Annals of Discrete Mathematics 12 (1982) 1 1 7-123

© North-Holland Publishing Company

ON ALMOST BIPARTITE LARGE CHROMATIC GRAPHS

P. ERDŐS, A . HAJNAL and E . SZEMERÉDI

Hungarian Academy of Sciences, Budapest, Hungary

Dedicated to Professor A . Kotzig on the occasion of his sixtieth birthday

0. Introduction

In the past we have published quite a few papers on chromatic numbers of graphs
(finite or infinite), we give a list of those which are relevant to our present subject in
the references . In this paper we will mainly deal with problems of the following type :
Assuming that the chromatic number x(1) of a graph is greater than K, a finite or
infinite cardinal, what can be said about the behaviour of the set of all finite sub-
graphs of 9 . We will investigate this problem in case some other restrictions are
imposed on W as well . Most of the problems seem difficult and our results will give
just some orientation . The results show that x(1) can be arbitrarily large while the
finite subgraphs are very close to bipartite graphs . It is clear from what was said
above that this topic is a strange mixture of finite combinatorics and set theory and
we recommend it only for those who are interested in both subjects . Finally we
want to remind the reader the most striking difference between large chromatic finite
and infinite graphs which was discovered by the first two authors about fifteen years
ago [4] . While for any k < w there are finite graphs with x(W) > k without any short
circuits, [1], a graph with x(W)>K>,w has to contain a complete bipartite graph
[k, K + ] for all k < w. Hence such a graph contains all finite bipartite graphs, though
it may avoid short odd circuits .
Our set-theoretical notation will be standard as for graph theory we will use the
notation of our joint paper with F . Galvin [3] with some self-explanatory changes .

1 . The standard examples and the ordered edge graph

Definition 1 .1 . For each ordinal a, for 2 < k < w, and for 1 < i < k -1

Wo(a, k, i) = (Vo(a, k, i), E((x, k, i))

is the graph with Y,((x, k, i)=[a] k , where E( (x, k, i) is defined by the following stipula-
tions. For X e[a] k we write X={xo, . . .,xk-1} with x o < . . . < xk _, and for
X, Y e [a] k

{X, Y} e E(a, k, i) iff y,=x j+ ; for j<k-i-1 .

We call 9
r o (a, k, 1)=~F o (a, k) and we call this graph the k-edge graph on a .
117
118 P. Erdős et al.

Definition 1 .2. For each ordinal a, for 3 < k < w and for 1 < i < k -1,
91(a, k, i) = (Vi (a, k, i), E, (a, k, i))
is the graph with Vt (a, k, i) = [a] k where for X, Y e [a] k
X, YEE I (a, k, i) iff xi<YO<xi+1< "' <xk-2<Yk-i-2<xk-2<Yk-i-1 •

We call 5 1 (a, k, i) the k, i-Specker graph on a, and just as in the case above we omit i
for i=1 .

The above graphs are standard examples of large chromatic graphs, we list some
properties of them .

Lemma 1 .1 . (For the proofs see [3] and [4]) .

(a) x(W O(a, k, i)) > K provided a-+(2k),, and, as a corollary of this, for all K>,(4),
z(W o (a, k, i))>K provided
a >, (expk-1(K))+ for all 2 < k < co, 1 < i < k -1 .

(b) Z(W 1 (K, k, i))=K for all K>w, 3<k<co, 1<i<k-1, and as a corollary of this

X(`F1(n, k, i))-> + oo if n- + oo .
(c) 5 o (a, k) does not contain odd circuits of length 2j + 1 for 1 -<j < k -1 .
(d) 1 1 (a, k) does not contain a complete K-graph for 3 < k < co, and 5,(a, n 2 + n+ 1, n)
does not contain odd circuits of length 2j+ 1 for 1 _<i < n, 1 < n < w.

Definition 1 .3 . For a graph W = (V, E) and for an ordering -< of V we define the
ordered edge graph OE(W, -<) _ (V(9, -<), E(q, -<)) of V for the ordering -<, as follows
V(W,-<)=E . For X s[V] 2 write X={x o ,x 1 } where x o -<x t . For X, YeE put
{X, Y} e E(W, -<) iff either

xt=Yo or y1 =x o .

It is clear from the definition that the 2-edge graph § o(a, 2) is the ordered edge
graph of the complete graph with vertex set a for the natural ordering of x .
More generally the following is true :

Lemma 1 .2 . For each a, and for 1 < k < co there is a well-ordering -<a, k of [a] k such
that 10(a, k+ 1) is the ordered edge graph of 90(a, k) for the ordering'< a, k . Here WO (a, 1)
is the complete graph on a-vertices and -<a, t is the natural ordering of a .

Proof. -<a,k can be any ordering of [a] k satisfying

min X <min Y * X_< a, k Y.

Lemma 1 .3 . Let 5 be a graph with x(~F) < 2" for K > 1 and let -< be any ordering of
the vertices. 'Then x(OE(9, -<)) < 2K .

Proof. Let I be W_ (V, E). Then V is the union of 2" independent sets . Since the
 Almost bipartite large chromatic graphs 1 19

complete graph of 2K vertices is the union of K bipartite graphs, there are disjoint
partitions V = A ; u Bi of V for i < K such that E e U ;,K [A i, B ;] . We now parti-
tion each [A i, B ;] into the union of two sets independent in OE(9) . Let C ;=
{{xo , x t } e[A„ B,] : x j EA i} for j<2 . Clearly C; contains no edge of OE(W) and
Có v C 1= [A„ B,] for i < K .

In what follows log denotes the 2 basis logarithm and log(k) is the k-times iterated
logarithm function .

Corollary 1 .4 . If I is a subgraph of n vertices of some 9o(a, k) for k?2 then

X(1) < ck 1og (k-1) (n) for some ck > 0 .

To close this section we mention the first problem we cannot solve .

Definition 1 .4. For each (infinite) graph 9_ (V, E) let

fv°(n)=max{X(!#(A)) : A c VA JAI =n} .

Problem 1 . For what functions f : w- (o is it true that for all cardinals x > w there
is a graph W With X('§) > K and f,'(n) < f (n) for n < (o .

Corollary 1 .4 shows that log" ) ( n) is such a function for all k < w and it is clear that
f, '(n)--* + oo for n-+ + oo for all graphs with X(9) >, w . In [5] we ventured a con-
jecture that if is a class of finite graphs such that for all K > co there is a graph with
X(W)>K all whose finite subgraphs are in .F, then .F must contain all finite sub-
graphs of 9 o (w, k) for some k < w . This, if true, would imply that the result given by
Corollary 1 .4 is best possible, but we do not really believe in this . It should be noted
that a theorem of Erdös [2, p . 172] implies that for all functions f with f (n)-> + or-
for n-4 ,x there exists a graph W with X(~) =w and fs°(n) < f (n) .
Finally we mention that the problem of the order of magnitude of f"(n) for large
x-chromatic graphs of cardinality K is completely open . We do not know fy° ( n) for
W=W,(w, 3) .

2. Omitting vertices of subgraphs

Definition 2.1 . Let 9= (V, E) be a graph ;

f,'(n)=min{max{JZJ : ZcA A Z is independent} : A c VA JAI n} .

f,'(n)=min{max{JZJ : ZeAA~§(Z) is bipartite} : Ac VA!IA I =n} .

Clearly f,.'(n)- zfw (n) holds . We are interested in the problem if these functions
can be large for a graph of large chromatic number . The following theorem contains
our main information about this .
120 P. Erdős et al.

Theorem 1 . For all E > 0 and for all x there is a graph 5 with x(W) > x such that
f92, (n)>(1 -E)n
holds for all n < a) .

Proof. By Lemma 1 .1(a) we only have to show that for lk= l o(co, k) f2 k(n), (1-2/k)n .
Let A c [w] k , JAI = n, for some 2 < k < ao and for some n . We prove, by induction on n,
that there is a set Z e A, IZI ( 1 -1,'2k)n such that Z spans a bipartite graph of W(O), k) .
>

The statement is trivial for n=1 . Assume n > 1 and that the statement is true for all
n'<n . For x Ea) let S(x)={X EA : x EX}, and P(x)={X EA : x=x ; for 1<i<k-2
where X= {x o , . . . , x k _ 1 } . By averaging, there is an x E a0, with IS(x)I > 0 and
IP(x)J>(1-2/k)IS(x)J . Now the graph induced by P(x) can be shown to be bipartite
by the following partition : A 0 = {X E P(x) : x=x, A i is even}, A 1 = {X E P(x) : x=x, A i
is odd,1 . A o v A 1 = P(x) and A ; contains no edge of W(w, k) for j < 2 . By induction,
there is a subset Q e A \S(x), IQI >, (1 -21'k)(n - IS(x)I), which induces a bipartite
graph of W o((o, k) . Since no edge of W,(co, k) joins a point of P(x) to a point of A\S(x),
Z=P(x)tiQ satisfies the requirements of the theorem .

The theorem yields that there is a sequence E n -+0 so that for some 9 with x( ~I )=co,
fy(n) > n(1-E, ). We do not know how fast e, can tend to 0 . A result of Folkman gives
information for the case Zn - f J (n) is bounded . This says that if 1 n -f9" (n) < k then
X(g)<2k+2.
Here we at least know that the situation is different for graphs with chomatic
number > a) .

Lemma 2 .1 . I f y(W) > w then there is an e > 0 such that fw' (n) < z -On .

Proof. Clearly (S contains X, vertex disjoint copies of some C2 ;+1 for some i<0.) .
The union of m copies has cardinality m(2i+ 1) and contains no free set larger than mi .

Problem 2 . Does there exist a graph 6 and c>0 such that x(9)=w,, 191=w1 and
fwl (n) > cn .

Here we only have the very little information that the Specker graph '# 1 (0) 1 , 3)
does not have this property . To see this it is sufficient to prove :

Theorem 2. Let I=9 1 (w, 3) . Then

1 m log log m
f~(m)<~ ~
log m

Proof. We define an c ,[n] 3 with I J >, n log n/8 log log n such that for all M C .!F,
M independent in 9, IMI <4n holds for all sufficiently large n . This will prove the
result . Let a ;= [log n`] for i < i o = [log n/log log n] . Then a, E n for i < i o . Let X(t, i) =
{t, t+a z „ t+azi+11 and ={X(t, i) : X(t, i)en} . Then I .FI>,n log n/8 log log n pro-
vided n is large enough . Let M c .F, IMI 3 4n . We prove that M contains an edge of
 Almost bipartite large chromatic graphs 121

~ . Let M,={t : X(t, i) E M} . Then Y j , io IM i J=JMJ>4n . Let

N i =ItrM i :3t'EM i t'+a2i<t<t'+a z i +i } .

We claim that IN i J > IM i I -2n/log n . We can choose elements t o , . . ., t,_, of M i so

that M i cU{[t,, tl+a2i+1) : 1<jJ where the above intervals are pairwise disjoint .
Now
M i AN i cU{[t i , t i +azi +i ]A(ti+azi, t t + .a zi+1 ) : 1« .
Since
azi < 2 ,
azi+ , log n
IM i -N i l<2n/log n .
It follows now, that

2n 2n
i IO IN ` l> i U
IM ' l log log n
>4n-
l og log n
>n .

Then there are i 1 < i 2 with N il n N iz * 0 . Let t E N i , n N iZ . Then for some t' E M i ,,
t'+a2i,<t<t'+azi,+1, X(t',i 1 )EM . On the other hand X(t, i z ) EM iz cM . Now
t+a z 2 >t'+a2 i 2 >t'+azi,+1 since [log n 2í,+1 ]< [log n 21,.] if i 1 <i 2 and n is large
i

enough . Then X(t', i 1 ) and X(t, i 2 ) are adjacent in W.

3. Omitting edges of a subgraph

Definition 3.1 . Let

. f~3,(n)=max{min{JE'J : (A, [A] 2 nW\E') is bipartite} : AcV nJAl=n} ;

more generally for 2 < k < w,

fw'(n, k)=max{min{lE'I : (A, [A] 2 n9\E') has
chromatic number <k, : Ae V A JAI =n{ .

Clearly fw,(n, 2)=fw(n), and it is obvious that

fw' (n, k) < fw' (n, k') fork' < k .
It is also clear from the definition that n -fw2 (n) < 2fw3 (n) . This in view of Lemma 2 .1
implies that for any given graph W with y(,#) > w there is an E > 0 such that f,3 (n) > En .
This contrasts again with the situation for finite graphs . L . Lovász recently in-
formed us that, as a generalization of a theorem of T . Gallai, he can prove the following
theorem : For 2 < r < co there is a finite graph IN with x(9) > r + 2 and f$ (n) = O(n 1-11r)
We describe his example : Let m be even . Let V be the set of r-dimensional lattice
points mod(m), (x o , . . . , x r _ 1 ), (Yo, .
.
• , Yr-1) are connected if for some i < r Ix i -Y i J = 1,
and x ;=y j for j i, j<r . This graph satisfies the requirements for large enough m .
In case of infinite chromatic graphs we are again left with the examples W o ()!, k).
122 P . Erdős et at.

Theorem 3 . (a) For all x > w there exists a graph with

y (~) > x and f w'3 (n) < 2n 3 2
(b) V c > 0 there is an r < w such that for all x _> OJ there exists a graph with x(9) > x
and fw(n, r) n' " .
-<_c

By Lemma 1 .1 it is sufficient to prove

Theorem 3 .A . (a) If 9=W o (co, 2), then fg3(n)<2n3/2 ,

(b) If 9 _ 9(co, k) for some 3 < k < co, then for all g > 0 there is an r < a) such that
r)<n'+k-1+q .
fv(w,

Proof. (a) Let V e[w] 2 , VI =n . Put V(x)={{x, y ; : jx, y) E V,, v(x) =IV(x)J for x E w .
1

Fore E V, let 1(e, V')= {e' e V' : je, e') Ell .Let A= {x e (1) : v(x) > n'/2 ) . Then I A I < n'/ 2 ,
since IVI=n . We now split V into the union of three disjoint sets . Let V;=
e E V : IenAJ=jj for j<3 .
We claim that for all e E V IW(e, Vo v V2)1 <2n' 12 . Indeed let e= )x, y) . Then
IW(e, Vou V2 )I<t{u, f, u, x) E Vo v Vzjl+I{tu, )'i : {u, y) E Vou V2
x) : )I .

Clearly it is sufficient to see that 1{ {u, x} : {u, x} e Vo v V2) I < n''2 . For x E A this holds
because I AI < n1,12, for x 0 A this holds because v(x) < n" 2 . It follows that the
IU { V(e, Vo v V2 ) : e E V) < 2n 3 2 .Omitting all these edges from the subgraph spanned
I

by V, only the edges spanned by V remain there . But W(Vi ) is bipartite as shown by
the partition V, = jre E V1 : min e E A), V2 = {e e V, : max e e A) .
(b) By (a) and by Lemma 1 .2 this follows, by induction on k, 2 < k < co, from the
following theorem

Theorem 4 . Let 2 < k < oo . S is said to have property P(k) if for all g > 0 there is an
r < (o with f, (n, r) < n' " ' + n . If W _ (V, E) has property P(k) and -< is any ordering
of V, then OE(W, -<) has the property P(k+ 1) .

Proof. Let r(q)=min{r : fw,(n, r)!<n' _"' holds for all n<o)j . We now have to
show that for all n there is an s such that for all n <a)
s) < n ' +(k+ i
fóE(,)(n,
Given q > 0, first choose ?1'< rl, t7'> 0 . Then choose rl" > 0 so that (1 -(k + 1) - '
(1 +k - ' +q")=1-6 for some d > 0 . Let 1 be an integer with 1 < lá . We claim that

max((r(n")+2)1, min {n : 21 n'+(k+')-'+q'<n'+(k+n-I+n ))= s

satisfies the requirements of the theorem . Let E'cE, IE'I=n . For x E V let E'(x)=
Yj : {x, y) E E) and é(x)= IE'(x)J . For E" e E' and e E E'
~#(e, E")=1e E E" : je, e') E OE(V, -<)) .
Let A={x e V : é(x)>n1 . Then JAI<n'-(k+') '-" We partition the set E'
into three pieces . Let E,= le E E' : l e -AI = j) for j<3 . For each e E E', IW(e, E2)1,<
2n (k+1) '+n' hence omitting 2n' +(k+1) '+n' edges . E2 is independent and no edge
 Almost bipartite large chromatic graphs 1 23

joins any point of E Z to any other point of E' . The subgraph spanned by E l in the
ordered edge graph is clearly 2-chromatic, E o g[A] Z . Since AI~nt-(r+t)-'-" by
the assumption, there is an E*cE o , ~ E*q,IAIh+k-'+?i"=ni-a so that (A, E 0 \E*)
has chromatic number at most r(q") . But then, by Lemma 1 .3 the subgraph induced
by Eo \E* in the ordered edge graph has chromatic number -<r(q") too . We now
proved that omitting 2n1 +(r+ t) '"'edges of the ordered edge graph there is E* c E'
so that the subgraph spanned by E' \E* is at most chromatic, and
2 + r(q") < n l -6 E* 1

Repeating this procedure at most I times we obtain that omitting 21n' +( ' + ' ) I
(< n' +(r+ t) '"'for n >, s) edges the ordered edge graph is at most s chromatic.

We think that the main unsolved problem of this section is of finite character . It is
not known if Lovász' example is best possible .

Problem 3 . Assume has chromatic number Can w. f w'(n) tend to infinity very
slowly? Can it be at most log n or log )k)(n) for k < uo?

References

[1] P . Erdős . Graph theory and probability, Canad . J . Math . 11 (1959) 34-38 .
[2] P . Erdős, On circuits and subgraphs of chromatic graphs, Mathematics 9 (1962) 170-175,
[3] P . Erdős, F. Galvin and A . Hajnal, On set-systems having large chromatic number and not containing
prescribed subsystems, in : Colloquia Math . Soc . János Bolyai 10-Infinite and finite sets (Keszthely,
Hungary, 1973) pp. 425-513 .
[4] P. Erdős and A . Hajnal, On chromatic number of graphs and set-systems, Acta Math . Acad . Sci . Hung .
17(1966)61-69 .
[5] P . Erdős, A . Hajnal and S . Shelah, On some general properties of chromatic numbers, in : Colloquia
Math. Soc . János Bolyai 8-Topics in Topology (Keszthely, Hungary, 1972) pp . 243-255 .

Received 19 December 1979 .