Chapter 2 Structure of Atom © Introduction Introduction # Discovery of Fundamental #1 ancient mes, aloms were thought to be the fundamental building Particles blocks of all matter. Atom was taken as an indivisible particle as even {ts name ‘atom’ ts derived from a Greek word ‘a-tomio’ which means © Atomic Number and Mass ‘uncuttable’. Further this concept came into more light or revived when Number John Dalton in 1808 proposed Dalton’s atomic theory. He too considered a atom as the smallest indivisible particle of matter. Further it was ‘Botu’s Model of Atom tome concluded that ‘An atom can neither be created nor be destroyed ‘Though Dalton’s atomic theory provided convincing explanation for * Nature of Electromagnetic the various laws of chemical combination, but his idea that the atom Radiation is an indivisible particle of matter was disproved later by the discovery @ Bohu’s Model for of radioactivity. Atoms are found to be composed of three of fundamental “aan iydrogen articles, namely protons, neutrons and electrons. The discovery af these fundamental particles paved the way for further research on © Towards Quantum the internal structure of an atom which obviously explains the ‘Mechanical Model of the enormous diversity of chemistry, involved in a wide range of chemical Aton reactions, © Quantum Mechanical Modet So. this chapter deals with the various advancements being made to of the Atom elucidate the different atomic models which gave the modern structure of atoms and gave the concept of quantization of en: © Some Important Definitions = mee ad © Formulae Chart © Quick Recap DISCOVERY OF FUNDAMENTAL PARTICLES Discovery of Electron The electron was the first fundamental particle. It was discovered by J.J. Thomson in 1897 by utilising Faraday’s study of electrical discharge in partially evacuated tubes, known as cathode ray tubes, Cathode ray tube : It is a cylindrical hard glass tube fitted with two metallic electrodes connected to the oppositely charged poles of a battery. ‘Aakash Educational Services Pvt. Lid. - Regd. Office : Aakash Tower, 8, Pusa Road, New Dathi-110005 Ph. 011-4762345662. Structure of Atom Board & Competitive Exams. (Observation : When the gas taken in the tube was subjected to very low pressure maintained by a vacuum pump and high voltage (10,000 volts), then current flown through the stream of particles moving in the tube from cathode (negative electrode) to anode (positive electrode). Therefore, these stream of particles were known as cathode rays. Cathode ray tube Why Gases Under Low Pressure are Used? ‘At low pressure, there is enough space between the gaseous atoms so that the ions can accelerate to such a high speed that when they strike another atom can eject electrons of it. creating more positive ions and free electrons. Confirmation of Rays : Presence of cathode rays were confirmed by making a hole in the anode which resulted in cathode rays striking the phosphorescent, zinc sulphide coating on the tube behind the anode. ‘So, the bright spot produced confirmed cathode rays. To vacuum pump Fluorescent High voltage Characteristics of Cathode Rays (1) The cathode rays moves from cathode to anode. (2) These rays are observed with the help of fluorescent or phosphorescent material as these are not visible, (8) These rays travel in straight line in the absence of electric and magnetic field. It is confirmed by the formation of a shadow on the opposite side of the cathode, when a small object is placed between the ‘cathode and anode. Shadow of Metal object ‘object Cathode ‘Anode =H High-voltage source Aakash Educational Services Pvt. Ltd. - Regd. Office : Aakash Tower, 8, Pusa Road, New Delhi-110005 Ph. 011-47623456Board & Competitive Exams. Structure of Atom 63 (4) They rotate the litle paddle wheel placed in their path. This shows that cathode rays contain material particles having both mass and velocity. Light paddle wheel High-voltage source (5) These rays consists of electrons produced by the ionization of the gaseous atoms by the discharge and they were responsible for the flow of current. (6) The application of electric and magnetic fields deflacted cathode rays as expected from negatively charged particles. (7) They produce X-ray when they strike against the surface of hard metals like tungsten, molybdenum ete. In fact all the above observations led to the conclusion that the cathode rays consist of negatively charged articles. These charged particles constituting the cathode rays were named electrons. Electrons are the Basic Constituents of All Atoms : The characteristics of cathode rays do not depend upon the material of the electrodes and the nature of the gas taken in the discharge tube. Therefore, when the experiment was conducted on various gases, the result was same, so it is correct to say that the electrons are the basic constituent of all atoms. Charge to Mass Ratio of Electron J.J. Thomson (1897) made a set-up of cathode ray tube and applied the electric and magnetic fleid Perpendicular to each other as well as to the path of the electrons. Cathode rays which constitute the particles travel in a straight path in the cathode ray tube. Thomson suggested that when electric or magnetic field is applied then these rays deviate from their path. The experiment is based on the principle that the extent of deflection of the electrons depend on the charge on the electrons, mass of the electrons and strength of the electric and magnetic field applied. Experiment of J.J. Thomson64 Structure of Atom Board & Competitive Exams. ‘Suppose : When only electric field Is applied electrons deviate from their path and hit the cathode ray tube at point A. In the absence of both types of fields electrons hit the screen at point B. When only magnetic field is applied electrons hit the cathode ray tube at point C. Now, from the above experiment, J.J. Thomson determined the charge to mass ratio of electrons. = 1.758820 « 10" C kg 2 m Where @ (in coulomb) is the magnitude of charge on electron, m, (in kilogram) is the mass of the electron. rue exert wae aid wh ret eine dcr none ce i nt i Charge on the electron R.A. Millikan through his oll drop experiment (1906-1914) was able to calculate the charge on electron as e=-16* 10-0 (Negative sign because electron is negatively charged) Present accepted value is = ~1.6022 » 10-19 C = 1 unit charge. The mass of electron (m,) was determined by the ratio of charge on electron to -°- value. 1.602210" ‘em, 1.758820 x 10"'C kg? = 9.1094 * 10° kg (9.1 * 10% g) ‘Thus an electron is a subatomic particle having a unit charge (-1.602 = 10-'* coulomb) and a mass equal to 9.1 * 10°" kg, Example 1: Why electrons are considered as the universal constituents of matter? Solution: This is because the electrons are emitted from various sources and various methods but have the ‘same mass and the same charge always ie., mn ratio remains the same. (Experimental fact), Millikan's Oil Drop Experiment In this experiment, some fine oil droplets were allowed to enter through a tiny hole into the upper plate of electrical condenser. These oll droplets were produced by atomiser. The air in the chamber was subjected to the lonization by X-rays. The electrons produced by the ionization of air attach themselves to the oll drops. ‘Thus oil droplets acquire negative charge. When sufficient amount of electric field is applied, the motion of the droplets can be accelerated, retarded or made stationary. Millikan observed that the smallest charge Aakash Educational Services Pvt. Lid. - Regd. Office : Aakash Tower, 8, Pusa Road, New Delhi-110005 Ph. 011-47623456Board & Competitive Exams. Structure of Atom 65 Tound on them was —1.6 = 10" coulomb and the magnitude of electrical charge, q on the droplets Is always ‘an integral multiple of the electrical charg Try Yourself 1. Why the cathode rays always are considered to be consist of fundamental common particles called electrons? Discovery of Proton ‘The atom as whole is electrically neutral, During electric discharge in the cathode ray tube the gaseous atoms: present, get ionise to form ions (positively charged particles) and electrons. ‘Atom (gaseous); ion (gaseous) + ARG, (Gaseous) (Prion crane) (east hares) When electrons were discovered, then Goldstein brought the idea that there must be some positively charged Particles that neutralise the negative charge of the electrons to maintain electrical neutrality of an atom. This idea led to the discovery of proton. The discovery of proton by Goldstein was done on the basis of the cathode ray experiment conducted by using a perforated cathode. ‘Some rays were formed by ionization of gas and move towards cathode known as anode rays or canal rays. High voltage 4 [+f Pusa Road, New Deihi-110005 Ph. 011-4762345666 Structure of Atom Board & Competitive Exams. Anode rays were found as a stream of positively charged particles in contrast to cathode rays. When hydrogen gas is taken in a discharge tube, then these positively charged particles were found to be protons. A proton Is produced when one electron is removed from hydrogen atom (H). H > Hi + 8 zen Proton” eistron Properties of the Anode Rays (1) Anode rays travel in straight lines. (2) Anode rays possess positive charge therefore they move towards the negatively charged electrodes. Defected towards negatively charged plate (8) The properties of anode rays, unlike cathode rays depend upon the nature of the gas taken in the discharge tube as the e/m ratio of the positive rays is different for different gases. (4) The mass of the positive particles is same as the atomic mass of the gas inside the discharge tube. (©) The charged ions which move towards cathode carries magnitude of positive charge depending upon the ‘number of electrons lost by the corresponding gaseous atoms or molecules, ‘Atom (A) 28> AY “e” (1 un pone chargs) Atom (8) S085 BP 26” Zumt postive cherge) Origin of anode rays : These rays are believed to be produced as a result of knock out of the electrons from the gaseous atoms by the bombardment of high speed stream of electrons from cathode. Discovery of Neutron Neutron was discovered by Chadwick (1932), when he bombarded a thin sheet of beryllium ({Be) by o- particles (3He). then electrically neutral particles having a mass slightly greater than that of the protons were emitted. He named these particles as neutrons. Mass of Neutrons : Slightly greater than the mass of protons /e., 1.674 x 10% g QQ Qe Caton Neutron He Be [re * ‘Charge = +2 Atomic number = 4 Atomic number = 6 Charge = 0 Mess=4u = Mass =9u Mass = 12u Mass = 1u Aakash Educational Services Pvt. Ltd, - Regd. Office : Aakash Tower, 8, Pusa Road, New Delhi-110005 Ph. 011-47623456Board & Competitive Exams. Structure of Atom 67 ‘The discovery of electrons and protons as the sub-atomic particles inside the atom led to the concept of atomic models which depict the arrangement of fundamental particles in an atom, 4. Name [Symbol] Absolute | Relative | Massikg | Massiu | Approx. charge! charge mass/u Electron |e | -16022~10" | 1 | 910939~ 10 | 0.00058 | 0 Proton p |+16022~10% | +1 | 1.67262~10%"| 1.00727 | 1 Neutron | in ° 0 _|1.67493* 107" | 1.00867 | 1 Knowledge Cloud Other types of rays X-rays : X-rays are the high energy electromagnetic radiations which are not deflected by the electric and magnetic fields. These are highly penetrating rays. Therefore, these are employed in clinical laboratories for diagnostic purposes. Radioactivity : Radioactivity is the phenomenon of emission of radiations by certain elements on their ‘own. The elements which show this phenomenon are known as radioactive elements. The field of radioactivity was developed by Marie Curie, Pierre Curie, Rutherford and Frederick Soddy. ‘Three kinds of radiations are observed from the radioactive elements. () Alpha (a) rays : c-rays consist of a-particles carrying two units of positive charge and four units of atomic mass. c-particles ($He) are helium nuciei and when combine with two electrons yield helium gas. (i) Beta (f) rays : These rays consist of negatively charged particles (.@) similar to electrons. (i) Gamma (y) rays : These rays do not consist of particles. These are neutral electromagnetic radiations. Penetration power ‘prays > prays > c-rays ‘There are other important fundamental particies in atom also (1) Positron : Particle having mass equal to electron but having a unit positive charge. @) Antiproton : Particle having mass equal to proton but negative charge. (@) Neutrino and antineutrinos : Particles having no mass and no charge but only spin. (@)_semesons and y-mesons : Particles responsible for nuclear stability. (©) Antineutrons : identical to neutron but spining in opposite direction. Density of neutron is 1.5 = 10% gfos. Isolated neutron is unstable and disintegrates into electron, proton and neutrino. Of all the elementary particles present in an atom, neutron is the heaviest and least stable particle. ‘Aakash Educational Services Pvt. Lid. - Regd. Office : Aakash Tower, 8, Pusa Road, New Deihi-110005 Ph. 011-4762345668 Structure of Atom Board & Competitive Exams. The radius, r of the nucteus of an atom is related to Its mass number A, according to the relation. r=RA® Ry = 1.4 « 10" m and A is mass number 4 ‘+The nuctear radius is about 79 9999 of the atomic radius. ‘©The radii of nuciel are usually expressed in terms of Fermis (1 fermi = 10-%5 m) Thomson's Model of Atom J.J. Thomson in 1898, proposed a model of atom which looked more or less like plum pudding or raisin pudding. He assumed atom to be a spherical body in which electrons are unevenly distributed in a sphere having positive charge which balance the electron’s charge. It is called Plum pudding model. Important Feature of This Model : The mass of the atom is assumed to be uniformly distributed over whole atom. Failure : It failed after Rutherford's u-scattering experiment, which proved atom to be quite different. Rutherford’s Nuclear Model of Atom ‘@-Scattering Experiment : In this experiment Rutherford allowed a narrow beam of «-particies to fall on a very thin gold fol. This gold foil had circular fluorescent zinc sulphide screen around it. The a-particies emitted by radioactive substances are dipositive helium ions (He"*) having a mass of 4 units and 2 units of positive charge. A tiny flash of light was produced at the point where c-particles struck. Gold foil Source of Lead plate aa ares. Photographic plate Rutherford’s scattering experiment Aakash Educational Services Pvt. Lid.- Regd. Office : Aakash Tower, 8, Pusa Road, New Delhi-110005 Ph. 011-47623486Board & Competitive Exams. ‘Stucture of Atom 69 ‘The observations and conclusions made from the experiment by Rutherford are as following : the Most of the u-particles passed through the foil Presence of large emply space without any deftection. atom. 2. | Few a-particles were deflected by small angles Positive charge Is concentrated at a very small ragion and not uniformly distributed in whole atom. (If not then large number of c-particies would have been deflected by experiencing the enormous repulsive force from positive charge of the atom) 3. | Very few a-particles (1 out of 20,000 particles) Positively charged core is known as nucleus, rebounded compltely i.e., deflected at ~180". Beam of «-partices a, ‘Atoms if gold foil Rutherford's model for deflection of a-particies: ~~ Based on the a-Scattering Experiment Rutherford gave Nuclear Model of Atom ‘The main features of this model are : 1. Nucleus : In an atom, the mass and positive charge Is centrally located in extremely small region called nucleus. ‘The volume of nucleus is negligible as compared to the total volume of the atom. As the radius of atom s about 10° m and the radius of nucleus is 10-78 m. According to Rutherford, a-scattering experiment was the most incredible event that ever happened in his ite. it was almost as incredible as if you fire a fifteen inch shell at a piece of tissue paper ‘and it came back to hit you. 2. Both protons and neutrons present in the nucleus are collectively called nucleons. Extra-nuclear part : The nucleus is surrounded by revolving electrons. Rutherford's model of atom resembles the solar system in which the nucleus plays the role of sun and the electrons of revolving planets. Aakash Educational Services Pvt. Ltd. - Regd. Office : Aakash Tower, 8, Pusa Road, New Delhi-110005 Ph. 011-47623456 s70 Structure of Atom Board & Competitive Exams. ATOMIC NUMBER AND MASS NUMBER ‘Atomic number (Z) The number of unit positive charges on the nucleus of an atom of the element Is called atomic number ‘Atomic number = Number of protons = Number of electrons in an atom Mass Number (A) ‘Total number of protons and neutrons in the nucieus is called mass number of the atom. Mass number (A) = Number of protons + Number of neutrons. lsotopes : Atoms of same elements having same number of protons. Isotopes have different mass number, however they have same atomic number. Example : ,H', D2. 1? tsobars : Atoms of different elements having same mass number. Isobars contain same number of nucleons. Example : ‘Ar, $k, Ca Isotones : The aloms having same number of neutrons but different mass numbers are called isotones. Example : ®Si,, and “Py. Isodlaphers : Atoms having same isotopic number (neutron excess) are called isodiaphers, Isotopic number = Number of neutrons — number of protons. Example : "N, and Oy. Isosters : Molecules having same number of atoms and also same number of electrons are called isosters. Example : N, and CO. Iscelectronic : Atom, ions or molecules having same number of electrons. Example : CO and Ny Example 2 : Calculate the number of electrons, protons and neutrons in ()) phosphorus atom (i) phosphate ion. Mass numbers : P 31,0216 Atomic numbers : P = 15,0 = 8 Solution : (Phosphorus atom Number of electrons = Number of protons = Atomic number = 15 Number of neutrons = Mass number ~ Atomic number =31- 15-16. (®) Phosphate ion Number of electrons = 15 +4 8+3=50 Number of protons = 15 +4™ 8 = 47 Number of neutrons = 16 + 4 «8 = 48 Aakash Educational Services Pvt. Lid. - Regd. Office : Aakash Tower, usa Road, New Delhi-110005 Ph. 011-47623456Board & Competitive Exams. ‘Structure of Atom 71 Electromagnetic Spectrum Arrangement of all the electromagnetic radiations in the increasing order of their wavelengths or decreasing order of their frequencies is called electromagnetic spectrum, Cosmic rays pays Xcays UV Visible IR Microwave Radiowave Example 3: Cafculate the wavelength, frequency and wave number of a light whose period is 4 * 10* s, 1 Solution: Frequency = enog 1 ye = aot 25x 10's c_ 3x10 25x10" am = 0.083 m* 1 2 8.3 «102m Calculate the number of protons, electrons and neutrons in the following (@) Chloride ion (Cr) with Z = (b) Aluminium ion (AP*) with Z = 13, A = 27. Solution: (a) Ch with Z = 17, A= 35 ‘Number of protons = 17 Number of electrons = 17 + 1 (As one negative charge which means gain of electron) = 18 Number of neutrons = A—Z = 35 - 17 = 18 7, A= 36, ‘Aakash Educational Services Pvt. Ltd. - Regd. Office : Aakash Tower, 8, Pusa Road, New Delhi-110005 Ph. 011-4762345672 Structure of Atom Board & Competitive Exams. (b) AI with 2 = 13 Aza Number of protons = 13 Numberofelectrons =13-3 (As it has three positive charges obtained by the loss of three electrons) 3. Caloulate the number of protons, neutrons and electrons in 32K. 4. What is the symbol of the species with number of electrons equal to 36, protons equal to 35 ‘and neutrons equal to 457 Drawbacks of Rutherford Model Rutherford's model of an atom could very well explain the presence of positively charged nucteus and presence of electrons around it. Moreover it also explained the results of scattering experiment and electrical neutrality of atoms but failed due to two major facts. 1. Stability of the Atom : Maxwell's electromagnetic theory disproved Rutherford's model of atom. According, 10 the electromagnetic theory any charged body under acceleration radiate energy in the form of electromagnetic radiations, As an electron is also an accelerated charged particte, therefore itloses energy continuously while revolving around the nucleus. As a result of this a moving electron will come closer to the nucleus spirally and finally will collapse the nucleus. It was calculated that the electron would fall into the nucleus and collapse in less than 10-* s. But this does not happen. Therefore, Rutherford's atomic model could not account for the stability of atom. Nucleus, Moreover, had the electrons been stationary, electrostatic attraction between the nucieus and electrons would have been pulled the electrons into the nucleus which disproves the Thomson's model of atom. 2. Electronic Structure of Atoms : Rutherford did not give any information about how the electrons are distributed around the nucleus and what are the energies of these electrons. Therefore it was concluded that either the Rutherford's atomic model was wrong or the electromagnetic theory was inadequate in this case. Aakash Educational Services Pvt. Lid. - Regd. Office : Aakash Tower, 8, Pusa Road, New Delhi-110005 Ph. 011-47623486Board & Competitive Exams. ‘Structure of Atom 73, EXERCISE 1. The charge to mass ratio of electron was found to be (1) 1.6022 * 109 C kg? @) 1.928 « 10 C kg (8) 1.758 «10 C kg (4) 1.869 * 10° C kg 2. The ratio of mass of an electron to that of the mass of hydrogen atom is (423871 @) 1: 1837 (3) 1: 1296 (4) 1:9781 3. The radius of nucleus is approximately times emalier than the radius of atom. (1) 1,00,000 (2) 5,000 (@) 10,000 (4) 200 4, When o-rays strike a thin gold foil then (1) Most of the a-rays do not pass through the gold foil (2) Most of the «-rays get deflected back (8) Most of the c-rays get deflected through small angles (4) Most of the cc-rays pass through without any deviation 5. The general representation of the symbol of element 'X’ is (Z = Atomic number, A = Mass number) mM 8z @) 2x nee (4) A? 6. Isotopes have (1) Same number of protons (2) Same number of neutrons (3) Different number of electrons (4) Different atomic numbers 7. The number of neutrons present in deuterium is mo 2 @ 2 @ 3 8. Nucleus was discovered by (1) Rutherford (2) Chadwick (3) Bohr (4) Thomson 9. Metal of which foil was used in Rutherford experiment? (1) Silver (2) Gols (3) Platinum (4) tron 10. Wave number is aa @ } @ = @) any Aakash Educational Services Pvt. Ltd. - Regd. Office : Aakash Tower, 8, Pusa Road, New Delhi-110005 Ph. 011-4762345674 Structure of Atom Board & Competitive Exams. DEVELOPMENTS LEADING TO THE BOHR'S MODEL OF ATOM ‘After the failure of Rutherford's atomic model many scientists started working to give an appropriate model which could overcome the flaws of Rutherford’s model. Among such scientists, Neils Bohr was successful in giving the answers to the questions which were put forward by the Rutherford's model of atom. ‘Two developments played a major role in the establishment of Bohr's model of atom. Now before discussing Bohr's model of atom it is important to study these two developments. 1. Dual Character of the Electromagnetic Radiation : The electromagnetic radiations have dual character e., both particle and wave characters, 2. Quantisation of Energy : The results from the atomic spectra gave the evidence that energy is quantised, Wave Nature of Electromagnetic Radiations James Maxwell (1870) gave the explanation about the interaction between the charged bodies and the behaviour of electric and magnetic fields on macroscopic level Light and other forms of radiant energy that propagates in the form of waves are called electromagnetic waves or electromagnetic radiations. These waves are produced by a charged body maving in a magnetic field or a magnet moving in an electric field. In earlier times, Newton considered light as a stream of particles (corpuscles). But later this concept could not explain some phenomenon like diffraction of light. Thereafter wave nature of light got established Radiations : These are defined as emission or transmission of energy through space in the form of waves. Electromagnetic Radiations : Those radiations which are associated with electric and magnetic feld are called electromagnetic radiations. Maxwell frst revealed that light waves are associated with oscillating electric and magnetic character. Let us study some of the characteristics of electromagnetic radiations. (Electromagnetic radiations have both magnetic field as well as electric field components which oscillate in the phase perpendicular to each other as well as perpendicular to the direction of propagation of wave. Electric feet ‘component Magnetic tole component (i) Electromagnetic waves do not require any medium for their propagation. That means these waves can propagate in vacuum, (ii) There are many types of electromagnetic radiations which differ from one another in terms of their frequency _and wavelength. These all types of electromagnetic radiations constitute what is known as elactromagnetic spectrum, Aakash Educational Services Pvt. Ltd.- Regd. Office : Aakash Tower, 8, Pusa Road, New Delhi-110005 Ph. 011-47623456Board & Competitive Exams. Structure of Atom 75 Electromagnetic Spectrum : The arrangement of the various types of electromagnetic radiations in the order of their increasing wavelengths or decreasing frequencies Is known as electromagnetic spectrum. jo" 10" to" to" to" 10% 10" 0" 10" 19 (He) @ Long radio waves Aken) 1 10"! 10" e& Visible spectrum ss >) 400 500 600 700750 Wavelength (nanometers) The portion of this spectrum which can be seen and sensed by the human eye, exists in a wide range of wavelengths. This wide range of wavelengths is called visible region of spectrum. Visible region ranges from 400 nm to 750 nm. It consists of seven different colour bands namely Violet, Indigo, Blue, Green, Yellow, Orange, Red in the increasing order of their wavelengths. () In vacuum, all types of electromagnetic radiations travel with the speed of light. The speed of light is 3 * 10° ms ~~ Characteristics of EM. waves depends on its frequency and wavelength, EM. radiations have many uses and harmful effects also. © Radio waves : These are used for communication. Travels from radio stations to our audio devices. © Microwaves : These are used in ovens. '* Intrared radiations : There are used in spectroscopy, wireless communication. But their harmful effect is global warming. © WV. radiations : These are used in astronomy, forensic analysis etc. These are harmful to our skin. © X-rays : These are used for diagnostic purpose and taking picture of bones. © Gamma rays : These are used for treatment of cancer. But they are harmful for DNA and can cause genetic diseases. ‘Aakash Educational Services Pvt. Ltd. - Regd. Office : Aakash Tower, 8, Pusa Road, New Deihi-110005 Ph. 011-4762345676 Structure of Atom Board & Competitive Exams. NATURE OF ELECTROMAGNETIC RADIATION Wave Theory J.C. Maxwell (1864) suggested that radiant energy travel in space with the ‘velocity of light (3.0 * 10* ms-') in the form of wave. These waves are known a freat as electromagnetic waves or radiations. The characteristics of wave motion are : Trough a Wavelength (2) : The distance between two nearest crests or troughs m is known as wavelength. It is expressed in meters, picometers (pm), Figure : Wave theory nanometers (nm) or Angstrom (A) units (1pm = 10% nm = 10-7 A = 40-19 cm = 10°" m), Frequency (v) : The number of times a wave pi given point in one second is known as frequency of the wave. It is expressed in Hz (hertz) or, cps (cycles per second) units. (1 Hz = 1 cps). Velocity (c) : The distance travelled by the wave in one second is known as velocity of the wave. It is expressed in ms-! and related to v and A as: ¢ = VA or veoh a Wave number (v7) : It is reciprocal of wavelength i.., the number of wavelengths per metre ea amt Q) y= went 8) Amplitude (a) : Itis the height of the crests or depth of the trough of a wave. It determines the intensity (brightness) of the beam of light. The main points of wave theory 1 2. 3 4 ‘The energy is emitted from any source continuously in the form of radiations and is called the radiant energy, ‘The radiations consist of electric and magnetic field oscillating perpendicular to each other and both perpendicular to the direction of propagation of radiation. ‘The radiations possess wave character and travel with the velocity of light (3 = 108 m/s). ‘These waves do not require any material medium for propagation Example 5: Calculate the frequency. wave number of the microwaves with wavelength 4 * 10” nm. Solution Wavelength () 4% 107 nm = 4 10-2 m (11m = 10-9 m) Wave numbor (v) = 1 — 07 m [p= 25 m"| Pusa Road, New Delhi-110005 Ph. 011-47623456Board & Competitive Exams. Structure of Atom 77 Example 6: Calculate the wavelength, frequency and wave number of a light wave whose time period is Be 10" 5. Solution : Time period (T) = 3 = 10-15 1 Frequency (v) = = reaweney (0) = 3 pasa = Wave number (3) = 7 4 a1 m| Try Yourself 5. The wavelength range of the visible spectrum extends from violet (400 nm) to red (750 nm). Express these wavelengths in frequencies (Hz). (1 nm = 10 m). 6. AFM radio station broadcasts at a frequency of 103.1 MHz. What is the wavelength of these radiowaves? taint: A= [Eris = 10° He] 7. The Vividh Bharti station of All India Radio, Delhi, broadcasts on a frequency of 1,368 kHz. Calculate the wavelength of the electromagnetic spectrum it belongs to. Hint: 4=2 [kHz = 10° Ha] Particle nature of electromagnetic radiation : Planck's Quantum Theory Till now the electromagnetic radiations were thought to show wave like character. And no doubt, wave character ‘was even able to clearly justify some of the phenomenon like diffraction and interference. Diffraction : It is the bending of wave around an obstacle, Interference : It is the combination of two waves of the same or different frequencies to give a new wave whose distribution at each point in space is the algebraic or vector sum of disturbances at that point resulting from each interfering wave. But the wave nature of light could not justify some other observations like 1. Black-body radiation : Emission and radiation over a wide range of wavelength from the hot bodies which includes change in colour with temperature. 2. Photoelectric effect : The ejection of electrons from the metal surface when radiation strikes on it. 3. Variation of heat capacity of solids as a function of temperature, 4. Line spectra of atoms with special reference to hydrogen. ‘Aakash Educational Services Pvt. Lid. - Regd. Office : Aakash Tower, 8, Pusa Road, New Delhi-110005 Ph. 011-476234567B Structure of Atom Board & Competitive Exams. Black Body Radiations Black-body is an ideal body which emits and absorbs radiations of all frequencies. The radiation emitted by these bodies is called black-body radiation. Max Planck In 1900 gave the concept of black-body radiation. He said that when solids are heated, they emit radiations over a wide range of wavelength. For example, when an iron rod is heated in a furnace, then the iron rod first tums dull red and on further increase in temperature the colour of the rod changes to bright red to orange, then yellow, progressively white then finally blue at the elevated temperatures. This sequence of colours observed on heating an iron rod are Jn the sequence of increasing frequency or decreasing wavelength. These colours come under the visible range of spectrum constituting different colours having varying frequency and wavelength. The visible range of spectrum is memorized as VIBGYOR. rie log =" ge Ef ‘So, from above, it is clear that red light has higher wavelength (or lower frequency) and blue light has lower wavelength (oF higher fraquency), that means the radiation emilted goes from a higher wavelength to lower wavelength or in terms of frequency from lower frequency to higher frequency. The only factor on which the intensity and frequency of the emitted radiation depends is temperature. At a given temperature, the intensity of radiation emitted increases with decrease of wavelength, reaches a maximum vaiue at a given wavelength and then starts decreasing with further decrease of wavelength BO Wavelength (am) ‘The graph shows the variation of intensity with wavelength at two temperatures T, and T, (T, > T;)- According to classical mechanics, energy is emitted or absorbed continuously. Therefore, the energy of any ‘electromagnetic radiation is proportional to its Intensity and independent of Its frequency or wavelength. Thus, the radiation emitted by the body being heated should have the same colour throughout, although, the intensity of the colour might change with variation in temperature, Thereafter Max Planck suggested that the energy which is emitted or absorbed by the black body Is not continuous but discontinuous in the form of small discrete packets of energy.. Each such packet of energy I called a ‘quantum’. In case of light, the quantum of energy is called a ‘photon’. The energy of radiation is proportional to its frequency (v) and is expressed by equation Aakash Educational Services Pvt. Ltd. - Regd. Office : Aakash Tower, 8, Pusa Road, New Deihi-110005 Ph. 011-47623456Board & Competitive Exams. ‘Structure of Atom 79 = fe-§| E = Energy h = Planck's constant = 6.626 x 10-™ Js = Frequency So, from above it is clear that more the frequency, more i the energy associated wih the radiation Photoolectric Effect H. Hertz in 1887 performed an interesting experiment. He found that the electrons are ejected when a beam Of light strikes a metal surface. Metals which show this effect easily are caesium, potassium, rubidium etc. Set-up of Experiment : He made a set-up of the experiment by taking a cell with evacuated chamber which contains two metal electrodes connected to the extemal circuit. When the radiations of high energy when falls on the negative electrode then electrons were emitted. These electrons then carried the current. wate ete Metal seco ? ssworg Ammeter, \ venus charter shh Battery This phenomenon of ejection of electrons from the surface of a metal when light of sultable frequency strikes on itis called photoelectric effect. The emitted electrons are called photoelectrons. The results observed in this experiment are as follows 1. No Time Lag Between the Striking of Light and Ejection of Electrons : It was seen that as soon 2s the light of suitable frequency strikes the metal surface, photoelectrons are ejected. 2. ‘Threshold Frequency : Its the minimum frequency of light needed to cause photoelectric effect. Below this frequency the photoelectrons cannot be ejected. Threshold frequency is symbolised as (v). So, It was seen that if the frequency of light (v) is greater than the threshold frequency (v,) then only electrons are ejected accompanied with maximum possible kinetic energy. 3. Number of Photoslectrons : The number of electrons ejected is proportional to the intensity or brightness Of light striking the metal but do not depend upon the frequency of light. ‘Lower intensity light Frequency —> ‘Aakash Educational Services Pvt. Ltd. - Regd. Office : Aakash Tower, 8, Pusa Road, New Deihi-110005 Ph. 011-4762345680 Structure of Atom Board & Competitive Exams. 4. Kinetic energy of the photoelectrons : The kinetic energy of the ejected electrons (photoelectrons) depend upon the frequency of the light used. Frequency of light (v) —» (rroquaney content) @ ) So, it can be concluded that the number of electrons ejacted depend upon the intensity (brightness) of light but the kinetic energy is independent of intensity. Therefore, classical mechanics which says that kinetic energy (energy content of beam of light) should depend upon the intensity of light does not hold ‘good in this case. It is observed that when the red light of high intensity/brightness strikes the potassium metal surface it is not able to eject the electrons. But as soon as the yellow light having high frequency strikes the potassium metal, electron gets emitted. That means the threshold frequency of potassium atom (5.0 * 10" Hz) is greater than the frequency possessed by red light but lesser than frequency of yellow light which can show the photoelectric effect. Explanation for Photoelectric Effect Einstein (1905) by using Planck's quantum theory of electromagnetic radiation gave the explanation for the photoelectric effect. When a photon having sufficient energy strikes on electron on the metal atom, it transfers its energy instantaneously to the electron during the collision and electron gets ejected without any delay or time lag. Greater the energy possessed by the photon, greater will be the transfer of energy to the electron and greater will be the kinetic energy possessed by the photoelectrons. ‘The energy which is supplied by the photon to the electron is used up to eject the electron from the metal atom (equal to the energy binding the electron with nucleus) and the remaining is used to the eject electron with maximum kinetic energy. Energy of striking photon = Threshold energy + Kinetic energy of the ejected electron Energy of striking photon = hy (as E = hv) from Planck's Quantum Theory Binding energy = Threshold energy (hve) or work function (We) A low intensity beam of high energy photons will easily eject less electrons from a metal surface but a high intensity beam will eject more number of electrons. Aakash Educational Services Pvt. Lid.- Regd. Office : Aakash Tower, 8, Pusa Road, New Delhi-110005 Ph. 011-47623456Board & Competitive Exams. Structure of Atom 81 Dual Behaviour of Electromagnetic Radiation The two phenomenon /.e., biack-body radiation and photoelectric effect confirmed the particle nature of light. But in order to explain the phenomenon of diffraction and interference, the wave nature of light is required. So, at this time scientists were all in a stats of dilemma. Finally the conclusion was made that light behaves: ike wave as well as particle. When radiation interacts with the matter, it displays particle-lke properties while ‘when it propagates it displays wave like properties. Since light is a kind of radiation, all radiations even from the microscopic particles like electrons have both ‘wave as wall as particle character. Therefore all radiations have dual nature. For example, light Electric field Magnetic field Wave character OOCODOOOOG}— Proton ‘Stream of particles Particle character Example 7: Two radiations one having red colour (2 = 7.5 x 10-$ cm) and other with orange colour (= 6.2 x 10-* cm). Which will have higher energy? soton; canbe saved as fe= FE higher is the wavelength of light lesser wil be its energy and vice versa |e = 2 Now. the radiation of orange colour has lesser wavelength as compared to red, therefore orange radiation will have higher energy. Calculate the frequency and wavelength of photon with energy 3.98 * 10-"8 J. Energy of photon = 3.98 x 10-5 J (@) Frequency of photon E = hy (Planck's quantum theory) 3.98 * 10-18 J = 6.626 * 10% Js x v 3.98x10 "J 6.626x10* Js [Frequency = 6.010" 5 ‘(Hz) (©) Wavelength of photon : Rae _ 32108 ms 60x10" 5 = 05 * 10° m [Wavalengin=0.5A] (1A=10"° my ‘Aakash Educational Services Pvt. Lid. - Regd. Office : Aakash Tower, 8, Pusa Road, New Delhi-110005 Ph. 011-4762345682 Structure of Atom Board & Competitive Exams. Example 9: What is the work function (we) of the metal whose threshold frequency (ve) is 5.2 * 10% 5"? Solution : Example 10 : A 100 watt bulb emits monochromatic light of wavelength 400 nm. Calculate the number of Example 11: Calculate the maximum kinetic energy of photoelectrons emitted when a light of frequency ‘Threshold frequency of metal (vj) = 5.2 * 10% s~1 Work function (Wo) = hve Wo = 6.626 * 10-™ Js «5.2 * 104 st Work function (wa) = 3.44 x 10-19 J photons emitted per second by the bulb. Power of bulb = 100 watt = 100 Js* he _ 6.626% 10% Je x3 x10" me” Energy of (E) = hy = RE 7 10-18 jeray of photon (E) 7 a00 L1G? ah 4.969 10" J Power of the bulb 100 Js" Number of photons emitled = Energy of one photon ~ 4969x103 = 2.012 = 10° photons per second 2% 10" Hz is irradiated on @ metal surface with threshold frequency (vg) equal to 8.68 * 10" Hz, [Rv = Fivo + KE] Threshold frequency (v9) = 6.68 * 107° Hz (s“) Frequency of light (v) = 2 * 101° Hz KE= hv - v9) = 6.626 x 10% (2 x 10° — 8.68 x 10'S) KE=75% 10-85 Maximum kinetic energy of photoelectrons = 7.5 « 10-"* J Try Yourself 8. The threshold frequency v, for a metal is 8 x 10% s~'. What is the kinetic energy of an electron ‘emitted having frequency ¥ = 1.0 « 10° s-*. 9. A hot metal emits photons of light with energy 3.0 10-19 J. Calculate the frequency and ‘wavelength of the photon? 10. Calculate the energy of photon of light having frequency of 2.7 * 10'9 s-*. 11. Calculate the energy of one mole of photons of radiation whose frequency is 5 « 10" Hz. Aakash Educational Services Pvt. Ltd. - Regd. Office : Aakash Tower, 8, Pusa Road, New Delhi-110005 Ph. 011-47623456Board & Competitive Exams. Structure of Atom 83 12. Photoslectrons are removed with kinetic energy 1.864 « 10 J, when photons of light with ‘energy 4.23 x 10-"° J fall on the metal. What is the minimum energy required per mole to remove an electron from potassium metal? Hint : hy, = hy KE Energy required per mole = hv, * 6.022 * 102 13. Colculate the threshold frequency of the metal from which the photoelectrons are emitted with zero velocity when exposed to radiation of wavelength 6800 A, Hint : KE = Amv? : 2 by = hy, + KE, KE =0 = x Evidence for the Quantized Electronic Energy Levels : Atomic Spectra Quantization : The restriction of any property to discrete values is called quantization. (In steps) Continuous Spectrum ‘The speed of light depends upon the medium in which it travels. Therefore when light moves from one medium to another the speed of light differs. As a result the beam of light deviates from its original path when it passes: from one medium to another. When a white light from sources like sun of bulb is passed through a prism then white light split up into seven different wide bands of colour from violet to red called spectrum. The bands consists of colour-violet, indigo, blue, green, yellow, orange, red VIBGYOR. is commonly remembered as ‘The splitting up of the white light into different colours Is based on the fact that light of higher wavelength deviates less while the light of lower wavelength deviates more while passing through a prism. Moreover these colours are so continuous that each of them merges into the next. Such spectrum is called continuous spectrum. Write a === beam =| si Emission and Absorption Spectra Unlike the spectra of sunlight, the spectra of atoms is discontinuous. The spectra of atoms consists of sharp ‘well-defined lines or bands corresponding to definite frequencies. This is called line spectra, ‘Aakash Educational Services Pvt. Lid. - Regd. Office : Aakash Tower, 8, Pusa Road, New Delhi-110005 Ph. 011-4762345684 Structure of Atom Board & Competitive Exams. Spectra Is of two types 1. Emission spectrum, 2. Absorption spectrum 1. Emission Spectrum : When atoms are subjected to intense heat or an electric discharge, they absorb ‘energy and get excited. During this excitation, the electrons in the ground state of the atom are excited to some higher energy stalas. Since at the ground state is stable, whereas at the excited state is unstable, therefore they return to the ground state and the absorbed energy is released as light. When this emitted radiation is passed through a prism it gives rise to an emission spectrum, In case of atoms, such a spectrum recorded on a photographic plate commonly appears as bright lines upon a dark background. win ore =i@® a resin waving te w 2. Absorption Spectrum : An absorption spectrum is like the photographic negative of an emission spectrum. Meee eer negra tte ncaa pete tases ee es ee ee ee ee frequency. The transmitted light is when analysed it shows dark lines which corresponds to the wavelength come Te eer ‘The missing wavelength which corresponds to the radiation absorbed by the matter, leave dark spaces in the bright continuous spectrum. Fimto nena sm manieh wnt 3 2 a || a — ‘Spectroscopy : The study of emission or absorption spectra is called spectroscopy. Difference between emission and absorption spectra 1. | Obtained when radiations emitted by the | Obtained when substances absorb excited substance analysed by a | energy and the left transmitted light is spectroscope. analysed by a spectroscope. 2. | Emission spectrum consists of bright- | Absorption spectrum consists of dark lines coloured|ine separated bydarkspace. | and colours opposite to continuous spectrum. Aakash Educational Services Pvt. Lid. - Regd. Office : Aakash Tower, 8, Pusa Road, New Delhi-110005 Ph. 011-47623456Board & Competitive Exams. ‘Stucture of Atom 85, Example 12: Why line spectra is regarded as the fingerprints of atoms? Solution : The line spectra of atom of every element is unique. Therefore line spectra which helps in studying the electronic structure of atom results in the identification of the element by matching the spectra of unknown element with that of the known element as is done in the case of fingerprinting Line Spectrum of Hydrogen ‘The hydrogen spectrum is. an example of line emission spectrum. The line spectrum of hydrogen is obtained by passing an electric discharge through hydrogen gas at low pressure. Hydrogen molecule splits up into atoms. These electrons absorb and energy electrons get exited. When these excited electrons come back to ground state they emit electromagnetic radiation of discrete frequencies. Now, when these emitted radiations are passed through prism then discontinuous line spectrum of several isolated sharp lines is observed. In 1885, Balmer showed that if spectral lines are expressed in terms of wavenumber (9), then the visible lines of the hydrogen spectrum obey the formula fp =son0r7(h Poa -4) en A integer equal or greater than 3 ‘The series of lines which are obtained by the above formula are called Balmer series. The hydrogen spectrum consists of several series of spectral lines named afer their discoverer. These series are Lyman series, Balmer series, Paschen series, Brackett series and Pfund series. Later Johnnes Rydberg gave formula which could describe all the series of lines in the hydrogen spectrum. ofA) owner 4-3 none Where ifn, = 1, 2, 3, Then nz =n, + 1,1, + 2.0, +3, 0 ‘The value 109,677 cm is called the Rydberg constant for hydrogen.86 Structure of Atom Board & Competitive Exams. Interpretation of Hydrogen Spectrum cel Balmer series (isibie) ay Sghaas 3 nz Enemy—> Lyman series (utravilet) The line spectra of hydrogen atom is the simplest. It becomes more and more complex for the nearer elements. Limiting Line : Limiting line of any spectral series in the hydrogen spectrum is the line when n, = = BOHR'S MODEL FOR HYDROGEN ATOM Neils Bohr was first to explain quantitatively the general features of hydrogen atom ie., structure and its spectrum. He extended the work of Rutherford to give the structure of atom. Once, the existence of the nucleus was proved through Rutherford's model of atom, now the work left was to concentrate on the arrangement of electrons around the nucleus. Neils Bohr was successful in answering the questions like ‘+ Why line spectrum of atoms is obtained? ‘+The explanation of spectral lines of hydrogen atom etc. Let us study the postulates on which Bohr’s model for hydrogen atom is based () Nucleus : Hydrogen atom has small heavy positively charged nucleus in the centre (this postulate is the retention of Rutherford's model) (iD) Orbits : The electron around the nucleus revolves only in certain fixed circular path of fixed radius and energy. These circular paths are also known as orbits, stationary states or allowed energy states or energy levels. (ll) Energy of an Electron in the Orbit does not Change with Time : As the eneray of an electron revolving in a fixed circular path called orbit is fixed. Therefore orbits are called energy states or energy shells. ‘Therefore, electrons when absorb energy move from lower energy level to higher energy level, to its opposite electron moves from higher energy state to a lower energy state by emitting energy. ‘Thus, we can say that energy of the electron only changes when it undergoes transitions from one energy level to the other. But while revolving in a fixed orbit, they do not radiate or lose energy. In this manner, Bohr overcame Rutherford's difficulty to account for the stability of alom that why electrons do not lose ‘energy while revolving and fall into the nucleus. Aakash Educational Services Pvt. Lid.- Regd. Orfice : Aakash Tower, 8, Pusa Road, New Deihi-110005 Ph. 011-47623456Board & Competitive Exams. ‘Structure of Atom 87 In the Bohr model, the lowest energy state available for an electron is the ground state and all higher ‘energy states are called excited states, (fv) Frequency of the Radiation : The frequency of the radiation absorbed or emitted during the transition of electron from one energy state to another is given by where, AE is the difference in the energies of the two energy states Le., AE = E, — E,. where, E, = Energy of the lower allowed energy state E, = Energy of the higher allowed energy state The above expression is commonly known as Bohr's frequency rule. (¥) Angular Momentum of an Electron In an Orbit : The angular momentum of an electron in a fixed orbit is expressed as moet =o PL whee a= 1. 2,3, onto in, = oe of stecton v= speed a lcton 1 rds of ort 0, tom the above expression, was conctuded thet he parmiod ors are ose for which the anglar momentum of an elect ean agra mute of From the above expression, the concept of quantised energy levels Is also clear. Therefore this equation is also known as the Bohr quantization postulate. ‘Aakash Educational Services Pvt. Ltd. - Regd. Office : Aakash Tower, 8, Pusa Road, New Delhi-110005 Ph. 011-4762345688 Structure of Atom Board & Competitive Exams. ‘We all know that orbit angular momentum of an electron is given by fre] 2 ippone, ere ae oi owt be no. of wavelengths associated with an electron in an orbit. Now, the circumference mvr=nx 4 Be ‘Therefore only those orbits are possible for which, n= 1, 2, 3, 4 Bohr’s Model for Hydrogen Atom 1. The stationary states or the energy states in which the electrons move are numbered n = 1, 2, 3, 4 ‘These numbers are also known as Principal Quantum Numbers (we will study quantum numbers later in this chapter) or they are also designated as K, L, M, N, .... respectively, 2. Radil of Stationary States or Orbits : Radii of the orbits depend upon the principal quantum number (n) and is given by the expression fin= nao]: where a, = 52.9 pm ‘As, hydrogen atom contains only one electron which is normally present in the first orbit around the nuctous. Therefore the radius of hydrogen atom, Toon won) = CF * By [F=525 pm] Bohr Orbit : This first orbit with radius 52.9 pm in which an electron of hydrogen atom is present is called Bohr worked on hydrogen atom. Therefore from the above expression one thing is clear that as the value of ‘n’ increases, radius also increases, or the distance between the nucleus and electron also increases. 3. Energy of the Stationary State : The energy of the ‘n’ stationary state is given by the expression 7 E.--R(s) here n can be 1, 2,2 [Aakash Educational Services Pvt. Lid - Regd. Office :Aakash Tower, 8, Pusa Road, New Deli-10005 Ph. 011-47623466Board & Competitive Exams. Structure of Atom 89) Ry = Rydberg constant The value of Rydberg constant is 109677 ont For stationary state, n= 4 E, =-218 « 10 “(z) z This is the energy of the lowest state (n = 1) or ground state. For stationary state, n= 2 e,--210+10"(5) E, = 0.545 x10" diatom] 4. Bohr'’s Theory for lons Containing One Electron or Hydrogen-like Species : Hydrogeniike species are, for example He", Li?*, Be®, containing only one electron. (a) The energy of the stationary states of the hydrogen-like species Is given by the expression fe,--210210*(2) sto wre 2 atom mumba (0 Rech en by to arrseon Here value of Z is 2 for Helium and 3 for Lithium From the above two expressions it is clear that the value of energy becomes more negative and radius decreases with increase in the value of atomic number (2). 5. The velocity of the revolving electron in an orbit depends upon, (2) Positive charge on Nucleus : As the positive charge on the nucleus increases, the electron starts revolving with more velocity so as to counter balance the attractive force Velocity = Positive charge on nucleus (v = Z) (©) Principal Quantum Number (n) : With the increase in the principle quantum number, the velocity of the electron decreases, 1 Velocity = Srncpal quantum number ‘Aakash Educational Services Pvt. Ltd. - Regd. Office : Aakash Tower, 8, Pusa Road, New Deihi-110005 Ph. 011-4762345690 Structure of Atom Board & Competitive Exams. What does the negative electronic energy (E,) for hydrogen atom mean? ‘The energy of electron in all orbits of an atom has a negative sign. This negative sign signifies that the ‘energy of electron is lower than the energy of a free electron at infinity. ‘The highest negative value is given by n = 1, corresponding to the most stable orbit. Explanation for Line Spectrum of Hydrogen Bohr was successful in explaining the line spectrum of hydrogen. The spectrum is not continuous but discontinuous (line spectrum) because a definite amount of energy is emitted when an electron moves from a higher energy state to a lower energy state. Whereas a definite amount of energy is absorbed when electron moves from lower energy state to higher energy state. The difference in the energy between two energy states or orbits is REE, -F efi) where E, = energy of final state and E, is the energy of inilial state We know E, = Ru (i) 1 = (4 ay 5 (j } Combining (i) and (i) and putting in (i), we get =(FH3) 14 se-m( 4-3] Ry, (Rydberg constant) = 2.18 « 10-8 J SE = 2:18%10-18 {4 E; During the transition, energy (radiation) is emitted with a particular frequency E = hy (Planck's theory) Here E = AE (Energy gap) AE = hy Aakash Educational Services Pvt. Ltd. Regd. Office : Aakash Tower, 8, Pusa Road, New Deihi-110005 Ph. 011-47623456‘Structure of Atom 91 (44 'y = 1.09677 » 107/11 (¢ ne scan of sberpton specie : 757 CS 2 net Therefore, ny >A, In case of emission spectrum : [ry > Ry paz n=2 1 % Therefore n, > n, Bohr was able to quantitatively explain the line spectrum of hydrogen because the expression for wave number (8) given by Bohr “(4 _14)_4 1.09677%107( 4-4) aw (# Fl 's similar to the expression given by Johannes Rydberg for wavenumber from the experimental data available. 14 \v = 109677 em (a cs He gave reasons for the line spectrum because in the emission spectra, each spectral line Is due to a articular transition associated with a particular frequency or wavelength. In large number of hydrogen atoms, different possible transitions can be observed, which leads to large number of spectral lines. Brightness or Intensity of Spectral Lines depends upon the number of photons of same frequency or wavelength absorbed or emitted Aakash Educational Services Pvt Ltd. - Regd. Office : Aakash Tower, 8, Pusa Road, New Delhi-110005 Ph. 011-4762345692. Structure of Atom Board & Competitive Exams. Example 13: Calculate the radii of 2 Bohr orbit of LF 2 Solution: Radi (r,) = 528°) pm Zot Li Example 14: Solution = z=2 naa 2.18 x10" «(27 oF E,=-8.72* 10-4 eg Example 15: Calculate the frequency of the spectral line corresponding to n, = spectral series does this line belong? ‘and n, = 4. To which R= Rydberg constant = 109677 cm ‘Substituting the values in the equation 1 (44) 17 109877| or cae) ; = 20,564.43 cm = 4.86 «10% om k= 486x107 m| Frequency (v) = & 3108 m 486x107 m = 6.172 « 10" 5 So, the frequency of spectral line is 6.172 « 10 5-1 Since n, = 2, $0 it belongs to Balmer series. Aakash Educational Services Pvt. Ltd.- Regd. Office : Aakash Tower, 8, Pusa Road, New Delhi-110005 Ph. 011-47623456Board & Competitive Exams. Structure of Atom 93. ee | ‘The line spectra are characteristic of atoms and known as fingerprints of atoms. ‘The spectrum which consists of a series of very closely spaced lines is called band spectrum. ‘The band spectra are characteristic of molecule. Energy of electron of distance ‘ from the nucieus is — 22" Hee an potent ony i In hydrogen spectrum for transition emitting radiation of maximum wavelength, n should be 1, +1 and for minimum wavelength, ny should be infinite. ‘Number of revolution in a given shell are equal to its shell number. . kinetic energy of electron is ca Circumference (2nr) of the shell is integral multiple of wavelength i.e., 2nr = na. Velocity of electron (v)=—1-, where r= radius of orbit. ¥ 17. Try Yourself pi 4. 15. 16. Calculate the energy associated with the first orbit of He*. What is the radius of this orbit? ‘What is the frequency and wavelength of a photon emitted during a transition from n = 5 state to the n = 2 state in the hydrogen atom? 14 | statom, E = hy = nF one Calculate the ratio of the radius of 1* orbit of H atom to that of 4% orbit. Le x Hing ae = 210 > 10% | Hint : 5, = (A? Calculate the velocity of the electron in the third orbit of hydrogen atom. 2.182102 yg Hint : v= ‘Aakash Educational Services Pvt. Ltd. - Regd. Office : Aakash Tower, 8, Pusa Road, New Delhi-110005 Ph. 011-4762345694 Structure of Atom Board & Competitive Exams. Limitations of Bohr's Model ‘Though Neil Bohr was able to improve Rutherford's model of atom as Bohr’s model could successfully (Accounts for the stability of atom (Explains the origin of discontinuous line spectrum But Bohr’s model too faced many objections. Major limitations of Bohr's model are as follows 1. I.could only explain the line spectra of atoms containing single electron. It failed to explain the line spectra of multielectron atoms. 2. With the help of high resolving spectroscopes it was found that a single line in the spectra consists of number of closely spaced lines (like doublets, triplets etc.) 3, It could not explain the splitting of spectral lines in the magnetic field. This splitting of spectral lines in the presence of magnetic field is called Zeeman effect. 4. Bohr was even unable to explain the splitting of spectral lines in the strong electric field (Stark effect). In the later section we will see that even Bohr was wrong in thinking that an electron’s position and motion can be specified at a given time, as well as thinking that electrons revolve in orbits of fixed radi 11. Th caec sequnaa ot Requngy fhe scromegnaeedalons ih slecroaprt specu (1) X-rays > UV rays > Microwaves > Radio waves @) aan wees > Mewes» a> ()_Uvrmy > Yee» Rado woven > Monaree (8) Rado waves» Morven» Rape» Ve 12. The kinetic energy of the photoelectrons depends upon the: (1) Intensity of striking light (2) Number of photons striking (3) Frequency of striking light (4) Number of photoelectrons ejected 13. The value of n, for Paschen series of hydrogen spectrum is (n, = orbit number In which electron falls) m4 @ 2 @ 3 @ 4 14, Radius of Bohr’s orbit of hydrogen atom is () 024A @) 048A @) 053A (4) 1.06 A. 15. Bohr theory Is not applicable for (Her @) ue @) Ber @ oH 16. How many spectral lines are seen for hydrogen atom when electron jump from n, = 5 ton, = 1 in visible region? mM 2 @s @ 4 @ 5 Aakash Educational Services Pvt. Ltd. - Regd. Office : Aakash Tower, 8, Pusa Road, New Deihi-110005 Ph. 011-47623456Board & Competitive Exams. Structure of Atom 95 17. What Is the energy associated with 3" energy shell of hydrogen atom? (1) 218 105 2) 0.342 «10-5 8) 0.726 x 107% 5 (4) -2.42 «10-5 18. Find out the incorrect match. (1) Electron = Dual nature (2) Rainbow — Discontinuous spectra 8) Atoms. - Line spectra (4) Particle nature Photoelectric effect 19. According to the Bohr Theory, which of the following transitions in the hydrogen atom will give rise to the least energetic photon? (1) n=6ton=5 @) n=Ston-3 @) n=6ton=1 @) n=Ston=4 20. Which one of the following is not isoelectronic with 2-7 0) Mor @) Ne @ a) TOWARDS QUANTUM MECHANICAL MODEL OF THE ATOM Bohr's model of atom had limitations. So, there was need to develop some other model which could explain all the properties of atoms. Thereafter, Quantum mechanical model of the atom was given. There were some developments which led to the formulation of quantum mechanical model. These developments are : 1. Dual behaviour of matter 2, Helsenberg’s uncertainty principle 4. Dual Behaviour of Matter We studied before that the light possesses both wave and particle character /e., dual character. de-Broglie in 1924 proposed that just like light, all the matter should exhibit both particle and wave-like properties /.0., dual behaviour. Just lke light possesses wavelength and momentum, all the mater including electrons should have wavelength {and momentum. de-Broglie gave an expression for the wavelength and momentum of ail material particles. m4 neh n Wavelength [k=—"), mv? KE a= P= a | inv 2 KE} J2mev ‘where, 'm’ is the mass of the particle h = Planck's constant = 6.626 « 10-™ Js 'v' Is the velocity of the particle Vis the potential difference @ = charge on electron = 1.6 x 10°C Momentum (p) = my de-Broglie's proposal was conferred after some experiments which confirmed both particle and wave nature of electron, ‘Aakash Educational Services Pvt. Lid. - Regd. Office : Aakash Tower, 8, Pusa Road, New Delhi-110005 Ph. 011-47623456