si) atoms have fowr valane electons ie.

I5. SENICON DUCTOR ELECTRONICS mumbe os electrons in the outermast orbit is 4.Therefore
the total number ot Valene ectrons in the
si J 4N.
crystal of
Semiconduetors -
The mateials which have Conduchvity () It the inteatomic spaing of the si atoms is Very
and resistivity inbetween Conductors and insutators ae Lange Y=d), then thee is no interatomic interaction.
callad semiconalutors
Exemples - Silicon (si), Germanium CGe) ete. (i) when the intezatomic spacing r s lss tham o but
greater than c,then thure is no viible spliting of
Eneagy Band Theory af Solids energy dwels.
Accovding to Bohr's theory there ae well (6) when the nteratomjic spacing r à equal to C, the
ofinea eningy devels electrons in an tom. IH large enagy f outeamest Shel electrons o neghbouhing
numbe of atoms ae brought close to one another to form silicen atoms stt changing ie the apliing ot thse
a crysta, they begin to influence each other. Due to this enegy vels occws. Wheus there ds no chanje in the
iteiatomic ineraction thee is no modification in the energy. wels ot eleetrons in the inner shels.
eeg wels of the electrons in the i9ney shas but
thee is a consicable moaificaton in the enerG4 lwels (v) When interetomie spacing r lies inbetween b and c
of tne electrorns in the outey shels. ( b<r< c), stead ot a Single ss or 3p wel, we
get a dange number of closely packed dweds. whee 2N
FORBIDDEN
ENERGY GAP
wels corresponding to a Single ss dwel and 6N levels
3p2 for a sile sp level of an isolated atom. This sprading
3s2 of ene devels redues the enegy gap between ss
and 3p lovels of free atom.
This collechion of closely spacd levels is callid an
ENERGY
energy band
_2p®
I2s2
(v) when the inteyatomic spaung Ybecomes equal to b
CRYSAL LATTICE SPACING but greater than a (r=ba), the eneYg4 gap between
1s2
3s and 3p evels Completely disappeaxS. Tn such a situation,
a d
t is not possible to distinguish between the electrons
INTERATOMIC SPACING, r
belonging to 3s and sp subshlls. we Car only say that
4N leveds are filled amd 4N levels are enpty
T undttand modification in enxgy leels of elechons
Consides a slian crystal Containing N atoms,
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 SCIENCE CAREER COACHING sCIENCECAREER COACHING Umesh Rajoria
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(vi) when the intesatomie s pacing r betomes equa to
alr=a) then the band of 4N filled energy Semiconductors -
els In serniConductors the valne ban
is separte from the band of 4N nfilled energy is totaly filled and the Conaluetom band is empty
levees by an enegy ap calud ene8 band but the ensgy gap betwen Corcuetion band and
which is ounoted by Eg: valane band is quite Smal. It is les than 3 2U.
The dower completl filled band i called E; for germanjun is o72 ev nd for silice it is 1ev.
valance band oma the woper unfilled bano is alle At cero kelin tempeatune seniconductor behaves
Conducion bano. Th minium enesgy equired for s inslato.
shifting electros from valane banol to Condyeton
band i equa to engt band InsulatoYS -
In inlators the eney gap s qute
c14N States Lage (E >3w). Due to Lange eneigy gap no electron
Empty: (C.B.) s able to g0 from the valace bna to the conducton
band. Hence electical Canduhon in these mateials
s impossi ble md they behave asinsulators.
E, INTRINSIC SEMICONDUC TORS-
Filed 14N States
-(VB.)
A pwe semj conduetr which s free oft evey
Lnpwity s called intrinsic semicordutor.
Diferene between Metals ( Cmductors), Insulators Examples - silicon (si) an Germanium Ge)
and semi conduetors on the bass f Eneg4 Bonds
Conductors (Metals)
In Condyctors the Condution EMPTY
CONDUCTION
and valane lband patly oveap each othe and there BAND
no e n y gatb in between ENERGY E=0.72ev
GAP
CONOUCTION
EMPTY
FILLED
BAND,
4
CONDUCTION VALENCE
OVER LAPPED BAND EMPTY <3eV) BAND
CONDUCTION
BAND
E

FlLLED
silicon (14) 1s 2s'2pas3p
FILLED
VALENCE
BAND
VALENCE
BAND
VALENCE
BAND
Germaniym (32)
Conductors Insulotors Semiconductors Both the atoms (si and Ge) have fow valane electon.
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TRe fow valance eleatrons of a germamium otom EXTRINSIC SEMICONDUCTORS -

furm fow Covalent bands by shang the electrons A dopecd semicomductor or a semiconductor with
cf neigntouing fou gemanium atoms. Suitable impuity atom addec to it i calld extrinsic
The minmum cngy Covalent
0 breat a semiconductoy.
O-72 wfr 1.I ew for si. At roDm Extrinsic semiconyctors ce of two types
temperatwe when an electron breaks away from a i) n- type Semiconductor ii) P- type Semicondutor
Covalent bond , the empty plae or vacancy itt in
tthe bors is Called a hole. (i)n-type Semiconductor
when an extenal electie fiedd is abpiech, when a pue SemiconduetoY of siicon (si) or
these frec elctons amd holes move in opbosite
olirections and corutitute a cwhnt. The number Germenim ( Ge) s loped with pentavalnt atons whieh
cf ree electrons amd holes ae exactly equal in have' five valane electrons (Phosphores, Arseic, antimony
an irnc Semiconaluctoy. oY Bismuth ) then t calle n-type SemiconductoY.
ne = rn The fow o7 the five valance electrons ot the
impuity atorns will form Covalent band with the
aojoining fowr atoms os the sillcon, cohile the tifth
Atso the Concuctivity of intrinsic semiconolyctoy is electrorn is tree to mnove. Thws each impuity atom
yey ow. Th holei Consiolered as an actie paricle added
in tne valane banol , haing a positive chage equal dorotes one tree electron to the crystal. These
to that of an electron. iopuity toms Calle lonor atorms.
sine the Comduction ot electricity s du
Doping i to the motion ot electrons l ie:
Doping s process of addition ot a that the resulting semicondue tornegotive chges) so
is Calleo n-tye
olesivable mpuity atms to a pure semiconolutor to or don or tye aemiconductor.
modify its prpeties in a Cotrolled mannex. The impurity
atoms added are called depants.
Doping o a semiconcluetor increases its eectieal 0.045eV
Conclucthvity o a great exterd. for Si
DONOR
ENERGY

Methods of dopingi STATE

() Addl the impwity atorns in the melt of V.B.

semiconoluctor.
(i) Implant odopant atoms by bombaing the semiconductor
with theiY Los. Tn n-type Semiconuctors electroms ae majority
(i) Heatithe semicorductY in atmesphere o Caties and holes ahe minority Cai.
dopant atons.
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(i1)P- type SemiConductor Dsincion between 2ntinsic and extrersic Semjconductors

when pure semiconductor ot silicon (si)
or Germanium (Ge) id doped with a Controlled amount
oh trivalent atoms , wich have three valane electrons
('Boron, Aluminium, Gallium, Indium) then t i Caed
P-ype semicoductor.
The tthree impunity
valance electrons o~ the
atom wi form Ceovalent bornds with the ayoining thre
atoms o gemaniun (Ge), while there will be ne
incomplete covalunt bond with a neighboung Ge atom,
this aefiieney ot an electron creates a'hole'.
The tvalent atoms ahe calleo
the conduction ot electieity occus due to motion ot
holes (ie- positive charges)so the resutina semjconcductor
calld p-ype oY acceptor type semiconductor.
Hole
In p-tpe semiconductor electony ae
Coseiess.
Cattiers and holes ae
majoiby
INTRINSIC SEMICONDUCTOR
1, It is pure semiconducting material and no
impurity atoms are added to it.
2 Examples are crystalline forms of pure silicon
and germanium.
3. The number of free electrons in conduction band
and the number of holes in valence band is
exactly equal and very small indeed.
4. Its electrical conductivity is low.
acceptor atoms and 5. Its electrical conductivity is a functiog of
temperature alone.
Difference between N-type and p-type Semiconducors
n-TYPE SEMICONDUCTOR
ACCEPTOR 1. Itis an extrinsic sericonductor which is obtained
ENERGY by doping the impurity atorms of Vth group of
STATE
periodic table to the pure germanium or silicon
[-.01 to .045eV semiconductor.
2. The impurity atoms added, provide extra
electrons in the structure, and are called donor
atoms.
3. The electrons are majority cariers and boles are
minority carriers.
4. The clectron density (n,) is much greater than
the bole density (n,), i.e., n, >> h
S. The donor energy level is close to the conduction
band and far away from valence band.
EXTAINSIC SEMCONDUCTOR
1. tisprepared by doping asmal quantiry of impunty
atoras to the pure semiconduct1ng material.
2. Examples are silicon and germanium crystals
with impurity atoms of arseric, antimony, phos
phorous etc. or indium, boroD, aluminium etc.
3. The number of free electons and holes is never
equal. There is excess of electrons in r-type s
semiconductors and excess of holes in ptyoe
semiconductors.
4 Its edectrical conduchvity is high
S. Its electrical conductu vity depends upon the
ternperaure as weil as on the quanüty of impunty
atoms doped in the structure.
pTYPE SEMICONDUCTOR
1. Itis an extinsic semiconductor which is obtained
by doping the impurity atoms of l group of
periodic table to thepure gemanium or silicon
semiconductor.
The impurity atoms added, create vacancies of
elecirons (ie. boles) in the sructure and ar
called acceptor atoms.
3. The holes are majority carmers and electrons are
minonity camers.
4. The bole density (n,) is much greater than the
electron density (n,)., ie., n, > n,
5. The acceptor energy level is close to valence band
and is far away from conducton band.

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P-N JUNC TION Due to diffusion ot electrons and hales a LayeY t

when a p-tpe semicmaluctor crystad is joineo
with an n-type smiconluctor crystal, thun the resulting
ahangemment is Called a p-n junchion or junchon diode
Fomation os PN- Junction -
To make a pn junction , the n type am P-type
silicon aystals Cut into thin asafers. I} on a wafer
of n- tye silon, an alumiium film s placecd and
heated to a hign tamperatue S8oc, luminium ditfuses
into silicon and a p-tape semiconuctor is formed
n-type semiconcluctur. Such a formatiom ot P-gion
n-region is called P-n jncion,
Difusion and Drift -
when p-n junctiorn s fomed due to
in Conwntratien o chane Caies in two regiorns o} P-n
juncticn, the elctrons tran n-region oliffuse througt
ihe junchion into p-region and holes tromn p. region
dituse into n-regon. The motion of chage Caiers ges
rise to difusion Cushent across the juncion.
Hoe
p Electron
Ve
Electron Depletion Layer Hole
posi tively chargeol cdonor atoms in n-region and a Layer of
negativey changed acceptor atoms in p-region are creajed.
This posiive and negative space change regions on both
sides oc P-n junctoH wil form a region oieh has
immobile lon s and is calld depleion rgion.
Du to posiive ame ngative space chage region
at pnjunchion, an electe feldl is set up across
juneton- De to this electric fied oleveoped at the
junction ,an electron on p-sioe of the juncton moves to
n-side and a holes on n-siele of junchion moves to p
Siale of junchon
The motion of these chare caiess u
to electrie feld is cCalled drift. As a reAult oj it,a dift
Cwhent starts, which is oppesite in directiorn to the dfusjon
cwhent
itference In the bagining Hhe di tftusion Curent is large
but drift Cusent small. As the ditfusion process Conti
nues , the strength oc electrie fled acrass the junchon increases
and theby dift went increases This proeess continues
until the diffusion cwent becomes equal to the drift
Curent Now the p-njunction is said to be be in equi
brium state qnd these is no Current aCrOSS the pn juncion.
At this Btage, the potential barrer across the juncton has
maximum valu Ve. Now the movement o} majority chaAge
Caries across the juncHion stops and the potental acts
as a barrier, henu Known as potential bariex.
At room tmperatwe (3oo k) Ve s atout o.sv
for Ge omd o7 v for si. The vadu ot Va increases with
rise in tempeathe for Ge and si.

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valu of barrier potenial under

BIASING OF THE PN JUNCTION - The effective
Yewese bias is (Ve+ V).
There ae two methods ot biasing the pn Junction
G) Forwavd biasig (iö) Reverse biasing Va

(1)Forward Biasing !
A p-n junction is said to be foruward biased it (VgV)) VB
the positive teminal of the external battery is Connected
to p- sicle and the negati ve teminal to the n-side of Depletion Layer
P-n junctior. B B

In revese biasing, there is no Conduction acrosS

io o
the junction alu to majority caiers. However a fw
(Vg-V) minoity Caiers ot p-n juncion ode cross the junction
ofter being accelerated by high reverse bias voltage They
Depletion Layer constitute a cusent whieh s Caile revese current oT
leakage cwent
CHARACTERISTICs OF PN JUNCTION DIO DE
In forward biasing the forward Votage oþþoses the (i) Forard Charactenstics
poterial barrier Ve. As a result of t potenta barier and
bwidth oft depletion layer decreses. The effecive vale ot On ploting a graph betwen forward bias volkage
potentiod barrier in forwand biasing is (Ve-V). and forUOard cwnt we gt the tollowing gaph
(2)Reverse Biasing - Forward
Current
Y

A p-n junction is said to be reverse biased if mA

the positive terminal of the external battery is Connectee

to n-side and the negative terminal do p- siele of the
P-n junction. Threshotd Voltage
Voltage
In revese biazin8 the rewese bias valtage s«ppor ts (tor silicon diodes VTh 0.7V)
the potentential basuer Ve. As a result ot t baie It is found that beyond
potential ond idth of depleten region inerenses . Called Knee voltage (o3v foY Geforward voltage V = Vk
and o"7v for Si) tthe curen
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through the junction stats increasimgrapidlly ith PN-DIoDE AS A RECTIFIER

voltoge and showing the inear vaiatiorn. But belo
the Kine voltage thi vaiation in Current is negiible Rectfler is a dujce whieh is used for Conver ting
nd the cuve is non- inea. altenating cwent /vo ltuge into direct cwent/votage
(ii) Reverse Chaacteristics -
The au two types ot recifier
(1) Half wave recifier Gi) Ful wave Recifier
On plotting a graph between reverse bias voltage (1) HALF WAVE
and reNse Cwnt, We gt the revese characteris tics as RECTIFIER -
shown in fig From the cUswe we mDte that in reverse A.c. to be recttied u connected to
biasing ot p-n junction,the cweent is very small (a NA)
amd is indupendnt on voltage upto cetain reverse blas
the
pimary ining eR of a steplouwn transtormer
S,Sz dd the seconday coil of the transformer. Si is
veltage , Known as breakoloon vo ltage Conneeted to the portion P os the p-n junction. S is
Connected to he pehon n throuph Load resistance R.
REVERSE BIAS (V) Outpt is taKan acYOSS the Lead resistance R,
8 6 -2 vOLTAGE
INPUT
00Q0900900000
000000000
S OUTPUT
10

15 R VOLTAGE
OUTPUT

It the rewese bias voltaqe exceeds the breakelon TIME

veltage,the seesse cusent through the p-n junction wll

increase abruptly I7 this Cwten exceeds the rated value WORKING -
of p-n junction ( specified by manufacture), the p-n junchion Duing posihre haly eycle o~ A-ci,
get damagecd. be comes positive , Sa becomes negative and the Suppase Si
will
pn junchon
Às forwatt bias ed. The esistance ot pn juncion becomes
Low. The maximum forwad curent flows in the circuit
nd we gt output across - Load.

Duing negative haly cyclk o A.c Si becomes

negative. and sa i positive . The'p-n junction is reverse
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 SCIENCE CAREER COACHING Umesh Rajoria SCIENCE CAREER COACHING
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biased. Tt otfers high resistance and hence thee is
no fow of cwsent and thus no output across Load. IndNI SF
Hence in the output, we have current correspon
TIME
ing to one hals cyde os the waVe amd he othe
half is missing. That is why the process i Caleol Due to I Due to i Due to Due to I
hatt wave Tecication D1 D2 D1 D2

b
(2) FULL WAVE RECTIFIER ,TIME d

For f l wave tecification , we have to use

two p-n juncion diodes DÊ and D. The ciCut s Hence the output signal voltage is unioirechonl
Shown in the ven fa having ripple Contents Ci-e. cde. Components amd ac
D D Components oc vol tage). It Can be converted into dc
voItage by ffttering through a filter cireuit.
000000O090
S
0000000000000 S
OUTPUT
090000900 OUTPUT FILTER
A single capaci tor o} high vale of capaitance
R Connected across the output of rectifier Can wask as the
flter.
Sz
D2 D The capaci tor offers Low impeslance to a.c. Component
(Xe ) omd offers infinite impedanca to dc. t
Due to t2 the qc.
Component Hs by pased or
WORKING -
filterd out. It produces a voltage dop across Load
Duing the
di'odu D is foxward biasedpoaitve halt cycle os Arc the resjbtonce RL as a fiteted d.c. output, which is
and the liode D (s rewerse
biased. The foward current flouos through diode D, in d.c vol4age. Such filtey us wiely wsed un pouer almast v
the direction as Shoon in fia
suppliei.
Output voltage
t
Duing the
negative haly eycle ot
ciode D, reverse biased and the diode Da isAc.forward
the RECTIFIER
biased. The forward Cwent fiows trough OUTPUT FILTERED
observe that during both the hals cycles otdiode Da we INPUT
A.C. R D.C.
through R flouws in the same direc han. A. C-, Cusert RECTIFIER C OUTPUT
Time
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