8th Sem MMBC Module 3 Notes

STUDY MATERIAL FOR 18ARC8.
2 - MMBC VIII
RNS SCHOOL OF ARCHITECTURE
Prepared by
Ar. Sahana Kulur
Assistant Professor
RNS School of Architecture. Bangalore
MODULE 3
1. What is LCA - Life Cycle Assessment of buildings. Explain it’s purpose
and aspects included in it.
LCA is a scientific methodology used to calculate the environmental impacts,
including the carbon footprint of a product/service/process. . It is possible to
calculate the LCA of a building to find out how it will affect the environment
through its whole existence, from the extraction of raw materials to the
construction phase, use, and finally demolition and disposal. In short, LCA is
analysing the impact of building and it’s mateiral from cradle to grave.
More sustainable solutions will be achieved by shifting the focus from
optimising the building parts and products’ life time, to considering their life
cycles. Materials and building parts should be recyclable, either as whole
components or as part of the production of new products.
Prepared by Asst. Prof. Sahana Kulur, RMSSA
1
STUDY MATERIAL FOR 18ARC8.2 - MMBC VIII
IT’S PUPOSE IN BUILDINGS

● Buildings cause 39% of global carbon emissions. Construction
professionals and investors need to take responsibility for the
environmental impact of their projects and portfolios.
● Life-cycle assessment is a scientific methodology that can support the
efforts of green building professionals to build more sustainable
buildings.
● LCAs are one of the most effective ways to evaluate how a product will
impact the environment.
● It helps consumers and building-code officials make more informed
decisions during the design and building processes
● It drives innovation by revealing opportunities for manufacturers to
improve a product’s efficiency and quality.
● Contractors can know how to better prevent or resolve environmental
problems related to project management and improper waste disposal.
● Business benefit - You can measure the impacts of potential building
sites, use it for land sales competitions, contests, refurbishments, or city
planning, perform the Life Cycle Assessment of an Infrastructure project,
or achieve credits for green building certification schemes like LEED and
BREEAM.
ASPECTS INCLUDED IN LAC OF A BUILDING
LCA involves surveying all of the inputs and outputs linked to the examined
system’s life cycle.
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The potential environmental impacts are calculated on the basis of all of the
inputs and outputs, i.e. consumption of resources and emissions which can be
associated with the different processes.
Aspects or categories considered are -
Global Warming Potential (GWP) -

● Unit -CO2 equivalents
● Problem - When the quantity of greenhouse gasses in the atmosphere
increases, the atmospheric layers near the earth are heated up,resulting
in climate change.
Acidification Potential (AP)

● Unit - SO2 equivalents
● Problem -When acidifying substances react with water and falls as ‘acid
rain’, this leads to, among other things, decomposition of root systems
and leaching of nutrients from plants.
Abiotic Depletion Potential for Fossil Resources (ADPf)

Problem -Heavy consumption of abiotic resources can contribute to the
depletion of available fossil energy sources such as oil or coal.
Depletion Potential of the Stratospheric Ozone Layer (ODP)

Problem - Depletion of the stratospheric ozone layer which protects flora
and fauna against the sun’s harmful UV-A and UV-B radiation.
Use of Renewable Secondary Fuels

Problem- Secondary fuels (e.g. waste) are in principle limited resources,
and therefore a high use of secondary fuels can indirectly lead to scarcity of
resources.
Total Use of Primary Energy

Problem -A high use of resources in the primary energy form from fossil
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and renewable sources can contribute to depletion of natural

Resources.
2. Describe the four stages that are assessed in a life cycle assessment.
A life cycle assessment of a building normally involves evaluating its whole life
cycle - Raw materials to demolition of the building after it’s useful life.
The building’s life cycle is therefore divided into five stages which need to be
dealt with:
1. The product stage,

2. construction process stage,
3. use stage,
4. the end-of -life stage
5. Benefits and loads beyond the system boundary
4
Product stage
The product stage concerns the processes which involve the
production of construction products used in the building: Raw
material supply, transport to the production site as well as the
final production of the construction products.
Construction process stage

The construction process stage involves the construction
products’ journey from production line to the point where they
are installed as a part of the finished building: Transport from
the manufacturer to the construction site as well as installation
in the building
Use stage
The use stage involves the processes related to the construction
products’ continued performance as part of the building, e.g.
maintenance, replacement, repair. Processes related to the
building’s ongoing operational energy and water use are also included. Most
often,the processes will be based upon scenarios, i.e. perceptions about how
the processes will takeplace.
End-of-life stage
The processes in this stage are also scenario-based. They
concern what happens when the building reaches the end of
its life, i.e. the building’s demolition and the subsequent
processes involved in reprocessing or handling the
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construction products/materials before further use of in other product

systems.
Benefits and loads beyond the system boundary

This scenario-based stage contains the calculated gains and
drawbacks from reusing and recycling construction
products/materials. In accordance with the European standards,
contributions from this stage must be considered outside the system
boundary and be reported separately.
3. How is Carbon footprint different from LCA

A carbon footprint measures how much CO2 will be released into the
atmosphere by a specific process.
An LCA assesses this but also many more impact categories, in order to fully
understand the effects on the ecosystem – Example GWP
4. What is the payback period? Explain in terms of life cycle analysis.
The payback period refers to the amount of time it takes to recover the cost of
an investment. Simply put, the payback period is the length of time an
investment reaches a break-even point.
PB is a useful technique for assessing whether additional investment in, for
example, lower energy plant, is worthwhile. It enables users to weigh the
additional capital costs against the time it takes for these costs to be recouped
through savings or income during the operational period. This may be a useful
means of judging whether an investment represents good value for money,
6
5. COMMON REPAIRS AND MAINTENANCE IN BUILDINGS

Regular building repair and maintenance might involve replacing a worn
doorknob, oiling a squeaky hinge or replacing a damaged floorboard.
Maintenance workers might inspect burned-out light bulbs and replace them,
change the filters in the air conditioning system or replace a hard-to-operate
lock.
● Planned maintenance: Carried out on a regular basis, such as servicing
boilers.
● Preventive maintenance: Carried out in order to keep something in
working order or extend its life, such as replacing cracked roofing tiles
before inclement weather.
● Corrective maintenance: This involves repairing something that has
broken, such as a window or guttering.
● Front-line maintenance: This involves maintaining something while it is
still in use, such as repainting and decorating an occupied building.
● Reliability centred maintenance: A combination of maintenance
strategies used to ensure a physical asset continues to function
correctly.
● Scheduled maintenance: Preventive maintenance carried out in
accordance with predetermined intervals, number of operations, hours
run, and so on.
● Preventive maintenance is aimed at catching and fixing problems before
they happen. It is most commonly carried out in the form of regular
inspections, usually occurring multiple times per year – CLEANING OF
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WATER CLOSETS, Lubricate moving parts to reduce wear-and-tear.

Adjust controls for optimal performance and energy efficiency.
● Condition-based maintenance is sometimes considered to be a more
advanced alternative to preventive maintenance. Rather than being
inspected according to a schedule, machines and systems are carefully
observed for changes that could indicate upcoming failure. – INITIATED
AFTER INSPECTION
● Predictive maintenance - systems are constantly observed via sensor
devices. These devices are attached to components of the system and
feed constant, real-time data to software. The software then interprets
this data and warns maintenance technicians of approaching danger.
sensors include vibration analysis, oil analysis, thermal imaging, and
equipment observation. For example, on a commercial refrigerated unit,
sensors could gather data on anything from the temperature of the
coolant going into and out of a compressor to the number of times a
compressor starts and stops to how long the compressor runs (and
more).
Maintenance of Electrical Installations
The electrical installation is made safe by getting it installed and maintained
through licensed persons. It’s necessary that the installation is checked
periodically and a proper record of such work is maintained. The
recommended interval for checking is:
Earthling test – Once a year
Insulation – Twice a year
8
Polarity – Once in five years - a polarity test is used to confirm the correct
connection of the line and neutral conductors.
Over lamping - A fixture has a light bulb with a higher wattage than the fixture
is designed for.
Uncovered Junction Boxes -Too Few Outlets - Heavy reliance on extension
cords and power strips. Danger level: Minimal, as long as you use heavy-duty
extension cords.
6. Enumerate five causes of damage to Building

● Environmental causes
● Improper design & Material defects
● Theft
● Fire
● Irregular / Improper maintenance
● Dilapidation with time
Environmental Causes- climatic and seismic (earthquakes). Climatic conditions
which can cause damage to the structure are primarily in the form of
temperature, wind, and precipitation. More typical examples of building
damage from climatic conditions consist of temperature straining, material
freeze and thaw, wind damage, and catastrophic weather (e.g. hurricanes,
tornadoes, flooding) - Example - Damage in roof and flooring, broken walls,
Improper design - The second category of material or structural defects

consists of flawed constructed materials or elements which result in
unintended damage. The two main subcategories of this cause of damage
9
involve improper design and defective installation. Examples of damage from

improper design could involve underestimating building loads, missed load or
deformation concentrations, inappropriate building elements, poor run-off
drainage, and selection of improper materials such as wrong concrete type.
Defective construction could involve, for example, poor honeycomb or weak
concrete, missing or faulty welds, missing reinforcing steel bars, curing cracks
due to improperly poured concrete, etc.
Improper maintenance - Maintenance is defined as the work which is done on

a regular basis for the health of your building. Maintenance work includes
cleaning, servicing, rectification or repair of the parts of the building. If either
non-structural or structural maintenance like repairing of plaster patches,
cracks, leakages, etc. are not carried out from time to time, lack of
maintenance will lead to the early ageing of the buildings, and ultimately
structure will deteriorate, which may invite total or partial building failures.
all elements of the building does not have 60 or say 100 years of life. Say an
electric switch might have a life of 15 to 20 year or water proofing has a life of
10 to 15 year. Hence you also need to replace them as and when needed.
Similarly painting has a life of 1 to 5 years depending upon its type and hence
you need regular painting to walls and mild steel elements like grill, etc.
7. Explain a few damages in the building along with its symptoms and
possible causes.
Refer document - Common building damages
10
8. Explain any four types óf repairs of building components with neat

sketches.
9. Differentiate between repairs, renovations and retrofits.
● Retrofitting means “providing something with a component or feature
not fitted during manufacture or adding something that it did not have
when first constructed”
● Refurbishment on the other hand implies a process of improvement by
cleaning, decorating, and re-equipping. It may include elements of
retrofitting.
● The term ‘renovation’ refers to the process of returning something to a
good functioning state
10.What is retrofitting? Write short notes on few of them -

● Adding New Shear Wall: Used in Non Ductile buildings. Shear wall added
in the exterior not inside.
● Adding Steel Bracing: Effective solution in the retrofitting of building
when large openings are required.
● Wall Thickening Technique: The existing walls of a building are added a
certain thickness by adding bricks, concrete, and steel aligned at certain
places as reinforcement.
● Base Isolation Technique: Isolation of superstructure from the
foundation is known as base isolation. It is the most powerful method for
passive structural vibration control techniques – Seismic protection.
UNFIT FOR HIGH RISE BUILDINGS AND BUILDINGS ON SOFT
SOIL+EXPENSIVE
11
● Mass Reduction Technique: In mass reduction technique, for instance, by

removal of one or more storey’s as shown in the figure.
● Jacketing Method : It is most used

method of retrofitting buildings.
most popularly used method for the strengthening of columns and
beams of a building. It consists of added concrete with longitudinal and
transverse reinforcement around the existing columns.
● Fibre Reinforced Polymer (FRP): A fiber-reinforced polymer is an axial
strengthening system which is used to improve or enhance the capacity
of reinforced concrete beams. It can be used for both circular as well as a
rectangular-shaped column but it is more effective in the former shape.
FRP increases the ultimate load-carrying capacity of reinforced concrete
members and improves the shear capacity of the reinforced concrete
element.
11. Explain with neat sketches the retrofitting strategies with 2 examples
each.
Retrofitting means providing something with a component or feature not
fitted during manufacture or adding something that it did not have when first
constructed. It is often used in relation to the installation of new building
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systems, such as heating systems, but it might also refer to the fabric of a
building, for example, retrofitting insulation or double glazing.
Retrofit in structures is done to increase the survivability functionality.
Retrofitting techniques commonly used in India -
● This technique is used on vertical surfaces such as walls, columns and
other combinations such as beam sides and bottoms.
● Jacketing is a technique used to increase the strength of existing
structural members (e.g. Columns, Beams etc.) by providing a “Jacket” of
additional material around the existing member.
● Columns are designed to transfer loads from top to bottom. Now due to
long age or non calculated excessive loadings or or change of functions,
there might be different loading than designed for on the columns in
order to support this extra loadings, the sizes of columns will have to be
increased.
● This extra layer of reinforcement and concrete over and above the
completed column is known as jacketing of column.It is generally used in
case of buildings after earthquakes or very old buildings to increase its
life.
13
https://youtu.be/aXP4oNzi6YM
Watch this and sketch each step with a basic explaination
12. Explain the need & techniques of seismic retrofitting techniques with neat
sketches.
14
A fixed-base building (built directly on the ground) will move with an

earthquake’s motion and can sustain extensive damage as a result. Seismic
Retrofitting is the modification of existing structures to make them
more resistant to seismic activity, ground motion, or soil failure due to
earthquakes. The retrofit techniques are also applicable for other natural
hazards such as tropical cyclones, tornadoes, and severe winds from
thunderstorms.
When is Seismic Retrofitting Needed?
Earthquake-damaged buildings and Earthquake-vulnerable buildings(with no
exposure to severe earthquakes)
Retrofit Performance Objectives
● Public safety: The goal is to protect human life, ensuring that the
structure will not collapse upon its occupants or passersby, and that the
structure can be safely exited.
● Structure survivability: The goal is that the structure, while remaining
safe for exit, may require extensive repair (but not replacement) before it
is generally useful or considered safe for occupation. This is typically the
lowest level of retrofit applied to bridges.
● Structure functionality: Primary structure undamaged and the structure
is undiminished in utility for its primary application.
● Structure unaffected: This level of retrofit is preferred for historic
structures of high cultural significance.
Basic concept of Sesmic Retrofitting-
● Upgradation of lateral strength of the structure;
● Increase in the ductility of the structure
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● Increase in strength and ductility

Classification of Retrofitting Techniques
Global Local
Adding shear Wall Jacking on Columns / Beams
Adding bracing Jacking on Columns and Beams
together - J Joints
Adding wing wall Strengthening of Individual footing
Wall thickening
Mass reduction
Base Isolation
Seismic dampers
Adding new Shear Wall-
The shear wall is a structural member in a reinforced concrete framed

structure to resist lateral forces such as wind forces. Shear walls are generally
16
used in high-rise buildings subject to lateral wind and seismic forces. The
added elements can be either cast‐in‐place or precast concrete elements
along with reinforcement. New elements preferably be placed at the exterior
of the building.
Adding Steel Bracings
An effective solution when large openings are required. Potential advantages

for the following reasons:
● higher strength and stiffness,
● opening for natural light,
● amount of work is less since foundation cost may be minimized
● adds much less weight to the existing structure
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BASE ISOLATORS -When a building is built away (isolated) from the ground
resting on flexible bearings or pads known as base isolators, it will only move a
little or not at all during an earthquake
● The isolators work in a similar way to car suspension, which allows a car
to travel over rough ground without the occupants of the car getting
thrown around.
● During an earthquake, a building can move around 300 mm or more
relative to the ground. Therefore, the use of base isolation also means
there must be a way for movement during an earthquake to be
accommodated. This usually means a rattle space or moat has to be put
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in place around the building so that the building doesn’t crash into
something nearby. Building services such as water, sewerage and
electrical all need to be designed to accommodate this movement
without being damaged.
● Base isolation technology can make medium-rise masonry (stone or
brick) or reinforced concrete structures capable of withstanding
earthquakes, protecting them and their occupants from major damage or
injury.
● It is not suitable for all types of structures such as taller buildings, as
base isolators have a limited ability to cope with tension, meaning a taller
building could overturn or topple during an earthquake.
SEISMIC DAMPERS - In this case, the damping is provided by a lead-based

device that looks very similar to a car damper (shock absorber).Ground
movement forces the lead to pass through a narrow gap. When the direction
of movement changes, the flow of lead is reversed. The principle is still the
same as the lead rubber bearing, with kinetic energy being converted into heat
energy, thereby preventing the building absorbing the kinetic energy.
THE DIFFERENCE BETWEEN BASE ISOLATORS AND SEISMIC DAMPERS

A base isolator predominantly provides a way to prevent a structure having to
move and follow the ground as the ground shakes during an earthquake, while
a seismic damper absorbs energy when the structure moves.
19
Sometimes base isolation is combined with seismic dampers, which provide an

additional form of energy dissipation to prevent the structure moving too far
relative to the ground.
By adding a damper into the structure with base isolators, seismic energy can
be further absorbed as the building moves, which will help to limit the amount
a building sways, helping to better protect the building from damage and to
reduce the inconvenience to occupants and damage to contents
BASE ISOLATION RETROFITTING TECHNIQUE -

Isolation of superstructure from the foundation is known as base isolation. It is
the most powerful tool for passive structural vibration control technique. Two
types of Base isolation retrofitting technique are -
● Base isolation systems which uses Elastomeric Bearings
● Base isolation systems with Sliding System
Elastomeric Base Isolation Systems - This is the mostly widely used Base
Isolator.
● The elastomer is made of either
Natural Rubber or Neoprene.
● The structure is decoupled from the
horizontal components of the earthquake
ground motion.
● A layer with low horizontal stiffness is
introduced between the structure and the foundation.
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13. Briefly describe 4 crack repairing techniques.

● Prestressing steel
● Drilling and Plugging Method
● Concrete Crack Repair by Stitching
● Routing and Sealing of Cracks
Prestressing Steel -
This technique uses pre stressing
strands or bars to apply a compressive
force. Adequate anchorage must be
provided for the prestressing steel, and
care is needed so that the problem will
not merely migrate to another part of
the structure.
Drilling and Plugging Method

Drilling and plugging a crack consists of drilling
down the length of the crack and grouting it to form
a key.
This technique is only applicable when cracks run in
reasonable straight lines and are accessible at one
end. This method is most often used to repair
vertical cracks in retaining walls.
21
Concrete Crack Repair by Stitching

Stitching involves drilling holes on both sides
of the crack and grouting in U-shaped
metal units with short legs (staples or
stitching dogs) that span the crack. Stitching
may be used when tensile strength must be
reestablished across major cracks.
Routing and Sealing of Cracks

● Routing and sealing of cracks
can be used in conditions requiring
remedial repair and where
structural repair is not necessary.
● This method involves
enlarging the crack along its
exposed face and filling and sealing it with a suitable joint sealanT.
● The procedure is most applicable to approximately flat horizontal
surfaces such as floors and pavements. However, routing and sealing can
be accomplished on vertical surfaces (with a non-sag sealant) as well as
on curved surfaces (pipes, piles and pole).
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● Routing and sealing is used to treat both fine pattern cracks and larger,
isolated cracks.
● A common and effective use is for waterproofing by sealing cracks on the
concrete surface where water stands.
23
Reference Links -
● Research paper “Introduction to LCA of Buildings” by authors Harpa
Birgisdóttir and Freja Nygaard Rasmussen, Danish Building Research
Institute.
● https://theconstructor.org/structural-engg/shear-walls-structural-for
ms-positioning/6235/
● https://www.hindawi.com/journals/mpe/2017/4645834/
● https://ascelibrary.org/doi/10.1061/%28ASCE%291084-0680%282008%
2913%3A4%28175%29
● https://www.sciencelearn.org.nz/resources/1022-base-isolation-and-s
eismic-dampers#:~:text=Base%20isolation%20is%20a%20technique,Jap
an%2C%20Italy%20and%20the%20USA.
● https://www.bbc.com/news/world-africa-36205324
● https://www.bbc.com/news/world-africa-36205324
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STUDY MATERIAL FOR 18ARC8.

Prepared by Asst. Prof. Sahana Kulur, RMSSA

IT’S PUPOSE IN BUILDINGS

Prepared by Asst. Prof. Sahana Kulur, RMSSA

Global Warming Potential (GWP) -

Acidification Potential (AP)

Abiotic Depletion Potential for Fossil Resources (ADPf)

Depletion Potential of the Stratospheric Ozone Layer (ODP)

Use of Renewable Secondary Fuels

Total Use of Primary Energy

Prepared by Asst. Prof. Sahana Kulur, RMSSA

and renewable sources can contribute to depletion of natural

1. The product stage,

Prepared by Asst. Prof. Sahana Kulur, RMSSA

Construction process stage

Prepared by Asst. Prof. Sahana Kulur, RMSSA

construction products/materials before further use of in other product

Benefits and loads beyond the system boundary

3. How is Carbon footprint different from LCA

Prepared by Asst. Prof. Sahana Kulur, RMSSA

5. COMMON REPAIRS AND MAINTENANCE IN BUILDINGS

Prepared by Asst. Prof. Sahana Kulur, RMSSA

WATER CLOSETS, Lubricate moving parts to reduce wear-and-tear.

Prepared by Asst. Prof. Sahana Kulur, RMSSA

6. Enumerate five causes of damage to Building

Improper design - The second category of material or structural defects

Prepared by Asst. Prof. Sahana Kulur, RMSSA

involve improper design and defective installation. Examples of damage from

Improper maintenance - Maintenance is defined as the work which is done on

Prepared by Asst. Prof. Sahana Kulur, RMSSA

8. Explain any four types óf repairs of building components with neat

10.What is retrofitting? Write short notes on few of them -

Prepared by Asst. Prof. Sahana Kulur, RMSSA

● Mass Reduction Technique: In mass reduction technique, for instance, by

● Jacketing Method : It is most used

Prepared by Asst. Prof. Sahana Kulur, RMSSA

Prepared by Asst. Prof. Sahana Kulur, RMSSA

Prepared by Asst. Prof. Sahana Kulur, RMSSA

A fixed-base building (built directly on the ground) will move with an

Prepared by Asst. Prof. Sahana Kulur, RMSSA

● Increase in strength and ductility

Adding new Shear Wall-

The shear wall is a structural member in a reinforced concrete framed

Prepared by Asst. Prof. Sahana Kulur, RMSSA

An effective solution when large openings are required. Potential advantages

Prepared by Asst. Prof. Sahana Kulur, RMSSA

Prepared by Asst. Prof. Sahana Kulur, RMSSA

SEISMIC DAMPERS - In this case, the damping is provided by a lead-based

THE DIFFERENCE BETWEEN BASE ISOLATORS AND SEISMIC DAMPERS

Prepared by Asst. Prof. Sahana Kulur, RMSSA

Sometimes base isolation is combined with seismic dampers, which provide an

BASE ISOLATION RETROFITTING TECHNIQUE -

Prepared by Asst. Prof. Sahana Kulur, RMSSA

13. Briefly describe 4 crack repairing techniques.

Drilling and Plugging Method

Prepared by Asst. Prof. Sahana Kulur, RMSSA

Concrete Crack Repair by Stitching

Routing and Sealing of Cracks

Prepared by Asst. Prof. Sahana Kulur, RMSSA

Prepared by Asst. Prof. Sahana Kulur, RMSSA

Prepared by Asst. Prof. Sahana Kulur, RMSSA

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