EDDYCURRENT TESTING

Eddy currents are induced electrical currents that flow in a

circular path. They get their name from “eddies” that are
formed when a liquid or gas flows in a circular path
around obstacles when conditions are right.

Test Probe

Eddy Currents
Generation of Eddy Currents
In order to generate eddy currents for an inspection
“probe” is used. Inside the probe is a length of electrical
conductor which is formed into a coil.
Generation of Eddy Currents (cont.)

Alternating current is allowed to flow in the coil

at a frequency chosen by the technician for the
type of test involved.
Generation of Eddy Currents (cont.)

A dynamic expanding and collapsing magnetic

field forms in and around the coil as the
alternating current flows through the coil
Generation of Eddy Currents (cont.)
When an electrically conductive material is placed in the
coil’s dynamic magnetic field, electromagnetic induction
will occur and eddy currents will be induced in the
material
Generation of Eddy Currents (cont.)
Eddy currents flowing in the material will generate their
own “secondary” magnetic field which will oppose the
coil’s “primary” magnetic field
Eddy Current Testing

Coil's
Coil magnetic field

Eddy current's
magnetic field
Eddy
currents

Conductive
material
Probes
Basic Eddy Current Theory:
Simple Coil above a metal surface

Crack parallel to eddy

currents - not detected

Crack interrupts eddy

currents - detected
Basic Eddy Current Theory:
Depth of Penetration

◼ Eddy current density is greatest at surface

◼ Reduces exponentially with depth

◼ At standard D of P = 1/e (37%) of surface value

 Basic Eddy Current Theory:
Depth of Penetration

 = 50  ( f .  r ) Depth (in)
Depth (mm)
◼ Decreases with an
increase in 100
Titanium
4

frequency 10 Aluminium
0.4
◼ Decreases with an Copper

increase in 1 Steel 0.04

conductivity
◼ Decreases with an 0.1 0.004
increase in
permeability 0.01
100Hz 1kHz 10kHz 100kHz 1MHz 10MHz
0.0004

Frequency
Basic Eddy Current Theory:
Factors affecting eddy current response

◼ Conductivity
◼ Measured in %IACS or MSm-1
◼ Greater Conductivity -> Greater current flow on the
surface - Less penetration
◼ Conductivity is often measured using eddy currents.

◼ Permeability (relative)
◼ one for Nonferrous, up to hundreds for Ferrous.
◼ Higher permeability reduces penetration into metal
and gives much larger EC response.
◼ Permeability variations may mask defects
Basic Eddy Current Theory:
Factors affecting eddy current response

◼ Frequency
◼ Very significant effect on response
◼ The one thing that we can totally control!

◼ Geometry
◼ CRACKS!!!!
◼ Curvature, edges, grooves etc. all affect response
◼ Generally try and scan along line of constant
geometry
◼ Thickness relevant if less than depth of penetration.
Basic Eddy Current Theory:
Factors affecting eddy current response

◼Lift-off
◼ Closer probe to surface -> greater effect
◼ “Lift-off” signal as spacing varies
◼ reduction in sensitivity as spacing increases.

All of these factors will affect the response: accurate

assessment of one requires that the others be held
constant or their influence minimised
Eddy current inspection can be used to:

Measure or identify properties :-

◼ Electrical conductivity

◼ Magnetic permeability

◼ Grain size

◼ Heat treatment condition

◼ Hardness, and physical dimensions

 Material Variables Detectable by Eddy
Currents

◼ Conductivity variations
◼ Detection of discontinuities
◼ Spacing between test coil and test material (lift-off
distance)
◼ Material thickness
◼ Thickness of plating or cladding on a base metal
◼ Spacing between conductive layers
◼ Permeability variations
 Eddy current inspection can be used to:

◼ Detect seams, laps, cracks, voids, and inclusions

◼ Sort dissimilar metals and detect differences in their

composition, microstructure, and other properties

◼ Measure the thickness of a nonconductive coating

on a conductive metal, or the thickness of a
nonmagnetic metal coating on a magnetic metal
 Major Application Areas
◼ In-service inspection of tubing at nuclear and fossil fuel
power utilities
◼ chemical and petrochemical plants
◼ on nuclear submarines
◼ air conditioning systems

◼ Inspection of aerospace structures and engines

◼ Production testing of tubing, pipe, wire, rod, and bar stock

 Advantages of Eddy Current Inspection

◼ High sensitivity to microscopic flaws at or near the

metal surface
◼ High inspection speeds
◼ No surface preparation required
◼ Can detect flaws through paint layers
◼ Good discrimination between flaw types
◼ No couplant, no consumables, no radiation hazards
 Advantages ….

◼ No effluent treatment needed

◼ Ability to access the small and complex geometries
◼ Skills are easy to acquire
◼ Complementary to Ultrasonic technology
Disadvantages
◼ Very susceptible to magnetic permeability changes
◼ Only effective on conductive materials
◼ Will not detect defects parallel to surface
◼ Not suitable for large areas and/or complex
geometries
◼ Signal interpretation required.
◼ No permanent record (unless automated)
Effect of a crack on the pattern of eddy current flow in a pipe
Principal elements of a typical system for eddy current inspection
Operating Variables

◼ coil impedance
◼ electrical conductivity
◼ magnetic permeability
◼ lift-off and fill factors
◼ edge effect
◼ skin effect
◼ Total resistance to the flow of alternating current in a coil is
called impedance.

◼ R – resistance
◼ XL - inductive reactance
◼ Many factors influence the conductivity of a metal
◼ temperature, composition, heat treatment and resulting
microstructure, grain size, hardness, and residual stresses
◼ eddy currents can be used to monitor composition
and various metallurgical characteristics, provided
their influence on conductivity is sufficient to provide
the necessary contrast.

◼ eddy currents are induced by a varying magnetic

field, the magnetic permeability of the material being
inspected strongly influences the eddy current
response
 lift-off

◼ The changes in indication with changes in

spacing between the coil and the conductor, or
part being inspected, are called lift-off.

◼ The liftoff effect is so pronounced that small

variations in spacing can mask many indications
resulting from the condition or conditions of
primary interest
fill factor
◼ In an encircling coil, a condition comparable to lift-off
is known as fill factor. It is a measure of how well the
part being inspected fills the coil

◼ As with lift-off, changes in fill factor resulting from

such factors as variations in outside diameter must
be controlled because small changes can give large
indications
◼ When an inspection coil approaches the end or edge
of a part being inspected, the eddy currents are
distorted because they are unable to flow beyond the
edge of a part.

◼ The distortion of eddy currents results in an

indication known as edge effect. Because the
magnitude of the effect is very large, it limits
inspection near edges. Unlike lift-off, little can be
done to eliminate edge effect. A reduction in coil size
will lessen the effect somewhat, but there are
practical limits that dictate the sizes of coils for given
applications
 skin effect
◼ In addition to the geometric relationship that exists between
the inspection coil and the part being inspected, the
thickness and shape of the part itself will affect eddy current
response

◼ Eddy currents are not uniformly distributed throughout a

part being inspected; rather, they are densest at the surface
immediately beneath the coil and become progressively less
dense with increasing distance below the surface--a
phenomenon known as the skin effect.
 Inspection Coils

◼ The inspection coil is an essential part of every eddy current

inspection system

◼ shape of the inspection coil depends:-

◼ purpose of the inspection and on the shape of the part

being inspected.
◼ encircling coils are the most commonly used.

◼ inspection of a flat surface for cracks at an angle to the

surface, a probe-type coil would be used
 Coil Configurations

Three main groups:

◼ Surface probes - used mostly with the probe
axis normal to the surface, includes pencil
probes and fastener hole probes
◼ Encircling coils - e.g. in-line inspection of
round products
◼ ID probes - e.g. in-service inspection of heat
exchangers.
EDDY PROBES
 Types and applications of coils used in eddy
current inspection.

(a) Probe-type coil applied to a flat plate (b) Horseshoe-shaped or U-shaped coil applied
for detection of a crack to a flat plate for detection of a laminar flaw.
 Types and applications of coils used in eddy
current inspection.

(c) Encircling coil applied to a tube. (d) Internal or bobbin-type coil applied to a tube
Multiple Coils

◼ In many setups for eddy current inspection, two coils

are used.
◼ The two coils are normally connected to separate
legs of an alternating current bridge in a series-
opposing arrangement so that when their
impedances are the same, there is no output from
the pair.
◼ Pairs of coils can be used in either an absolute or a
differential arrangement
Multiple Coils
◼ a sample of acceptable material is placed in
◼ one coil, and the other coil is used for
inspection
◼ the coils are comparing an unknown against a
standard
◼ differences between the two (if any) being
indicated by a suitable instrument
◼ Commonly employed in sorting application
 Differential Coil Arrangement

◼ two coils compare one section of the tube with an

adjacent section

◼ When the two sections are the same, there is no output

from the pair of coils and therefore no indication on the
eddy current instrument

◼ Gradual dimensional variations within the tube or gross

variations between individual tubes are not indicated,
while discontinuities, which normally occur abruptly, are
very apparent
Instrument System Operations

◼ Resistor and single-coil system

◼ Bridge unbalance system
◼ Induction bridge system
◼ Through transmission system
(a) A simple arrangement, in which
voltage across the coil is monitored (b) Typical impedance bridge.
 (d) Impedance bridge with dual coils and
(c) Impedance bridge with dual coils.
a reference sample in the second coil
Portable eddy current instrument that incorporates a hand-
held scanner to detect cracks in fastener holes
Practical Testing:Requirements

◼ An instrument with the necessary capabilities.

◼ A suitable probe
◼ A good idea of size, location and type of the flaws
it is desired to find
◼ A suitable test standard to set up the equipment
and verify correct operation
◼ A procedure or accept/reject criteria based on the
above.
◼ The necessary operator expertise to understand
and interpret the results.
 Practical Testing:
Typical Instrumentation

◼ Special Purpose:
(AutoSigma 3000 shown)
◼ Conductivity, Coating thickness
etc.
◼ Simple digital readout
◼ Minimal operator training
◼ Crack Detectors:
(Locator UH shown)
◼ Meter or Bar-graph readout
◼ High frequency - Surface cracks
and sorting
◼ Often absolute probe only
 Practical Testing:
Operating frequency

◼ Primary operator controlled variable.

◼ Determine Relative response from different flaws or
“Artefacts”
◼ Mostly Determined by:
◼ Probe,
◼ Material Type,
◼ Material thickness/Geometry
◼ High frequency ( typically > 100 kHz) tests:
◼ Little penetration,
◼ Find small flaws, More signals from scratches etc.
◼ Low Frequency (typically <10kHz) Test
◼ Deep Penetration: Find Thickness variations etc.
◼ Insensitive to signals from small flaws and scratches
Practical Testing:
Applications

◼ Surface Crack Detection

◼ Pencil or ‘Pancake’ probes
◼ High Frequencies
◼ Find cracks down to 0.1mm
or so deep
◼ Normally Absolute probes,
sometimes differential, but
crack direction/probe
orientation is critical
Practical Testing:
Applications

◼ Metal Sorting
◼ Conductivity / Permeability Testing
◼ For NFe Conductivity meter may be a better choice

◼ Frequencies from few Hz to MHz depending on

parameters / geometry

◼ N.B Same reading does not mean same metal

◼ Many factors can vary together,
◼ Check for correct Heat treatment or composition, Not both
at once
Practical Testing:
Applications

◼ Sub-Surface Crack/Corrosion Detection.

◼ Primarily Used in Airframe Inspection.
◼ Low Frequency,
◼ Usually Reflection Probes
◼ Penetrate Aluminium Structures (10mm)
◼ Detect Second and Third Layer Cracking or
Corrosion
Practical Testing:
Applications

◼ Heat exchanger tube testing

◼ Petrochemical or power generation Heat exchangers
may have thousands of tubes, up to 20m long.
◼ Use a differential ID ‘bobbin’ probe
◼ Test at high speed (up to 1 m/s or so with computerized
data analysis.)
◼ Identifies cracks, inside or outside corrosion
◼ Pitting can be assessed to an accuracy of about 5% of
wall thickness.
◼ The operating frequency is determined by the tube
material and wall thickness,
◼ Dual or multiple frequency inspections commonly used
 Practical Testing:
Applications

◼ In-Line inspection of Steel tubing

◼ Inspect using encircling coils .
◼ Magnetic material - two main problems:
◼ High permeability - little or no penetration.
◼ Variations in permeability cause eddy current responses
greater than those from defects.
◼ Overcome by magnetically saturating the tube using a
strong DC field.
◼ Tubes up to around 170mm diameter
◼ Welded tubes tested using sector coils which only test
the weld zone.
Practical Testing:
Applications

◼ Ferrous weld inspection

◼ geometry and material variations prevent inspection
with a conventional eddy current probe,
◼ Special purpose “WeldScan” probe has been
developed
◼ Allows inspection of welded steel structures for
fatigue-induced cracking,
◼ May be used in adverse conditions, or even
underwater,
◼ Will operate through paint and other corrosion-
prevention coatings.
◼ Cracks around 1mm deep and 6mm long can be found
in typical welds.