ABSTRACT

Substation is situated nearby Madar ajmer .It is 1km away from city, the
substation is equipped with various equipments and here are various
arrangements for the protection purpose.The equipments in the G.S.S. are
listed previously.At this substation following feeders are established.
A two 220 KV Incoming Feeders
• AJMER-I
• AJMER-II .
The substation of 220kv/132kv has three outgoing feeders, namely
• MDSU
• KISHANGARH
• SUBHASH NAGER
The sub-station of 132kv/33kv has eleven outgoing feeders, namely:

• GAGWANA
• SHASTRINAGER
• POWER HOUSE
• MADER
• BADLIYA
• RAJMAHAL
• MAYO COLLEGE
• HMT
• HAJARI BAG
• PRABATPURA
• RLY,
220 KV G.S.S CANTT is an outdoor type primary substation and distribution
substation as well it has not only step down station but also the distribution work.

.
 CONTENTS
TOPIC NAME. PAGE NO.
CHAPTER -I INTRODUCTION. (5-8)
1.1 R.R.V.P.N.L. (5)
1.2 400 KV GRID SUBSTATION, G.S.SF.C.I. (5)
1.3 MAIN EQUIPMENTS HOUSED AT GSS. (7)
1.4 DETAILS OF ORGANIZATION SETUP. (7)
CHAPTER -2 POWER TRANSFORMER. (9-11)
2.1DESCRIPTION OF PLANT TRANSFORMER. (9)
2.2 CORE. (11)
CHAPTER-3 CURRENT TRANSFORMER. (12-13)
3.1 BASIC FEATURE OF CURRENT TRANSFORMER. (12)
CHAPTER-4 POTENTIAL TRANSFORMER/CVT. (14-15)
4.1 CLASSIFICATION OF POTENTIAL TRANSFORMER. (14)
4.2 CAPACITIVE VOLTAGE TRANSFORMER. (14)
4.3 ELECTROMAGNETIC TYPE POTENTIAL TRANSFORMER. (15)
CHAPTER-5 BUS-BARS. (16-18)
5.1 BAR-BUS ARRANGEMENT MAY BE OF
FOLLOWING TYPESWHICH ARE BEING
ADOPTED BY RRVPNL. (16)
5.2 BUS-BAR ARRANGEMENT DEPENDS UPON. (17)
5.3 DOUBLE BUS BAR/CONTENTS MAIN BUS-I WITH
MAIN BUS-II ARRANGEMENT. (17)
5.4 DOUBLE BUS BAR ARRANGEMENT/CONTAIN
MAIN US WITH AUXILARY BUS
(OR TRANSFORMERBUS) (17)
5.5 DOUBLE BREAKER. (18)
5.6 MESH SCHEME. (18)
CHAPTER-6 ISOLATORS. (19-20)
6.1 INTRODUCTION. (19)
6.2 OPERATION (19)

2
6.3 PARTS (20)
CHAPTER-7CIRCUIT BREAKERS. (21-24)
7.1 INTRODUCTION. (21)
7.2 FUNCTIONS OF CIRCUIT BREAKER. (21)
CHAPTER-8 LIGHTNING ARRESTORS. (25-27)
8.1 INTRODUCTION. (25)
8.2 PRINCIPLE. (25)
8.3 CONSTRUCTION. (26)
8.4 THYRITE TYPE. (26)
CHAPTER-9 INSULATORS. (28-30)
9.1 BUS SUPPORT INSULATORS. (28)
9.2 TYPES OF INSULATORS. (28)
CHAPTER-10 CONTROL ROOM. (31-32)
10.1 SYNCHRONIZING PANEL. (31)
10.2 SYNCHRONOSCOPE. (31)
10.3 ANNOUNCIATOR. (32)
10.4 ASURING INSTRUMENT USED. (32)
CHAPTER-11 RELAYS. (33-36)
11.1 POWER TRANSFORMER PROTECTION. (34)
11.2 BUCHHOLZ RELAY. (34)
11.3 OVER CURRENT AND EARTH FAULT PROTECTION. (35)
11.4 TRANSMISSION LINE PROTECTION. (36)
CHAPTER-12 POWER LINE CARRIER COMMUNICATION. (37-40)
12.1 BASIC PRINCIPLE OF PLCC. (37)
12.2 COMPONENT OF COUPLING ARRANGEMENT. (38)
12.3 ADVANTAGE AND DISADVANTAGE OF PLCC. (39)
CHAPTER 13 EARTHING OF THE SYSTEM. (41-42)
13.1 PROCEDURE OF EARTHING. (41)
CHAPTER 14 BATTERY ROOM. (43-44)

3
 LIST OF FIGURES
FIG. NO. FIGURE NAME. PAGE NO.
FIG 1.1. BASIC OUTLAY DIAGRAM OF 220KV F.C.I. (5)
FIG 1.2 G.S.S SINGLE LINE DIAGRAM OF 132 K V G.S.S F.C.I. (8)
FIG 2.1. BASIC OPERATION OF A TRANSFORMER. (9)
FIG 2.2. LARGE POWER TRANSFORMER OF 132 KVG.S.SF.C.J. (10)
FIG 2.3. TRANSFORMER CORE. (11)
FIG 3.1. CT IN THE YARD. (13)
FIG 4:1. CVT. (14)
FIG 4.2. ELECTROMAGNETIC TYPE POTENTIAL TRANSFORMER (15)
FIG 5.1. BUS-BAR. (16)
FIG 6.1. ISOLATORS . (20)
FIG 7.1. SF6 CIRCUIT BREAKER (23)
FIG 8.1. LIGHTNING ARRESTORS ON SUB-STATION. (27)
FIG 9.1. BUS SUPPORT INSULATORS (28)
FIG9.2. PIN TYPE INSULATOR . (29)
FIG 9.3. SUSPENSION TYPE INSULATOR . (29)
FIG 9.4. STRAIN TYPE INSULATOR. (30)
FIG 9.5 SHACKLE TYPE INSULATOR. (30)
FIG 10.1. SUB-STATION CONTROL PANEL. (31)
FIG 11.1. SUB-STATION RELAY PANEL. (33)
FIG 11.2. INTERNAL STRUCTURE OF THE BUCHHOLZ RELAY. (35)
FIG 12.1. POWER LINE CARRIER SCHEMATIC. (37)
FIG 12.2 POWER LINE CARRIER COMMUNICTION SYSTEM (38)
FIG 12.3. POWER LINE CARRIER DEVICES IN CONTROL HOUSE. (38)
FIG 12.4. WAVE TRAP. (39)
FIG 13.1. GROUND WIRES (41)
FIG. 14.1. BATTERY ROOM. (43)

4
 CHAPTER-1

INTRODUCTION
1.1 R.R.V.P.N.L
Ajmer Vidyut Vitran Nigam Ltd, (AJMER DISCOM) has been established under
the Companies Act,1956 by Govt. of Rajasthan. The Ajmer Discom has been
created with the principal object of engaging in the business of distribution
and supply of electricity in 11 districts of Rajasthan, namely Ajmer, Bhilwara,
Nagaur, Sikar, Jhunjhunu, Udaipur, Batswana, Chittorgarh, Rajsamand,
Doongarpur and Pratapgarh. The area of operation of Ajmer Discom is 87256
lsq. km. And the population in this area is 198 lacs as per 2001 census.. The
power supply in the Ajmer Discom is managed by 12 distribution circles i.e.
Ajmer City, Ajmer District, Bhilwara, Nagaur, Sikar, Jhunjhunu, Udaipur,
Banswara, Chittorgarh,

Figure 1.1 Basic outlay of GSS

1.2 220 KV GRID SUBSTATION
The 220KV AJMER-I and AJMER-II line is connected to main bus of 220KV. Now
the transmission line first parallel connected with lightning arrester to diverge
surge, followed by CVT connected parallel. CVT measures voltage and steeps

5
down at 110V. A.C. for control panel, at the location a wave trap is connected
to carrier communication at higher frequencies. A current transformer is
connected in series with line which measure current and step down current at
ratio 800:1 for control panel. Switchgear equipment is provided, which is the
combination of a circuit breaker having an isolator at each end. A transformer
is connected to main bus though a bus coupler. The main bus has total
capability of 160 MVA for 33 KV, which is subdivided into two transformer
capacity of 80 MVA (40MVA-40MVA) parallel connected for 33KV and other
two transformer capacity of 80KV (40KV-40KV) are parallel connected for
substation. At both ends of transformer lightning arrester current transformer
and switchgear equipment provided. Transformer step downs voltage from
220KV to 132KV. The main bus is provided with switchgear equipment & a
current transformer. This gives way to six feeders transmitting power . The main
bus is connected to Jack bus . This gives way to feeders transmitting power to
11 feeders of 33KV .The input feeders are namely,
• AJMER-I
• AJMER-II
These feeders come into the substation with 220kv.
The substation of 220kv/132kv has three outgoing feeders, namely;

• MDSU
• KISHANGARH
• SUBHASH NAGER
The sub-station of 132kv/33kv has eleven outgoing feeders, namely:

• GAGWANA
• SHASTRINAGER
• POWER HOUSE
• MADER
• BADLIYA
• RAJMAHAL
• MAYO COLLEGE
• HMT
• HAJARI BAG
• PRABATPURA
• RLY
220 KV G.S.S, is an outdoor type primary substation and distribution substation
as well it has not only step down station but also the distribution work. The
electrical work in a substation comprises of
1. Choice of bus bar arrangement layout.
2. Selection of rating of isolator.
3.Selection of rating of instrument transformer.

6
4.Selection of rating of circuit breaker.
5. Selection of lightning [LA]
6.Selection of rating of power transformer.
7. Selection of protective relaying scheme, control and relay boards.
8. Selection of voltage regulator equipment.
9.Design a layout of earthling grids and against lightening strokes.
10. Auxiliaries.
1.3 MAIN EQUIPMENTS HOUSED AT G.S.S.
1.Power transformers.
2.Bus-Bar.
3. Potential transformer.
4.Current transformer.
5.Lightening arresters.
6.Circuit Breaker
7. Isolator.
8.Bus coupler and Sectionalizer.
9.Power line communication equipment (PLCC).

1.4 DETAILS OF ORGANIZATION SETUP

GRID: - Grid is a technical word used for the interconnection of power received
from more than one place. It is a network of main power line for transmission of
electricity.
DUTIES:- Following are the duties of RRVPNL.
1.Supply maximum demands and should be prepare to increase its future is
asked for.
2. Provide the service line to customer, which must carry the consumer load
safety.
3.The standard value of voltage (132 KV) should be maintained.
4.Not discriminate between consumers of the same category, ie, the
categories of consumers may be domestic, industrial and bulk consumers etc.

7
Figure1.2:- Single Line Diagram Of 220 KV GSS, MADAR,AJMER

8
 CHAPTER-2

POWER TRANSFORMER
A transformer makes use of Faraday's law and the ferromagnetic properties of
an iron core to efficiently raise or lower AC voltages. It of course cannot
increase power so that if the voltage is raised, the current is proportionally
lowered and vice versa. Power transformer are called autotransformer fitted
with a on load tap changer [OLTC].
From Faraday's Law
Vs/Vp=Ns/Np
For ideal transformer.The voltage ratio is equal to the tums ratio, and power in
equals power out.From conservation of energy
Pp=VpIp=VsIs= Ps

Figure 2.1:- Basic Operation of a Transformer

2.1 DESCRIPTION OF PLANT TRANSFORMER

The three transformers are oil immersed with rating of 100MVA auto. However
a synchronous loading of 100MVA at 0.8 power factor (lag) and 18 MVA 0.8 pf

9
(lag) on the tertiary can also be loaded to 20MVA loading with 100MVA 0.8 pf
on LV without exceeding the generated temperature rise. The transformer is
equipped with German Reign Hansen make on load voltage regulation to
facilitate HV variation. The transformer is simultaneous parallel operation. It is
ensured that the tertiary winding will operate also satisfactory with each other.
The transformer is also provided with a separate bank of radiation, fans, and
associated control equipments. The control equipments are housed in a tank
mounted miscalling.

Figure 2.2:-large Power Transformer

220/132KV, AUTO TRANSFORMER

1. MAKE - EMCO-2
2. CAPACITY-160 MVA
3. SR.NO.-HT 1886/13247
4. VOLTAGE RATING-220/132KV

5. NO.OF TAPS - 21
6. NORMAL TAPS-09
7. % IMPEDANCE-12-36
8. MFG. YEAR 2011
9. D.O.C.- 10-05-2012

10
10. TN.NO.-2899

2.2 CORE
Magnetic circuit is a three limbed care type construction; each limp being
interleaved with miter joints with top and bottom yokes the winding surrender
with three limbs. The lamination are made from high grade cooled rolled grain
oriented alloy steel. The insulation on lamination is varnish.The cooling ducts are
provided parallel to the plane of laminations the yoke are clamped with by
means of clamping per sling plate. They are clamped with bolts for lifting the
core with 8 lighting blotters are provided insulated from each other to
withstand a pressure of 2 kV, 50 c/s AC for one minute.

Figure 2.3 Transformer core

11
 CHAPTER-3

CURRENT TRANSFORMER
Current transformer is used for monitoring the current for the purpose of
measuring and protection. They can be classified as dead tank inverter type.
The dead tank current transformer accommodates the secondary core inside
the tank, which is at the ground potential. The insulated primary passes through
the porcelain and the tank and the terminals into the top chamber. The
primary used in such types of construction is of "U" type. The inserted secondary
cores are insulated to the system voltage and hence inside the top chamber
which is at the line potential. Before commissioning of the current transformer
the earthing of the power terminal and base is essential, otherwise excessive
high voltage appears at the power factor terminals and leads to heavy spark.
The secondary terminal of the core should be short circuited and earthed
which are not in use otherwise excessive high voltage will be developed across
the current transformer secondary. The current transformer should always be in
vertical position so that gas forming at the top does not enter the insulated
part. The current transformer actually steps down the current so that it can be
measured by standard measuring instrument. There are three current
transformers in each feeder. The current transformers are inserted into energy
incoming and outgoing feeder from 220 kV systems for measurement.
The current transformer is used with its primary winding connected in series with
the line carrying the current to be measured and therefore the primary current
is not determined by the load on the secondary of the current transformer. The
primary consists of a very few turns and there is no appreciable voltage across
it. The secondary consists of a very large number of turns. The ammeter or
wattmeter current coil is connected directly across the secondary terminals
thus a current transformer operates its secondary nearly under short circuit
conditions. The secondary circuit is connected to ground in many cases.
Instrument transformers perform two important functions; they serve to extend
the range of the measuring instrument, much as the shunt or the multiplier
extends the range of the de ammeter. They also serve to isolate the measuring
instrument from the high voltage power line. The primary winding of the current
line transformer is connected directly to the load circuit, while the secondary
is open circuited. The voltage across the open terminal can be very high
(because of the step up ratio) and could easily break down the insulation
between the secondary windings. The secondary winding of a current
transformer should therefore always be short circuited or connected to a relay
coil.

3.1 BASIC FEATURE OF CURRENT TRANSFORMER

1. As you all know this is the device which provides the pre-decoded fraction
of the primary current passing through the line bus main circuit. Such as primary

12
current 60A, 75A, 100A, 120A, 150, 240A, 300A, 400A, to the secondary output
of 1A to 5A.

Figure 3.1:- Current Transformer in Yard

2. Now a day mostly separate current transformers units are used instead of
bushing mounting CT's on leveled structure they should be for oil level
indication and the base should be earthed properly. Care should be taken so
that there should be no strain on the terminal.
3. When connecting the jumpers. Mostly secondary connections are taken to
junction boxes where star delta formation is connected for three phases and
final leads taken to protection /metering scheme. There should be no chance
of secondary circuit remaining opens as it leads to extremely high voltages
which ultimately damage the CT itself.
4. Current transformers can be used to supply information for measuring power
flows and the electrical inputs for the operation of protective relays associated
with the transmission and distribution circuits or for power transformers. These
current transformers have the primary winding connected in series with the
conductor carrying the current to be measured or controlled. The secondary
winding is thus insulated from the high voltage and can then be connected to
low-voltage metering circuits.

13
. CHAPTER-4

POTENTIAL TRANSFORMER/CVT
A potential transformer (P.T.) is used to transform high voltage of power line to
a lower value. which is in the range of an AC voltmeter or the potential coil of
an AC voltmeter.
4.1 CLASSIFICATION OF POTENTIAL TRANSFORMER
1. Capacitive voltage transformer
2. Electro-Magnetic type
4.2 CAPACITIVE VOLTAGE TRANSFORMER
Capacitive voltage transformers are special kind of power transformers using
capacitors to step down the voltage.

Figure 4.1:- Current Voltage Transformer

4.2.1 DESCRIPTION
The capacitive voltage transformer comprises of a capacitor divider with its
associated electromagnetic unit. The divider provides an accurate

14
proportioned voltage, while the magnetic unit transforms this voltage, in both
magnitude and phase to convenient levels suitable for measuring, metering,
protection etc. All WSI capacitor units have metallic bellows to compensate
the volumetric expansion of oil inside. The porcelain in multi unit stack, all the
potential points are electrically tied and suitably shielded to overcome the
effect of corona RIV etc. Capacitive voltage transformers are available for
system voltages of 33 kV to 420 KV.
4.2.2 APPLICATION
1.Capacitive voltage transformers can be effectively as potential. Sources for
measuring. metering, protection, carrier communication and other vital
functions of an electrical network.
2. CVT are constructed in single or multi unit porcelain housing with their
associated magnetic units. For EHV system cuts are always supplied in multi unit
construction.
3. In case of EHV cuts the multi unit system has many advantages easy to
transport and storing, convenience in handling.
4.3 ELECTROMAGNETIC TYPE POTENTIAL TRANSFORMER
The electromagnetic potential transformers are used for the system voltages
up to or below 132 kV, due to the economic aspects. The basic principle of
these transformers is same as power transformers. The high alternating voltages
are reduced in a fixed proportion for the measurement purpose with the help
of electromagnetic type potential transformer. These are extremely accurate
ratio step down transformer. The windings are low power rating windings.
Primary winding consist of large number of turns while secondary has less
number of turns and usually rated for 110 V. irrespective of the primary voltage
rating. The potential transformer used larger core and conductor sizes
compared to conventional power transformer.

Figure 4.2:-Electro-Magnetic type potential transformer

15
 CHAPTER-5

BUS-BAR
If the bus-bars are of rigid type (Aluminum types) the structure heights are low
and minimum clearance is required. While in case of strain type of bus-bars
suitable ACSR conductors are strung/tensioned strain by tension insulator dises
according to system voltages. In the widely used strain type bus bars stringing
tension is about 500-900 kg depending upon the size of conductor used and
tensioning is manual by means of rope pulleys or by pull lifts. It may also with
the help of tractors. Here proper clearance would be achieved only if require
tension is achieved. Loose bus bars would affect the clearances when it swings
while over tensioning may damage insulators. Clamps or even affect the
supporting structures in low temperature conditions. The clamping should be
proper, as loose clamp would spark under in full load condition damaging the
bus bars itself. The bus bar is provided with lightening protection to safeguard
the equipment against direct stroke by providing aerial earth wire giving a
protection at 30 degree i.e, height and earth wire such that all the equipment
and bus bar should be covered with in this 30 degree.

Figure 5.1 Bus-bar

5.1 BAR BUS ARRANGEMENT MAY BE OF FOLLOWING TYPES WHICH ARE BEING
ADOPTED BY RRVPNL
1.Single bus bar arrangement.
2. Double bus bar arrangement.
a. Main bus with transformer bus.

16
 b. Main bus-l with Main bus-ll.
3. Double bus bar arrangement with auxiliary bus.
5.2 BUS BAR ARRANGEMENT DEPENDS UPON
1. Interruption tolerable in the supply scheme.
2. Alternative supply arrangements in case of failure of Equipments.
5.2.IBUS BAR ARRANGEMENT
Single bus bar arrangement-This arrangement is simplest and cheapest. It
suffers, however, from major defects.
a. Maintenance without interruption is not possible.
b. Extension of the substation without a shutdown is not possible.
The equipment connections are very simple and hence the system is very
convenient to operate. This scheme is not very popular for 33 kV and above,
except where the relative importance of the substation is less or the position of
the substation does not justify elaborate schemes. The indoor 11 KV switchyards
have quite often-single bus bar arrangement.
5.3 DOUBLE BUS BAR/CONTAINTS MAIN BUS-I WITH MAIN BUS.
IIARRANGEMENTS
This scheme has two bus bar so that-
1.Each load may be fed from either bus
2. The load circuits may be divided in two separate groups if needed from
operational consideration. Two supplies from different sources can be put on
each bus separately.
3.Either bus bar may be taken out from maintenance and cleaning of
insulators. This arrangement has been quite frequently adopted where the
loads and continuity of supply is necessary. In such a scheme a bus coupler
breaker is mostly provided as it enables on load change over from one bus to
other.The normal bus selection isolators cannot be used for breaking load
currents. The arrangement does not permit breaker maintenance without
causing stoppage of supply.
5.4 DOUBLE BUS BAR ARRANGEMENTS/CONTAIN MAIN BUS WITH
AUXILIARY BUS (OR TRANSFER BUS)
The double bus bar arrangement provides facility to charge over to either bus
to carry out maintenance on the other but provide no facility to carry over
breaker maintenance. The main and transfer bus works the other way round.
It provides facility for carrying out breaker maintenance but does not permit
bus maintenance. Wherever maintenance is required on any breaker the
circuit is changed over to the transfer bus and is controlled through bus coupler
breaker.

17
5.5 DOUBLE BREAKER
This scheme is the modification of double bus bar scheme. In this arrangement
the maintenance of CB or isolator without an outage is possible, which is the
main drawback of double bus bar. This arrangement is costly so it varies for
various generating stations.
5.6MESH SCHEME
1. It provides a double feed to each circuit Le opening of any breaker for
maintenance does not affect the supply to any circuit.
2. It provides breaker maintenance..
3. It is cheaper than the double bus bar or main bus scheme.
5.6.1 THE DISADVANTAGES OF THIS SCHEME ARE
If any breaker is to be taken under maintenance, then under this condition
tripping of any one circuit breaker may result in loss of supply to a no. of circuits.
Expansion of mesh is extremely difficult the scheme is limited to four or six
circuits.

18
 CHAPTER-6

ISOLATORS
6.1 INTRODUCTION
When to carry out inspection or repair in the substation installation a
disconnection switch is used called isolator. Its work is to disconnect the unit or
section from all other line parts on installation in order to insure the complete
safety of staff working. The isolator works at no load condition. They do not
have any making or breaking capacity. Isolators are used to isolate the bus
when it is not in working condition. If the bus is to be Isolators are also called as
disconnect switches or air break switches. Shut down then it is isolated from the
main bus. The moving and fixed contacts is done so that all the three phase of
the isolator close and open simultaneously and there is a full surface contact
between moving and fixed contacts. The adjustment of the tendon pipes,
leveling of post isolator, stops Holts in the fixed contacts etc. are done for
smooth operation of isolator. Isolators are provided at both ends of the bus.
There are ten isolators provided at 400 kV substations. Following type of isolator
provided at 400 kV substations. Following type of isolator are being used in
R.S.E.B
a.Isolator without earth blades.
b.Isolator with earth blades.
c.Tendon isolator
On fundamental basis the isolating switches can broadly divided into following
categories
1. Bus isolator
2. Line isolator cum earthing switch
3. Transformer isolating switch.
6.2 OPERATION
The operation of an isolator may be hand operated without using any supply
or may be power operated which uses externally supplied energy switch which
is in the form of electrical energy or energy stored in spring or counter weight.
In a horizontal break, center rotating double break isolator, 3 strokes are found.
Poles are provided on each phase. The two strokes on side are fixed and
center one is rotating. The center position can rotate about its vertical axis at
an angle of 90. In closed position, the isolating stroke mounts on galvanized
steel rolled frame. The three poles corresponding to 3 phases are connected
by means of steel shaft. Isolators are of two types-

19
1.Single pole isolator
2.Three pole isolator

Figure 6.1:- Isolators

6.3 PARTS
1.Contacts: Contacts are liberally rated and have been designed to with stand
electromagnetic stresses and preventing shattering at rated short time current.
The contact is made out of electrolytic copper, fixed in co housing.
2. Switch plans: All the three phases of switch are cleaned open or closed
simultaneously with provision of adjustable tendon pipe connected to towers
provided at the center pedes.

20
 CHAPTER-7

CIRCUI BREAKERS
7.1 INTRODUCTION
Breakers are switching and current interrupting devices. Basically a Circuit
breaker comprises a set of fixed and movable contacts. The contacts can be
separated by means of an operating an are. The arc is extinguished by a
suitable medium such as dielectric oil vacuum, SF, gas. The circuit breakers
play an important role in the design and performance of a power system, in
that these are the key pieces of apparatus protecting the system and thus
ensure continuity of supply from consideration of cost, the circuit breakers
represent a major items, and are next only to the generator and transformer,
since their quantity is greater than that of generators/transformer in a power
system owing to the services required for control of
transmission lines, bus-bar etc. in addition to control of transformers and
generator.
7.2 FUNCTIONS OF CIRCUIT BREAKER
The Expected functions of a circuit breaker are:- It must be capable of closing
on to and carrying full load currents for long period of time. Under proscribed
condition.
1. It must open automatically to disconnect the load or some small overload.
2. It must successfully and rapidly interrupt the heavy current, which flow when
a short circuit has to be cleared from the system.
3. It must be capable of closing on to a circuit in which a fault exists and
immediately re- opening to clear the fault from system.
4.It must be capable of carrying current of short circuit magnitude until, and
for such time as, the fault is cleared by another breaker nearer to the pint of
fault.
7.2.1CIRCUIT BREAKER TYPES
(i)Bulk oil Circuit Breaker.
(ii) Minimum oil Circuit Breaker.
(ii)Air blast Circuit Breakers.
(iv)Sulphurchexafloride(SF6).
(v) Vacuum Circuit Breakers.
7.3.1 (A) OIL CIRCUIT BREAKER
Circuit breaking in oil has been adopted since the early stages of circuit
breakers manufacture The oil in oil-filled breakers serves the purpose of

21
insulating the live parts from the earthed ones and provides an excellent
medium for are interruption. Oil circuit breakers of the various types are used in
almost all voltage ranges and ratings. However, they are commonly used at
voltages below 115 kV leaving the higher voltages for air blast and SF, breakers.
The contacts of an oil breaker are submerged in insulating oil, which helps to
cool and extinguish the are that forms when the contacts are opened. Oil
circuit breakers are classified into two main types namely bulk oil circuit
breakers and minimum oil circuit breakers. The methods of are control and
interruption is different from one type to the other.
ADVANTAGES:-
1.It absorbs the are energy to decompose the oil into gases, which have
excellent cooling properties.
2.It acts as an insulator and permits smaller clearance between live conductors
and earthed components.
DISADVANTAGES:-
1.It's inflammable and there is risk of fire.
2. It may form an expulsive mixture with air.
3. The arcing products remain in the oil and it reduces the quality of oil after
several operations.
4.This necessities periodic checking and replacement of oil.
(B) BULK OIL CIRCUIT BREAKER
Bulk oil circuit breakers are widely used in power systems from the lowest
voltages up to 115 KV. However, they are still used in systems having voltages
up to 230 kV. The contacts of bulk oil breakers may be of the plain-break type,
where the are is freely interrupted in oil, or enclosed within are controllers. Plain-
break circuit breakers consist mainly of a large volume of oil contained in a
metallic tank. Are interruption depends on the head of oil above the contacts
and the speed of contact separation. The head of oil above the are should be
sufficient to cool the gases, mainly hydrogen, produced by oil decomposition.
A small air cushion at the top of the oil together with the produced gases will
increase the pressure with a subsequent decrease of the arcing time.
7.3.2. MINIMUM OIL CIRCUIT BREAKER
Bulk oil circuit breakers have the disadvantage of using large quantity of oil.
With frequent breaking and making heavy currents the oil will deteriorate and
may lead to circuit breaker failure. This has led to the design of minimum oil
circuit breakers working on the same principles of are control as those used in
bulk oil breakers. In this type of breakers the interrupter chamber is separated
from the other parts and arcing is confined to a small volume of oil. The lower
chamber contains the operating mechanism and the upper one contains the
moving and fixed contacts together with the control device. Both chambers
are made of an insulating material such as porcelain. The oil in both chambers

22
is completely separated from each other. By this arrangement the amount of
oil needed for are interruption and the clearances to earth are roused.

However, conditioning or changing the oil in the interrupter chamber is more

frequent than in the bulk oil breakers. This is due to carbonization and slugging
from areas interrupted chamber is equipped with a discharge vent and silica
gel breather to permit a small gas cushion on top of the oil. Single break
minimum oil breakers are available in the voltage range 13.8 to 34.5 KV.
7.3.3. SF6, CIRCUIT BREAKER
Sulphurchexafloride has proved its-self as an excellent insulating and are
quenching medium. The physical, chemical, and electrical properties of SF,
are more superior to many of the other media. It has been extensively used
during the last 30 years in circuit breakers, gas-insulated switchgear (GIS), high
voltage capacitors, bushings, and gas insulated transmission lines. In SF6,
breakers the contacts are surrounded by low pressure SF, gas. At the moment
the contacts are opened, a small amount of gas is compressed and forced
through the are to extinguish it.

Figure 7.1:- SF6, Circuit Breaker

23
7.3.4. VACUUM CIRCUIT BREAKER
A vacuum circuit breaker is such kind of circuit breaker where the are
quenching takes place in vacuum. The technology is suitable for mainly
medium voltage application. For higher voltage Vacuum technology has
been developed but not commercially visible. The operation of opening and
closing of current carrying contacts and associated are interruption take place
in a vacuum chamber in the breaker which is called vacuum interrupter. The
vacuum interrupter consists of a steel are chamber in the centre symmetrically
arranged ceramic insulators The material used for current carrying contacts
plays an important role in the performance of the vacuum circuit breaker. Cu
Cr is the most ideal material to make VCB contacts. Vacuum interrupter
technology was first introduced in the year of 1960. But still it is a developing
technology. As time goes on, the size of the vacuum interrupter is being
reducing from its early 1960's size due to different technical developments in
this field of engineering. The contact geometry is also improving with time, from
butt contact of early days it gradually changes to spiral shape, cup shape and
axial magnetic field contact. The vacuum circuit breaker is today recognized
as most reliable current interruption technology for medium voltage system. It
requires minimum maintenance compared to other circuit breaker
technologies.
Advantages of Vacuum Circuit Breakers:-
1. Very long lifetime of the contacts (This provides longer breaker life.)
2. Less maintenance required.
3. Less moving parts in mechanism
4. Less force needed to separate the contacts (since the distance between
them is shorter.)
5. Environment friendly. Since interruption takes place in vacuum medium,
VCBs do not require gas or liquid addition. This reduces the possibility of
leakage of gas (or any material) that can be harmful for environment.

24
 CHAPTER 8

LIGHTNING ARRESTOR
8.1 INTRODUCTION
The lightning arrester (or) the lightning conductor is a commonly used device
which is used to protection a substation is essential:
1. Protection for transmission line from direct strokes.
2. Protections of power station or substation from direct stroke,
3. Protection of electrical apparatus against traveling waves.
4. Effective protection of equipment against direct strokes requires a shield to
prevent lighting from striking the electrical conductor together with adequate
drainage facilities over insulated structure.
8.2 PRINCIPLE
Lightning arrestor is a device, which protects the overhead lines and other
electrical apparatus viz., transformer from overhead voltages and lighting.
When electrostatic induction then the negative charge is however presented
right under the cloud and portion of the line away from the cloud becomes
positively right under the charge on the line does not flow. The positive charge
on the far and flows to the earth through insulators, thus leaving the negative
charge on the line directly under the cloud. Now assume due to the direct
discharge occurring between this clouds and passing by negative charge
cloud the charge in the cloud becomes neutralized, then the charge on the
line is no more bound charge and is free to travel on both direction in the form
of waves. These travelling waves will be of light magnitude and have steep
wave form, which can damage the unprotected equipment connected to
the line. These waves are passed to the earth through the lightning arrestors. It
consist of a isolator in series and connected in such a way that long isolator is
in upward and short isolator is in downward so that initially large potential up
to earth is decreased to zero. The lightning arrestor protects the structure from
damage by intercepting flashes of lightning and transmitting their current to
the ground. Since lightning strikes tend to strike the highest
object in the vicinity, the rod is placed at the apex of a tall structure. It is
connected to the ground by low-resistance cables. In the case of a building,
the soil is used as the ground, and on a ship, water is used. A lightning rod
provides a cone of protection, which has a ground radius approximately,
equal to its height above the ground. Surges due to lightning are mostly
injected into the power system through long cross-country transmission lines.
Substation apparatus is always well shielded against direct lightning strokes.
The protection of transmission lines against direct strokes requires a shield to
prevent lightning from striking the electrical conductors Terminal equipment at
the substation is protected against by surge diverters, also called surge arrester

25
or lightning arresters. Earthing screen and ground wires can well protect the
electrical system against direction lightning strokes but they fail to provide
protection against travelling waves, which may reach the terminal apparatus.
8.2.1 AN IDEAL ARRESTOR MUST THEREFORE HAVE THE FOLLOWING PROPERTIES
1.It should be able to drain the surge energy from the line in a minimum time.
2. Should offer high resistance to the flow of power current.
3. Performance of the arresters should be such that no system disturbances are
introduced by its operation.
4. Should be always in perfect form to perform the function assigned to it. 5.
After allowing the surge to pass, it should close up so as not to permit power
current to flow to ground.
8.3. CONSTRUCTION
The apparatus consists of a long thick rod made up of copper which is a very
good conductor of electricity so that it can allow a large amount of charges
to flow through it. This copper rod passes through the walls of the building. The
upper end of the rod is provided with a metal plate having a number of sharp
spikes which are visible at the top of the building while the lower end is
connected to a plate of copper which is deeply buried in the ground so that
the excess of charges is passed to the earth which is a good conductor of
electricity and this process is called "earthing".
8.3.1. FUNCTION
The working of a lightning arrestor can be explained either with a positively
charged cloud commonly called "male cloud" or with a negatively charged
cloud commonly called "female cloud". Consider a negatively charged cloud
which passes over the building with a lightning arrestor. Due to the negative
charge of the cloud, positive charges are induced to the sharp spikes which
are at the top of the building. Now, due to the principle of action of points.
leakage of the positive charges from the sharp spikes occurs so that the nearby
atoms in the space are ionized into positive and negative charges. Now, the
positive charges in the sharp spikes repel the newly formed positive ions and
these ions try to neutralize the negative charge of the cloud. If the negative
charges are not completely neutralized, these charges due to the attraction
of the positive charges in the sharp spikes are passed through the copper rod
to the ground where they are earthed. Thus, the intensity of lightning can be
reduced thus saving the building from its destructive attack. A lightning
conductor can save its surroundings for more than half a kilometer from the
attack of lightning.
8.4 THYRITE TYPE. Ground wire run over the tower provides an adequate
protection against lightning and reduce the induced electrostatic or
electromagnetic voltage but such a shield is inadequate to protect any
traveling wave, which reaches the terminal of the electrical equipment, and
such wave can cause the following damage.

26
1. The high peak of the surge may cause a flashover in the internal wiring thus
it may spoil the insulation of the winding.
2.The steep wave font may cause internal flash over between their turns of
transformer.The stop wave front resulting into resonance and high voltage may
cause internal or external flashover causing building up the oscillator is the
electrical operation. Lightening arrestor are provided between the line and
earth provided the protection against traveling wave surge the thyrite
lightening arrestor are provided at GSS This type of LA has a basic cell made
of thirties, which is a particular type of clay, mixed with carborundum. Thirties
has a particular property of being insulator one voltage.

Figure 8.1:- Lightning Arrestors on Substations

This type of LA has a basic cell made of thirties, which is a particular type of
clay, mixed with carborundum. Thirties has a particular property of being
insulator one voltage At high voltage it will behave like a conducting material
the electrical resistance of thyrite depends upon the voltage each time the
voltage is Made twice the resistance decrease in such a manner as to allow
an increased current of 12.5 times the change in current is independent of rate
of application voltage and its instantaneous value. One upon each other and
they are further placed in to a porcelain container with a suitable arrangement
of gap between them. These gaps serve as the purpose of preventing any
current flow during normal operating voltage in case of nay transients the gap.

27
 CHAPTER-9

INSULATORS
9.1 BUS SUPPORT INSULATORS
These are porcelain or fiberglass insulators that serve to isolate the bus bar
switches and other support structures and to prevent leakage current from
flowing through the structure or to ground. These insulators are similar in
function to other insulators used in substations and transmission poles and
towers. These insulators are generally made of glazed porcelain or toughened
glass. Poly come type insulator [solid core] are also being supplied in place of
hast insulators if available indigenously. The design of the insulator is such that
the stress due to contraction and expansion in any part of the insulator does
not lead to any defect. It is desirable not to allow porcelain to come in direct
contact with a hard metal screw thread.

Figure 9.1:-Bus Support Insulators

9.2. TYPES OF INSULATORS

There are several types of insulators but the most commonly used are pin type,
suspension type, strain insulator and shackle insulator.

28
9.2.1. PIN TYPE INSULATOR
As the name suggests, the pin type insulator is secured to the cross-arm on the
pole. There is a groove on the upper end of the insulator for housing the
conductor. The conductor passes through this groove and is bound by the
annealed wire of the same material as the conductor. Pin type insulators are
used for transmission and distribution of electric power at voltages up to 33 kV.
Beyond operating voltage of 33 kV, the pin type insulators become too bulky
and hence uneconomical.

Figure 9.2:-Pin Type Image

9.2.2 SUSPENSION TYPE INSULTOR
For high voltages (>33 kV), it is a usual practice to use suspension type insulators
shown in Figure 9.3. Consists of a number of porcelain discs connected in series

Figure 9.3:- SUSPENSION TYPE INSULATOR

29
by metal links in the form of a string. The conductor is suspended at the bottom
end of this string while the other end of the string is secured to the cross-arm of
the tower. Each unit or disc is designed for low voltage, say 11 KV. The number
of discs in series would obviously depend upon the working voltage. For
instance, if the working voltage is 66 KV, then six dises in series will be provided
on the string.
9.2.3.STRAIN TYPE INSULTOR
When there is a dead end of the line or there is comer or sharp curve, the line
is subjected to greater tension. In order to relieve the line of excessive tension,
strain insulators are used. For low voltage lines (<11 kV), shackle insulators are
used as strain insulators. However, for high voltage transmission lines, strain
insulator consists of an assembly of suspension insulators as shown in Figure 9.4.
The discs of strain insulators are used in the vertical plane. When the tension in
lines is exceedingly high, at long river spans, two or more strings are used in
parallel.

Figure 9.4:- Strain type Insulator

9.2.4.SHACKLE TYPE INSULATOR
In early days, the shackle insulators were used as strain insulators. But now days,
they are frequently used for low voltage distribution lines. Such insulators can

Figure 9.5:-Shackle type Insulator

be used for either in a horizontal position or in a vertical position. They can be
directly fixed to the pole with a bolt or to the cross arm.

30
 CHAPTER-10

CONTROl ROOM
Control panels contain meters, control switches and recorders located in the
control building.also called a doghouse. These are used to control the
substation equipment, to send power from one circuit to another or to open or
to shut down circuits when needed

Figure 10.1:-Substation Control panels

10.1 SYNCHRONIZING PANEL

There is a hinged panel mounted on the end of a control board to take out
new supply. On bus bar we have the synchronies and fee the synchronoscope
zero on this bus bar. The voltage can be checked by voltmeter the function of
synchronoscope is to indicate phase and frequently voltage of bus bar and
incoming feeder voltage of bus bar and incoming feeder voltage supply.
10.2 SYNCHRONOSCOPE

31
A synchronoscope is used to determine the correct instance of closing the
switch with connect the new supply to bus bar the correct instance of
synchronizing is indicated when bus bar and incoming voltage.

1. Are equal in magnitude

2. Are equal in phase
3. Have the same frequency.
4. The phase sequence is same.
The voltage can be checked by voltmeter the function of synchronoscope is
to indicate phase and frequently voltage of bus bar and incoming feeder
voltage of bus bar and incoming feeder voltage supply.
10.3 ANNOUNCIATOR
In the control room the Announciator the most compact in which probable
faults at different feeders and different feeders and different zone have written
to inform the bulb behind the structure when some faults is announciator
auxiliary relay. Relay's first signal trip the circuit breaker and signal goes to the
auxiliary trip the relay, the relay send the signal to the announciator which give
alarm and bulb is lighting up in front of the type of fault occurred.
10.4 MEASURING INSTRUMENT USED
1.ENERGY METER: To measure the energy transmitted energy meters are fitted
to the panel to different feeders the energy transmitted is recorded after one
hour regularly for it MWH meter is provided.
2. WATTMETERS: Wattmeter's are attached to each feeder to record the power
exported form GSS.
3. FREQUENCY METER: To measure the frequency at each feeder there is the
provision of analog or digital frequency meter.
4. VOLTMETER: It is provided to measure the phase-to-phase voltage. It is also
available in both the forms analog as well as digital.
5. KA METER: It is provided to measure the line current. It is also available in both
the forms analog as well as digital.
6.MAXIMUM DEMAND INDICATOR: These are also mounted on the control
panel to record the average power over successive predetermined period.
7.MVAR METER: It is to measure the reactive power of the circuit.
8.COSO METERS: To indicate the power factor of the power being transferred
or imported. These meters are provided on various panels.

32
 CHAPTER-11

RELAYS
Every electrical equipment needs portion the house wiring is protected by the
fuses. Modern generators are protected by complex protective schemes. The
choice of protection depends upon several aspects such as type and rating
of protective equipments. The location of relay is very important the protective
relay may protect the concerned equipment from the abnormal operating
condition develops in protective relaying of that equipment sense the
abnormal condition and initiates the alarm and close the trip circuit of CB and
isolate the equipment from the supply The relays are compact self-contained
device, which respond to an abnormal condition whenever and abnormal
condition is developed. The relay close their contacts thereby the trip circuit of
CB is closed current from the battery supply flows in the trip circuit [coil) of
breaker and breaker opens and the faulty part is disconnected from the
supply.

Figure 11.1:- Substation Relay Panel

Besides relays and CB there are several components in relaying schemes these
includes potential transformer protective fine relay time delay relay auxiliary
relay secondary circuit and accessories each equipment is important in
protection relaying in team work of their components.
The function of protection relaying scheme includes following

33
1. To sound an alarm or close the trip coil of CB to disconnect the equipment
in abnormal condition, which includes overload under voltage temperature
rise, unbalanced load reserve power under frequency short circuit.
2. To disconnect the abnormally operating part to prevent subsequent fault as
over load protection of machine and prevent machine failure.
3.To disconnect the faulty part if a machine is connected immediately after a
winding fault only a few coil may need replacement.
4. To realize the effect of fault by disconnecting faulty part from healthy part
causing least disturbance to the healthy replacement.
5. To disconnect the faulty part quickly to improve the system stability service
condition and system performance.
The component of a substation which are provided with the protection
schemes are:
1. Power transformer.
2. Transmission line feeder.
3. Bus bars.
4. Shunt capacitor banks.
11.1 POWER TRANSFORMER PROTECTION
A power transformer is subjected to following faults
1. Over load and external short circuit.
2. Terminal fault
3. Winding fault
4. Incipient fault.
Winding and oil temperature indicator with alarm and trip contacts are
provided. As soon as the temperature of winding and oil exceed the
predetermined value of contacts are bridged reaches the spot valve the
transformer is tripped the different protection which are provided to a power
transformer are
1. Buchholz relay
2. Over current and earth fault
3.Differential protection
4.Frame leakage protection
11.2 BUCHHOLZ RELAY
This relay is used for the protection of the transformer and is based upon the
principle of a gas operated relay since any internal fault inside the transformer
will evaporate the oil due top intense heat generated by short circuit current

34
and will generate gases. This type of relay can be fitted only to the
transformers, which are equipped with conservator tank and the main tank Le.
in the transformer pipe connecting. The two relays consists of an oil cum tuner

with the two internal floats which operates and Accurate mercury switches,
which are in turn connected to external to the external alarm and to the
tripping circuit.

Figure 11.2:- Internal Structure of Buchholz Relay

The relay is normally full of oil and floats remain engaged in seat due to
buoyancy and floats are made aluminum each one has a counter weight,
which has mild steel coated with nickel. The relay is also useful in indicating any
loss of oil that a transformer may suffer because heat loss of oil will cause oil
level to drop the top float will indicate it by dropping and shorting the alarm
contact and if the oil level keeps on falling the lower float will affected and will
close the trip circuit of transformer.
11.3 OVER CURRENT AND EARTH FAULT PROTECTION
These protection schemes are provided against external short circuit and
excessive load.Commonly the over current and earth fault protection is
provided on the front side of transformer and is made to trip both HV and LV
breaker these protections serve only as backup protection both for transformer
internal and external fault. The over current relay has a single element for each
phase and earth fault has a single element the connection for restricted earth
fault protection on one winding of transformer with a similar scheme. For a star
connected winding three lines current transformer is balanced against a CT
the neutral connection. In case of delta connected winding the three lines CT
are parallel and connected to across the earth fault relay some of them same
in CT is used for over current protection as well as earth fault protection.
11.3.1 FRAME LEAKAGE PROTECTION

35
This protection is known as tank protection. The transformer is lightly insulated
from earth by mounting it on a concrete plinth. The transformer tank is
connected to earth fault relays. Earth fault current due to insulation failure in
any winding of the transformer will flow to transformer energizes here two relay
operates.
11.3.2 DIFFERENTIAL PROTECTION
For the differential protection, different relay is used. Different protection
scheme compares quality derived from the input and output current of the
protected circuit in such a way that all the healthy system and protection in
operative while for fault condition the balance is disturbed and the protection
operated.
11.4 TRANSMISSION LINE PROTECTION
The protection scheme for transmission lines is differential relaying
11.4.1 DIFFERENTIAL RELAYING
In this type of relaying 6 point conductors would be required one for each
phase CT and one for neutral connection and two for the trip circuit but this
scheme is costlier. A modified scheme is applicable only on parallel feeder. In
this scheme the secondary current from CT's on the two circuits at the same
end is compared. Under normal condition, each line will carry equal current.
In the event of fault the balance is disturbed that is why relay trips the CB.
11.4.2 DIRECTION BACKUP RELAYS
These relays are used for the over current and earth fault of high voltage
132.220 kV sides. This consists of main and backup scheme at standby. As
carrier current protection of short distance impedance, reactance and pilot
relay for long short and very short distance respectively.

36
 CHAPTER-12

POWER LINE CARRIER COMMUNICTION

12.1 BASIC PRINCIPLE OF PLCC
In PLCC the higher mechanical strength and insulation level of high voltage
power lines result in increased reliability of communication and lower
attenuation over long distances. Since telephone communication system
cannot be directly connected to the high voltage lines, suitably designed
coupling devices have therefore to be employed. These usually consist of high
voltage capacitor with potential devices used in conjunction with suitable line
matching units(LMU's) for matching the impedance of line to that of the
coaxial cable connecting the unit to the PLC transmit-receive equipment.Also
the carrier currents used for communication have to be prevented from
entering the power equipment used in GSS as this would result in high
attenuation or even complete loss of communication signals when earthed at
isolator. To prevent this loss, wave traps or line traps are employed. These
consist of suitably designed choke coils connected in series with line, which
offers negligible impedance to RF carrier current.
As electronics plays a vital role in the industrial growth, communication is also
a backbone of any power station, communication between various
generating and receiving station is very essential for proper operation of power
system. This is more so in case of a large interconnected system where a control
lead dispatch station has to coordinate the working of various units to see that
the system is maintained in the optimum working condition, power line
communication is the most economical and reliable method of
communication for medium and long distance in power network.

37
 Figure 12.1:- Power-Line Carrier Schematic

Figure 12.2:- Power Line Carrier Communication System

. Figure12.3:- Power Line Carrier Device in Control House

12.2 COMPONENT OF COUPLING ARRANGEMENT

1.Wave Trap
2.Coupling Capacitor.
3.Drainage coil.
4.Voltage arrestor
5.Ground switch.
6.Matching transformer.
7.Tuning capacitor.
8.Vacuum arrestor
WAVE TRAP

38
The carrier energy on the transmission line must be directed toward the remote
line terminal and not toward the station bus, and it must be isolated from bus
impedance variations. This task is performed by the line trap is usually a form of
a parallel resonant circuit which is tuned to the carrier energy frequency. A
parallel resonant circuit has high impedance at its tuned frequency, and it
then causes most of the carrier energy to flow toward the remote line terminal.
The coil of the line trap provides a low impedance path for the flow of the
power frequency energy. Since the power flow is rather large at times, the coil
used in a line trap must be large in terms of physical size. Once the carrier
energy line, any control of the signal has been given over to nature until it
reaches the other end. During the process of traveling to the other end the
signal is attenuated, and also noise from the environment is added to the same
way that it was coupled at the transmitting terminal. The signal is then sent to
the receivers in the control house via the coaxial cable.

Figure 12.4:- WAVE TRAP

12.3 ADVANTAGE AND DISADVANTAGE OF PLCC ADVANTAGES:-
1.No separate wires are needed for communication purpose as the power
lines themselves curry power as well as the communication signals. Hence the
cost of constructing separate telephone line is saved.
2. When compared with ordinary lines the power lines have appreciably higher
mechanical strength. They would normally remain unaffected under the
condition which might seriously damage telephone lines.
3.Power lines usually provide the shortest route between the power stations.
4. Power lines have large cross-sectional area resulting in very low resistance
per unit length. Consequently the carrier signal suffers lesser attenuation than
when travel on usual telephone lines of equal lengths.

39
5.Power lines are well insulated to provide negligible leakage between
conductors and ground even in adverse weather conditions.
6. Largest spacing between conductors reduces capacitance which results in
smaller attenuation at high frequencies. The large spacing also reduces the
cross talk to a considerable extent.
DISADVANTAGES:-
1. Proper care has to be taken to guard carrier equipment and persons using
them against high voltage and currents on the line.
2. Reflections are produced on spur lines connected to high voltage lines. This
increases attenuation and create other problems.
3.High voltage lines have transformer connections, which attenuate carrier
currents. Sub-station equipment adversely affected the carrier current.Noise
introduced by power lines is much more than in case of telephone lines.
Thisdue to the noise generated by discharge across insulators, corona and
switching processes.

40
 CHAPTER-13

EARTHING OF THE SYSTEM

The provision of an earthing system for an electric system is necessary by the
following reason.
1. In the event of over voltage on the system due to lightning discharge or
other system fault. These part of equipment which are normally dead as for as
voltage, are concerned do not attain dangerously high potential.
2. In a three phase, circuit the neutral of the system is earthed in order to
stabilize the potential of circuit with respect to earth.
The resistance of earthing system is depending on
1. Shape and material of earth electrode used.
2. Depth in the soil
3. Specific resistance of soil surrounding in the neighborhood of system
electrodes.
13.1 PROCEDURE OF EARTHING
voltage rise between earth and neutral. Main earthling system must be
separate from earthing for lightning protection. The earth electrode must be
drive ion to the ground to a sufficient Technical consideration the current
carrying path should have enough capacity to deal with more fault current.
The resistance of earth and current path should be low enough to prevent
depth to as to obtain lower value of earth resistance. To sufficient lowered
earth resistance a number of electrodes are inserted in electrode must be drive
ion to the ground to a sufficient depth to as to obtain lower value of earth
resistance. To sufficient lowered earth resistance a number of electrodes are
inserted in the earth to a depth they are connected together to form a mesh.
The resistance of earth should be for the mesh in generally inserted in the earth
at 0.5m depth the several point of mesh then connected to earth electrode or
ground connection.
13.1.1 GROUNDING OF LINE STRUCTURE
High voltage transmission lines are carried out on lattice structure, which are
grounded with one or more grounding rods driven vertically at the surface.

Figure 13.1:-GROUND WIRE

41
When earth resistivity is high and driven rod id not adequate the remedy is bury
the wire in earth and connect it to the lower footing. The wire may run parallel
or at some angle to the time conductor is called as counter poise.
13.1.2 OVERHEAD SHIELDING WIRE
These wires are supported on the top of substation structure each top is
connected to earthing system by galvanized iron earthing strips, cover entire
switchyard.
13.1.3 NEUTRAL EARTHING
Neutral earthing of power transformer all power system operates with
grounded neutral. Grounding of neutral offers several advantages the neutral
point of generator transformer is connected to earth directly or through a
reactance in some cases the neutral points is earthed through is adjustable
reactor of reactance matched with the line.The earthing is one of the most
important features of system design for switchgear protection neutral
grounding is important because:
1.The earth fault protection is based on the method of neutral earthing
2.The neutral earthing is associated switch gear.
3 The neutral earthing is provided for the purpose of protection arcing ground
sunbalanced voltages with respect to protection from lightning and for
improvement of system.
Merits of neutral of neutral earthing
1.Arcing grounding is reduced.
2.Voltage of heating with respect to earth remains at harmless value they don't
increase to root 3 times of the normal value.
3.The life of insulation is long due to prevention of voltage surges or sustained
over voltage.
4.Suitable neutral point.
5.The earth fault relaying is relatively simple useful amount of earth fault current
is available to operate earth fault relay.
6.The over voltage due to lightning are discharged to eearth.
7.By employing resistance reactance in earth connection the earth fault can
be controlled.

42
 CHAPTER-14

BATTERY ROOM
In a GSS, separate de supply is maintained for signaling remote position control,
alarm circuit etc. Direct current can be obtained from 220volt 3 phase ac
supply via rectifier and in event of are failure, from the fixed batteries, which
are kept, charged in normal condition by rectifier supply.

Figure 14.1:- Battery Room

14.1 BATTERY SYSTEM
A VRLA battery (valve-regulated lead-acid battery) is more commonly known
as a sealed battery a lead-acid rechargeable battery. Because of their
construction, VRLA batteries do not require regular addition of water to the
cells, and vent less gas than flooded lead-acid batteries. The reduced venting
is an advantage since they can be used in confined or poorly ventilated
spaces. But sealing cells and preventing access to the electrolyte also has
several considerable disadvantages as discussed below.
VRLA batteries are commonly further classified as
1.Absorbed glass mat (AGM) battery
2.Gel battery ("gel cell")
An absorbed glass mat battery has the electrolyte absorbed in a fiber-glass
mat separator. Agel cell has the electrolyte mixed with silica dust to form an

43
immobilized gel. While these batteries are often colloquially called sealed
lead-acid batteries, they always include a safety pressure relief valve. As
opposed to vent (also called flooded) batteries, a VRLA cannot spill its
electrolyte if it is inverted. Because AGM VRLA batteries use much less
electrolyte (battery acid) than traditional lead-acid batteries, they are
sometimes called an "acid-starved" design. The name "valve regulated" does
not wholly describe the technology. This is really "recombinant" batteries, which
means that the oxygen evolved at the positive plates will largely recombine
with the hydrogen ready to evolve on the negative plates, creating water and
preventing water loss. The valve is a safety feature in case the rate of hydrogen
evolution becomes dangerously high.

44