ELEC2300

Electrical Energy Conversion & Utilization

Topic 2: Transformer principle of operation
Week 7: Transformer's voltage regulation and per
unit calculations

Course Learning Outcomes

• Describe and determine the transformer equivalent circuit.

Lecturer Name: Dr Mahmoud Younis

Academic Year: 2022/2023
Course Coordinator Name: Dr Mahmoud Younis
 Transformer Tests

•The performance of a transformer can be calculated on the basis of

equivalent circuit
•The four main parameters of equivalent circuit are:
- R01 as referred to primary (or secondary R02)
- the equivalent leakage reactance X01 as referred to primary
(or secondary X02)
- Magnetising susceptance B0 ( or reactance X0)
- core loss conductance G0 (or resistance R0)
 Transformer Tests

•The above constants can be easily determined by two tests

- Oper circuit test (O.C test / No load test)
- Short circuit test (S.C test/Impedance test)
•These tests are economical and convenient
- these tests furnish the result without actually loading the
transformer
 Open-circuit Test
In Open Circuit Test the transformer’s secondary winding is
open-circuited, and its primary winding is connected to a
full-rated line voltage.

• Usually conducted on H.V side

• To find
(i) No load loss or core loss
(ii) No load current Io which is
helpful in finding Go(or Ro ) and Bo
(or Xo )
Core loss = 𝑊𝑜𝑐 = 𝑉0 𝐼0 cos 𝜑0
𝑊𝑜𝑐
cos 𝜑0 =
𝑉0 𝐼0
Ic 𝑜𝑟 Iw = 𝐼0 cos 𝜑0
Im 𝑜𝑟 I𝜇 = 𝐼0 sin 𝜑0 = 𝐼02 − 𝐼𝑤
2

𝐼0
I0 = V0 Y0 ; ∴ Yo =
𝑉0
Woc = V02 G0 ;
Woc Im
∴ Exciting conductance G0 = 2
V0
& Exciting susceptance B0 = 𝑌02 − 𝐺02
Im
Short-circuit Test
In Short Circuit Test the secondary terminals are short
circuited, and the primary terminals are connected to a
fairly low-voltage source

The input voltage is adjusted until the current in the short

circuited windings is equal to its rated value. The input voltage,
current and power is measured.
• Usually conducted on L.V side
• To find
(i) Full load copper loss – to pre determine the
efficiency
(ii) Z01 or Z02; X01 or X02; R01 or R02 - to
predetermine the voltage regulation
Contd…

Full load cu loss = Wsc = I sc2 R01

Wsc
R 01 = 2
I sc
Vsc
Z 01 =
I sc
 X 01 = Z − R 2
01
2
01
Transformer Voltage Regulation and Efficiency
The output voltage of a transformer varies with the load even if
the input voltage remains constant. This is because a real
transformer has series impedance within it. Full load Voltage
Regulation is a quantity that compares the output voltage at no
load with the output voltage at full load, defined by this equation:
Vs
At noload k =
Vp
V S ,nl−VS , fl (VP / k ) − VS , fl
Regulation up =  100% Regulation up = x 100%
VS , fl VS , fl
V S ,nl−VS , fl (VP / k ) − VS , fl
Regulation down =  100% Regulation down = x 100%
VS ,nl VS , nl

Ideal transformer, VR = 0%.

 no - load voltage − full - load voltage
Voltage regulation =
no - load voltage
Vs N s
recall =
Vp N p
N 
Secondary voltage on no-load V2 = V1  2 
 N1 
V2 is a secondary terminal voltage on full load

Substitute we have  N2 
V1   − V2
Voltage regulation =  N1 
 N2 
V1  
 N1 
Transformer Phasor Diagram
To determine the voltage regulation of a
transformer, it is necessary to understand the
voltage drops within it.

10
Transformer Phasor Diagram
Ignoring the excitation of the branch (since the current
flow through the branch is considered to be small), more
consideration is given to the series impedances
(Req +jXeq).

Voltage Regulation depends on magnitude of the

series impedance and the phase angle of the current
flowing through the transformer.

Phasor diagrams will determine the effects of these

factors on the voltage regulation. A phasor diagram
consist of current and voltage vectors.
1/14/2023 11
 Transformer Phasor Diagram

Assume that the reference phasor is the

secondary voltage, VS. Therefore the reference
phasor will have 0 degrees in terms of angle.

Based upon the equivalent circuit, apply Kirchoff Voltage Law,

VP
= VS + Req I S + jX eq I S
k
Transformer Phasor Diagram
For lagging loads, VP / a > VS so the voltage regulation with
lagging loads is > 0.

When the power factor is unity, VS is lower than VP so VR > 0.

1/14/2023 13
Transformer Phasor Diagram

With a leading power factor, VS is higher than the referred VP so VR < 0

14
 Transformer Phasor Diagram
For lagging loads, the vertical components of Req and Xeq
will partially cancel each other. Due to that, the angle of
VP/a will be very small, hence we can assume that VP/k is
horizontal. Therefore the approximation will be as follows:
 Transformer Efficiency

Transformer efficiency is defined as (applies to motors,

generators and transformers):
Pout
 =  100%
Pin
Pout
=  100%
Pout + Ploss
Types of losses incurred in a transformer:
Copper I2R losses
Hysteresis losses
Eddy current losses
Therefore, for a transformer, efficiency may be calculated using the following:

VS I S cos 
= x100%
PCu + Pcore + VS I S cos 
Transformer Losses

•  Losses= core losses + copper losses

• Copper losses depend upon load current
• Iron losses are constant for constant flux
(constant voltage) conditions
•  Losses= core losses + (I12R1+ I22R2 )
•  Losses= core losses + (I12Re1)
•  Losses= core losses + (I22Re2)

17
Example

• The following data were obtained on a 20KVA, 50Hz,

2000/200V distribution transformer
• Open Circuit Test (on L.V. side): 200V, 4A, 120W
• Short Circuit Test (on H.V. side): 60V, 10A, 300W
Draw the approximate equivalent circuit of the transformer
referred to H.V. Side.
 Example – Short-/Open- Circuit Test
50 kVA, 2400/240 V, 50 Hz single phase transformer
• Open circuit test performed with high voltage side winding open
VOC = 240 V IOC = 5.4 A POC = 186 W
• Short circuit test performed with low voltage side winding shorted
VSC = 48 V ISC = 20.8 A PSC = 620 W
1. Draw the approximate equivalent circuit referred to the HV side.
2. Draw the full (complete) equivalent circuit.
3. Draw the full (complete) equivalent circuit referred to the HV side.
4. if the transformer is operating at rated load, 0.8 power factor lagging
and rated secondary voltage, determine the voltage regulation VR and
the efficiency.
23
 Solution
– From Open Circuit Test

• |YOC| = IOC/VOC • Referring these quantities to HV side

= 0.0225 siemens • a = 2400/240 = 10
θ2 = cos-1[POC/(VOC*IOC)]
Rc1 = a2Rc2 = 30.96 kΩ
= 81.75°
Xm1 = a2Xm2 = 4.48 kΩ
YOC = 0.0033 – j*0.022 [S]
RC2 = 309.6 Ω Lm1 = Xm1 / 2πf
Xm2 = 44.8 Ω =14.26 H
24
 Solution cont.

– From Short Circuit Test

Magnitude of series impedance of Equivalent series reactance
transformer, referred to energized (HV) (referred to HV side)

side 𝑋𝐸1 = (|𝑍𝐸1|2 − 𝑅𝐸12)

|ZE1| = 48/20.8 = 2.3 Ω = X1 + a2X2
= (|2.3|2 – 1.432) = 1.8Ω
Equivalent series resistance (referred to
HV side)
RE1 = PSC/I2SC = R1 + a2R2
= 620/(20.8)2 = 1.43 Ω 25
 Example
Approx. Equivalent Circuit Ideal
transformer
I1 RE1 XE1

I2/a

V1 RC1 Xm1 aV2 V2

From open circuit and short circuit test can define

needed parameters of equivalent circuit for 50 kVA,
2400/240 V transformer:
RC1= 30.96 kΩ, XM1= 4.48 kΩ,
RE1 = 1.43 Ω, XE1 = 1.8Ω
26
 Example: Full Equivalent Circuit
Ideal
transformer
R1 X1 R2 X2
By assuming I1 I2
R1 = a2R2 V2
RC1 Xm1
= (RE1)/2 and
X1 = a2X2
= (XE1)/2

we can derive necessary parameters for full equivalent circuit of 50 kVA

2400/240 V 50 Hz transformer:
R1 = 0.715 Ω, R2 = 0.00715 Ω
27 X1 = 0.9 Ω, X2 = 0.009 Ω
 Example : Transformer Voltage Regulation
50 000 VA
• Rated load (rated secondary current) = = 208.3 A
240 V

I2 = 208.3  - cos-1(0.8) = 208.3  -36.87°

if secondary voltage selected as reference phasor

• Required parameter for approximate equivalent circuit referred to primary aV2 =

2400  0°, (I2/a) = 20.83  -36.87° A

• Primary voltage required to supply load

V1 = aV2 + (I2/a)(RE1 + j*XE1)
= 2400  0° + 20.83  -36.87°(1.43 + j1.80)
= 2446.4  0.28° 28
• Voltage regulation
| V2,no load | − | V2, full load | | V1 | − | aV2 |
=  100% =  100%
| V2, full load | | aV2 |

 2446.4 − 2400 
=   100% = 1.93%
 2400 

Ideal
transformer
R1 X1 R2 X2

I1 I2

RC1 Xm1 V2
References
1. Wildi, T. (2014). Electrical machines, drives, and power systems.
Harlow: Pearson.
2. Chapman, S. J. (2012). Electric machinery fundamentals. New York:
McGraw-Hill.