Power System I - ECEG4403 2013

Chapter 5- Performance of Transmission Lines

5.1 Introduction
The important considerations in the design and operation of a transmission line are the determination
of voltage drop, line losses and efficiency of transmission. These values are greatly influenced by the
line constants R, L and C of the transmission line. For instance, the voltage drop in the line depends
upon the values of above three line constants. Similarly, the resistance of transmission line conductors
is the most important cause of power loss in the line and determines the transmission efficiency.
In this chapter, we shall develop formulas by which we can calculate voltage regulation, line losses and
efficiency of transmission lines. These formulas are important for two principal reasons. Firstly, they
provide an opportunity to understand the effects of the parameters of the line on bus voltages and the
flow of power. Secondly, they help in developing an overall understanding of what is occurring on
electric power system.

Overhead power transmission lines are classified in the electrical power industry by the range of
voltages:

 Low voltage (LV) – less than 1000 volts, used for connection between a residential or small
commercial customer and the utility.
 Medium voltage (MV; distribution) – between 1000 volts (1 kV) and to about 33 kV, used for
distribution in urban and rural areas.
 High voltage (HV; sub transmission less than 100 kV; sub transmission or transmission at voltage
such as 115 kV and 138 kV), used for sub-transmission and transmission of bulk quantities of
electric power and connection to very large consumers.
 Extra high voltage (EHV; transmission) – over 230 kV, up to about 800 kV, used for long
distance, very high power transmission.
 Ultra high voltage (UHV) – higher than 800 kV.

5.2 Classification of Overhead Transmission Lines

A transmission line has three constants R, L and C distributed uniformly along the whole length of the
line. The resistance and inductance form the series impedance. The capacitance existing between
conductors for 1-phase line or from a conductor to neutral for a 3-phase line forms a shunt path
throughout the length of the line. Therefore, capacitance effects introduce complications in
transmission line calculations. Depending upon the manner in which capacitance is taken into account;
the overhead transmission lines are classified as:
(i) Short transmission lines-When the length of an overhead transmission line is up to about 50 km
and the line voltage is comparatively low (< 20 kV), it is usually considered as a short transmission line.
Due to smaller length and lower voltage, the capacitance effects are small and hence can be neglected.
Therefore, while studying the performance of a short transmission line, only resistance and inductance
of the line are taken into account.
(ii) Medium transmission line- When the length of an overhead transmission line is about 50- 150 km
and the line voltage is moderately high (>20 kV < 100 kV), it is considered as a medium transmission
line. Due to sufficient length and voltage of the line, the capacitance effects are taken into account. For
purposes of calculations, the distributed capacitance of the line is divided and lumped in the form of
condensers shunted across the line at one or more points.
(iii) Long transmission lines- When the length of an overhead transmission line is more than 150 km
and line voltage is very high (> 100 kV), it is considered as a long transmission line. For the treatment of
such a line, the line constants are considered uniformly distributed over the whole length of the line
and rigorous methods are employed for solution.
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It may be emphasized here that exact solution of any transmission line must consider the fact that the
constants of the line are not lumped but are distributed uniformly throughout the length of the line.
However, reasonable accuracy can be obtained by considering these constants as lumped for short and
medium transmission lines.

Important Terms
While studying the performance of a transmission line, it is desirable to determine its voltage
regulation and transmission efficiency.
(i) Voltage regulation. When a transmission line is carrying current, there is a voltage drop in the line
due to resistance and inductance of the line. The result is that receiving end voltage (VR) of the line is
generally less than the sending end voltage (VS). This voltage drop (VS-VR) in the line is expressed as a
percentage of receiving end voltage VR and is called voltage regulation.
The difference in voltage at the receiving end of a transmission line between conditions of no load and full
load is called voltage regulation and is expressed as a percentage of the receiving end voltage.

(ii) Transmission efficiency. The power obtained at the receiving end of a transmission line is
generally less than the sending end power due to losses in the line resistance.
The ratio of receiving end power to the sending end power of a transmission line is known as the
transmission efficiency of the line i.e.

where VR, IR and cosϕR are the receiving end voltage, current and power factor while VS, IS and cosϕs are
the corresponding values at the sending end.
5.2.1 Performance of Single Phase Short Transmission Lines
As stated earlier, the effects of line capacitance are neglected for a short transmission line. Therefore,
while studying the performance of such a line, only resistance and inductance of the line are taken into
account. The equivalent circuit of a single phase short transmission line is shown in Fig below. Here,
the total line resistance and inductance are shown as concentrated or lumped instead of being
distributed. The circuit is a simple a.c. series circuit.

Fig.5.1 equivalent circuit of short overhead line

Let I = load current
R = loop resistance i.e., resistance of both conductors
XL = loop reactance
VR = receiving end voltage
cos ϕR = receiving end power factor (lagging)
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VS = sending end voltage

cosϕs = sending end power factor

From the phasor diagram

5.2.2 Medium Transmission Lines

As the length and voltage of the line increase, the capacitance gradually becomes of greater importance.
Since medium transmission lines have sufficient length (50-150 km) and usually operate at voltages
greater than 20 kV, the effects of capacitance cannot be neglected. Therefore, in order to obtain
reasonable accuracy in medium transmission line calculations, the line capacitance must be taken into
consideration.
The capacitance is uniformly distributed over the entire length of the line. However, in order to make
the calculations simple, the line capacitance is assumed to be lumped or concentrated in the form of
capacitors shunted across the line at one or more points. Such a treatment of localizing the line
capacitance gives reasonably accurate results. The most commonly used methods (known as localized
capacitance methods) for the solution of medium transmissions lines are:
(i) Nominal T method (ii) Nominal π method.
i. Nominal-T Method
In this method, the whole line capacitance is assumed to be concentrated at the middle point of the
line and half the line resistance and reactance are lumped on its either side as shown in Fig. below.
Therefore, in this arrangement, full charging current flows over half of the line. In Fig. below, one phase
of 3-phase transmission line is shown as it is advantageous to work in phase instead of line-to-line
values.

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Fig.5.2 Nominal-T equivalent of medium transmission line

Let IR = load current per phase ; R = resistance per phase
XL = inductive reactance per phase ; C = capacitance per phase
cos ϕR = receiving end power factor (lagging) ; VS = sending end voltage/phase
V1 = voltage across capacitor C
The phasor diagram for the circuit is shown in Fig.below

Taking the receiving end voltage VR as the reference phasor, we have,

ii. Nominal π Method

In this method, capacitance of each conductor (i.e., line to neutral) is divided into two halves; one half
being lumped at the sending end and the other half at the receiving end as shown in Fig. below. It is
obvious that capacitance at the sending end has no effect on the line drop. However, its charging
current must be added to line current in order to obtain the total sending end current.

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Fig.5.3 nominal-π equivalent

below

5.2.3 Long Transmission Lines

It is well known that line constants of the transmission line are uniformly distributed over the entire
length of the line. If an assumption of lumped constants is applied to long transmission lines (having
length excess of about 150 km), it is found that serious errors are introduced in the performance
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calculations. Therefore, in order to obtain fair degree of accuracy in the performance calculations of
long lines, the line constants are considered as uniformly distributed throughout the length of the line.
Rigorous mathematical treatment is required for the solution of such lines.
Fig. below shows the equivalent circuit of a 3-phase long transmission line on a phase-neutral basis. The
whole line length is divided into n sections, each section having line constants 1/nth of those for the
whole line. The following points may by noted:
(i) The line constants are uniformly distributed over the entire length of line as is actually the case.
(ii) The resistance and inductive reactance are the series elements.
(iii) The leakage susceptance (B) and leakage conductance (G) are shunt elements. The leakage
susceptance is due to the fact that capacitance exists between line and neutral. The leakage
conductance takes into account the energy losses occurring through leakage over the insulators
or due to corona effect between conductors.
(iv) The leakage current through shunt admittance is maximum at the sending end of the line and
decreases continuously as the receiving end of the circuit is approached at which point its value is zero.

Analysis of Long Transmission Line (Rigorous method)

Fig. below shows one phase and neutral connection of a 3-phase line with impedance and shunt
admittance of the line
uniformly distributed.

Fig.5.4 long transmission line

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The term

Zc.
√ z
y
. is called characteristic (surge impedance) impedance of the line; usually represented by

Additionally,√ yz is called propagation constant of the line represented by γ.

5.3 Generalized Circuit Constants of a Transmission Line
In any two port network, the input voltage and input current can be expressed in terms of output
voltage and output current. Incidentally, a transmission line is a two port network; one input port
where power enters the network and one output port where power leaves the network.

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Determination of Generalized Constants for Transmission Lines

(ii) Medium lines – Nominal T method. In this method,

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5.4 Ferranti effect

A long transmission line draws a substantial quantity of charging current. If such a line is open
circuited or very lightly loaded at the receiving end, the voltage at receiving end may become greater
than voltage at sending end. This is known as Ferranti Effect and is due to the voltage drop across the
line inductance (due to charging current) being in phase with the sending end voltages. Therefore both
capacitance and inductance is responsible to produce this phenomenon.
The capacitance (and charging current) is negligible in short line but significant in medium line and
appreciable in long line. Therefore this phenomenon occurs in medium and long lines.
Represent line by equivalent π model.

Line capacitance is assumed to be concentrated at the receiving end.

OM = receiving end voltage Vr
OC = Current drawn by capacitance = Ic
MN = Resistance drop
NP = Inductive reactance drop

Therefore;

OP = Sending end voltage at no load and is less than receiving end voltage (Vr)

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Since, resistance is small compared to reactance; resistance can be neglected in calculating Ferranti
effect.

From π- model,

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5.5 Surge impedance loading

For a lossless line, the line resistance is assumed to be zero. The characteristic impedance (Zc= √ z / y )
then becomes a pure real number and it is often referred to as the surge impedance. The propagation
constant (√ zy ) becomes a pure imaginary number. Defining the propagation constant as γ = jβ and
replacing l by x we can rewrite (5.41) and (5.42) as
(5.52)

(5.53)

The term surge impedance loading or SIL is often used to indicate the nominal capacity of the line.
The surge impedance is the ratio of voltage and current at any point along an infinitely long line. The
term SIL or natural power is a measure of power delivered by a transmission line when terminated by

surge impedance and is given by

where V0is the rated voltage of the line.

At SIL ZC= VR / IR and hence we get

This implies that as the distance x changes, the magnitudes of the voltage and current in the above
equations do not change. The voltage then has a flat profile all along the line. Also as ZC is real, V and I
are in phase with each other all throughout the line. The phase angle difference between the sending
end voltage and the receiving end voltage is then θ = β l. This is shown in Fig. below.

Fig. 5.7 Voltage-current relationship in naturally loaded line.

5.6 Power flow through transmission line

Consider the two bus system shown below

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Let’s take the receiving end voltage as reference phasor V R=|VR|<0o and the sending end voltage leads it
by δ(Vs=|Vs|<δ). The angle δ is known as torque angle.

The complex power leaving the receiving end and entering the sending end of the transmission line can
be expressed as(on per phase basis)

Receiving and sending end currents can, however, be expressed in terms of receiving and sending end
voltages as

Therfore;

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If SR is expressed in real and imaginary parts

From the expression for PR the received power PR will be maximum δ=β

Thus the load must draw this much leading MVAR in order to receive the maximum real power.
Consider now the special case of a short line with a series impedance Z. Now

we get the simplified results for the short line as

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The maximum receiving-end power is received, when δ = θ

Normally the resistance of a transmission line is small compared to its reactance (since it is necessary to
maintain a high efficiency of transmission),

Since δ is very small cosδ≅ 1,thus

Several conclusions can be drawn from the above equations

i. For R≅ 0(which is a valid assumption for transmission line), the real power transferred to the
receiving end is proportional to sinδ¿ for small value of δ), while the reactive power is
proportional to the magnitude of the voltage drop across the line.
ii. The real power received is maximum for δ=90o and has a value of |Vs||VR|/X.
iii. Maximum real power transferred for a given line (fixed X) can be increased by raising its
voltage level. It is from this consideration that voltage levels are progressively pushed up to
transmit larger chunks of power over long distances.
iv. The VARS(lagging reactive power)delivered by a line is proportional to the line voltage drop
and independent of δ
5.7 Voltage control techniques in a transmission line
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In a modern power system, electrical energy from the generating station is delivered to the ultimate
consumers through a network of transmission and distribution. For satisfactory operation of motors,
lamps and other loads, it is desirable that consumers are supplied with substantially constant voltage.
Too wide variations of voltage may cause erratic operation or even malfunctioning of consumers’
appliances. The statutory limit of voltage variation is ± 6% of declared voltage at consumers’ terminals.
The principal cause of voltage variation at consumer’s premises is the change in load on the supply
system. When the load on the system increases, the voltage at the consumer’s terminals falls due to the
increased voltage drop in (i) alternator synchronous impedance (ii) transmission line (iii) transformer
impedance (iv) feeders and (v) distributors. The reverse would happen should the load on the system
decrease. These voltage variations are undesirable and must be kept within the prescribed limits (i.e. ±
6% of the declared voltage). This is achieved by installing voltage regulating equipment at suitable
places in the power system.

Importance of Voltage Control

When the load on the supply system changes, the voltage at the consumer’s terminals also changes. The
variations of voltage at the consumer’s terminals are undesirable and must be kept within prescribed
imits for the following reasons :
(i) In case of lighting load, the lamp characteristics are very sensitive to changes of voltage. For
instance, if the supply voltage to an incandescent lamp decreases by 6% of rated value, then
illuminating power may decrease by 20%. On the other hand, if the supply voltage is 6% above the
rated value, the life of the lamp may be reduced by 50% due to rapid deterioration of the filament.
(ii) In case of power load consisting of induction motors, the voltage variations may cause erratic
operation. If the supply voltage is above the normal, the motor may operate with a saturated magnetic
circuit, with consequent large magnetising current, heating and low power factor. On the other hand, if
the voltage is too low, it will reduce the starting torque of the motor considerably.
(iii) Too wide variations of voltage cause excessive heating of distribution transformers. This may
reduce their ratings to a considerable extent.
It is clear from the above discussion that voltage variations in a power system must be kept to
minimum level in order to deliver good service to the consumers. With the trend towards larger and
larger interconnected system, it has become necessary to employ appropriate methods of voltage
control.
Location of Voltage Control Equipment
In a modern power system, there are several elements between the generating station and the
consumers. The voltage control equipment is used at more than one point in the system for two
reasons. Firstly, the power network is very extensive and there is a considerable voltage drop in
transmission and distribution systems. Secondly, the various circuits of the power system have
dissimilar load characteristics. For these reasons, it is necessary to provide individual means of voltage
control for each circuit or group of circuits. In practice, voltage control equipment is used at:
(i) Generating stations
(ii) Transformer stations
(iii) The feeders if the drop exceeds the permissible limits
Methods of Voltage Control
There are several methods of voltage control. In each method, the system voltage is changed in
accordance with the load to obtain a fairly constant voltage at the consumer’s end of the system. The
following are the methods of voltage control in an a.c. power system:
(i) By excitation control
(ii) By using tap changing transformers
(iii) Reactive Power Compensation

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Method (i) is used at the generating station only whereas methods (ii) and (iii) can be used for
transmission as well as primary distribution systems.
i. Excitation Control
When the load on the supply system changes, the terminal voltage of the alternator also varies due to
the changed voltage drop in the synchronous reactance of the armature. The voltage of the alternator
can be kept constant by changing the field current of the alternator in accordance with the load. This is
known as excitation control method. The excitation of alternator can be controlled by the use of
automatic or hand operated regulator acting in the field circuit of the alternator.
(Assignment on excitation control techniques)
ii. Tap-Changing Transformers
The excitation control method is satisfactory only for relatively short lines. However, it is not suitable
for long lines as the voltage at the alternator terminals will have to be varied too much in order that the
voltage at the far end of the line may be constant. Under such situations, the problem of voltage control
can be solved by employing other methods. One important method is to use tap changing transformer
and is commonly employed where main transformer is necessary. In this method, a number of tapings
are provided on the secondary of the transformer. The voltage drop in the line is supplied by changing
the secondary e.m.f. of the transformer through the adjustment of its number of turns. Two types tap-
changing transformers:off-load and on-load tap-changing transformers
(i) Off load tap-changing transformer- Fig. below shows the arrangement where a number of
tapings have been provided on the secondary. As the position of the tap is varied, the
effective number of secondary turns is
varied and hence the output voltage of the
secondary can be changed. Thus
referring to Fig. below, when the
movable arm makes contact with stud 1, the
secondary voltage is minimum and when
with stud 5, it is maximum. During the
period of light load, the voltage across the
primary is not much below the
alternator voltage and the movable arm
is placed on stud 1. When the load increases, the voltage across the primary drops, but the
secondary voltage can be kept at the previous value by placing the movable arm on to a
higher stud.
Whenever tapping is to be changed in this type of transformer, the load is kept off and hence the name
off load tap-changing transformer.
The principal disadvantage of the circuit arrangement shown in Fig. above is that it cannot be used for
tap-changing on load. Suppose for a moment that tapping is changed from position 1 to position 2 when
the transformer is supplying load. If contact with stud 1 is broken before contact with stud 2 is made,
there is break in the circuit and arcing results. On the other
hand, if contact with stud 2 is made before contact with
stud 1 is broken; the coils connected between these two
tapings are short circuited and carry damaging heavy
currents. For this reason, the above circuit
arrangement cannot be used for tap-changing on load.
(ii) On-load tap-changing transformer- In
supply system, tap-changing has normally to be
performed on load so that there is no
interruption to supply. Fig. below shows

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diagrammatically one type of on-load tap-changing transformer. The secondary consists of

two equal parallel windings which have similar tapings 1a ...... 5a and 1b......5b. In the normal
working conditions, switches a, b and tapings with the same number remain closed and each
secondary winding carries one-half of the total current. Referring to Fig. below, the
secondary voltage will be maximum when switches a, b and 5a, 5b are closed. However, the
secondary voltage will be minimum when switches a, b and 1a, 1b are closed. Suppose that the
transformer is working with tapping position at 4a, 4b and it is desired to alter its position to
5a, 5b. For this purpose, one of the switches a and b, say a, is opened. This takes the
secondary winding controlled by switch a out of the circuit. Now, the secondary winding
controlled
by switch b carries the total current which is twice its rated capacity. Then the tapping on the
disconnected winding is changed to 5a and switch a is closed. After this, switch b is opened to
disconnect its winding, tapping position on this winding is changed to 5b and then switch b is closed.
In this way, tapping position is changed without interrupting the supply.
This method has the following disadvantages
(i) During switching, the impedance of transformer is increased and there will be a voltage surge.
(ii) There are twice as many tapings as the voltage steps.
iii. Reactive Power Compensation
In a purely resistive AC circuit, voltage and current waveforms are in phase and reverse their polarity at
the same instant in each cycle .When reactive loads are present (such as capacitors or inductors),
energy is stored in the form of electric or magnetic fields respectively in the loads during part of the AC
cycle and results in a time difference between the current and voltage waveforms (for a capacitor,
current leads voltage; for an inductor, current lags voltage). This stored energy returns to the source
during the rest of the cycle and is not available to do work at the load. This energy, continuously
flowing back and forth (to and fro), is known as reactive power while the active power flows from one
point of the network to another.
Electrical power in an AC circuit has three components: real power (P), reactive power (Q) and
apparent power (S). Real power is considered to be the work producing power measured in watts (W),
or kilowatts (kW). Real power produces the mechanical output of a motor. Reactive power is not used
to do work but is needed to operate equipment and is measured in volt‐amperes‐reactive (VAR) or
kilovar (kVAR) Apparent power (also known as demand power) is comprised of (vectorial sum) both
real and reactive power and is measured in units of volt‐amps (VA) or kilovolt‐amps (kVA).
The reactive power required by these loads increase the amount of apparent power in the distribution
system and this increase in reactive power and apparent power results in a lower power factor.
The apparent power S can be calculated as:

S=VI*=P+jQ

P− jQ
I=
V∗¿ ¿

The magnitude of current I is

|P− jQ|
¿ V ∨¿= √
|I|= P2 +Q2
¿
¿ V ∨¿ ¿

As indicated in the equation the magnitude of the current I is dependent on P,Q and the system voltage
V. For constant power P and voltage V, current is dependent on Q. If Q becomes zero I will be smaller.
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And the voltage drop on the line is Vdrop=IZL. When I decreases the voltage drop also decreases, and if
the voltage drop decreases the receiving end voltage increases to the sending end voltage. Therefore, by
controlling the reactive power flow, we can control the voltage at the receiving end. This is called
reactive power compensation.

Absorption of Reactive Power

Various causes, which can be attributed for absorption reactive power and lead to high reactive power
flow, may be listed as follows.
1. Inductive loads. Especially lightly loaded induction motors, and transformers.
2. Induction Furnaces
3. Arc Lamps and arc furnaces with reactors.
4. Fault limiting reactors
5. Overhead lines-depending on the load current, overhead lines absorb( at loads above the natural
load) reactive power.
6. Shunt reactors

Production of Reactive power

1. Overhead lines- at loads below the natural load, overhead lines absorb reactive power
2. Underground cables-owing to their high capacitance, have high natural loads; and they are
loaded below their natural loads, and hence generate reactive power under all operating
conditions
3. Capacitors- may be shunt or series capacitors generate reactive power

The control of voltage levels is accomplished by controlling the production, absorption, and flow of
reactive power at all levels in the system. The devices used for this purpose may be classified as follows.
a. Sources or sinks of reactive power, such as shunt capacitors, shunt reactors, synchronous
condensers, and static var compensators
b. Line reactance compensators, such as series capacitors
Shunt capacitors and reactors, and series capacitor provide passive compensation. They are
permanently connected to the transmission and distribution system, or switched. They contribute to
voltage control by modifying the network characteristics.
Synchronous condensers and SVCs provide active compensation; the reactive power absorbed/supplied
by them is automatically adjusted so as to maintain voltages of the buses to which they are connected.
a. Shunt reactors
Shunt reactors are used to compensate for the effects of line capacitance particularly to limit voltage
rise on open circuit or light load. They are usually required for EHV overhead lines longer than 200km.
b. Shunt capacitors
Shunt
capacitors
supply
reactive
power and
boost local
voltages.
They are
used

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throughout the system and are applied in a wide range of sizes. The principal advantages of shunt
capacitors are their low cost and flexibility of installation and operation. They are readily applied at
various points in the system, thereby contributing efficiency of power transmission and distribution.
The principal disadvantage of shunt capacitors is that their reactive power output is proportional to the
square of the voltage. Consequently the reactive power output is reduced at low voltages when it is
likely to be needed most.
Application to distribution system
Shunt capacitors are used extensively in distribution systems for power factor correction and feeder
voltage control. Distribution capacitors are usually switched by automatic means responding to simple
time clocks, or to voltage or current sensing relays.
The objective of power factor correction is to provide reactive power close to the point where it is being
consumed, rather than supply it from remote sources. Most loads absorb reactive power; that is they
have lagging power factors. Power factor correction is provided by means of fixed (permanently
connected) and switched shunt capacitors at various voltage levels throughout the distribution systems.
Low voltage capacitor banks are used for large customers and medium voltage banks are used at
intermediate switching stations. For large industrial plants, power factor correction is applied at
different levels: i. individual motors, ii. Group of motors iii. The overall plant.

Switched shunt capacitors are also used extensively for feeder voltage control. They are installed at
appropriate locations along the length of the feeder to ensure that voltages at all points remain within
the allowable maximum or minimum limits as the loads vary.
Application to transmission system
Shunt capacitors are used to compensate for the XI voltage drops in transmission systems and to ensure
satisfactory voltage levels during heavy loading conditions. Capacitor banks of appropriate sizes are
connected either directly to the high voltage bus or to the tertiary winding of the main transformer.
They are breaker switched either automatically by a voltage relay or manually. Switching of capacitor
banks provides a convenient means of controlling transmission system voltages. They are normally
distributed throughout the transmission system so as to minimize losses and voltage drops. Detailed
power flow studies are performed to determine the size and location of capacitor banks to meet the
system design criteria which specify maximum allowable voltage drop following specified
contingencies.

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c. Series capacitors
Series capacitors are connected in series with the line conductors to compensate for inductive
reactance of the line. This reduces the transfer reactance between the buses to which the line is
connected, increases maximum power that can be transmitted and reduces effective reactance voltage
drop.
Although series capacitors are not usually installed for voltage control as such, they do contribute to
improved voltage control and reactive power balance. The reactive power produced by a series
capacitor increases with increasing power transfer; a series capacitor is self-regulating in this regard.

d. Synchronous condensers
A synchronous condenser is a synchronous machine running without a prime mover or a mechanical
load. By controlling the field excitation, it can be made to either generate or absorb reactive power.
With a voltage regulator, it can automatically adjust the reactive power output to maintain constant
voltage. It draws a small amount of active power from the power system to supply losses.
Synchronous compensators have several advantages over static compensators. Synchronous
compensators contribute to system short-circuit capacity. Their reactive power production is not
affected by system voltage.
e. Static VAR Compensation (SVC) systems
SVCs are shunt-connected static generators/absorbers whose outputs are varied so as to control specific
parameters of electric power system. A static var system is an aggregation of SVCs and mechanically
switched capacitors(MSCs) or reactors(MSRs) whose out puts are coordinated. The following are the
basic types of reactive power control elements which make up all or part of any static var system.
 Thyristor controlled reactor
 Thyristor switched capacitor
 Thyristor switched reactor

i. Thyristor controlled reactor

In an electric power transmission system, a thyristor-controlled reactor (TCR) is a reactance

connected in series with a bidirectional thyristor valve. The thyristor valve is phase-controlled,
which allows the value of delivered reactive power to be adjusted to meet varying system conditions.
Thyristor-controlled reactors can be used for limiting voltage rises on lightly-loaded transmission
lines.In parallel with series connected reactance and thyristor valve, there may also be a capacitor
bank, which may be permanently connected or which may use mechanical or thyristor switching.
The combination is called a static VAR compensator.

ii. Thyristor switched capacitor

Prepared by Engidaw Abel Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, AMU

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A thyristor switched capacitor (TSC) is a type of equipment used for compensating reactive power in
electrical power systems. It consists of a power capacitor connected in series with a bidirectional
thyristor valve and, usually, a current limiting inductor (reactor). The thyristor switched capacitor is an
important component of a Static VAR Compensator (SVC), where it is often used in conjunction with a
thyristor controlled reactor (TCR).

5.8 Direct Current transmission

Direct-current lines usually have one conductor which is at a positive potential with respect to ground
and a second conductor operating at an equal negative potential. Such a line is said to be bipolar. The
line could be operated with one energized conductor with the return path through the earth, which has
a much lower resistance to direct current than to alternating current. In this case , or with a grounded
return conductor, the line is said to be monopolar .
In addition to the lower cost of dc transmission over long distances, there are other advantages.
Voltage regulation is less of a problem since at zero frequency the series reactance ωL is no longer a
factor, whereas it is the chief contributor to voltage drop in an ac line. Another advantage of direct
current is the possibility of monopolar operation in a n emergency when one side of a bipolar line
becomes grounded.
Another advantage of dc line is the smaller amount of right of way required.
No network of dc lines is possible at this time because no circuit breaker is available for direct current
that is comparable to the highly developed ac breakers.

It is possible to conclude that dc transmission has many advantages over ac transmission but it remains
very limited in usage except for long lines since there is no dc device which can provide the excellent
switching operations and protection of the ac circuit breaker.

Prepared by Engidaw Abel Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, AMU

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Prepared by Engidaw Abel Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, AMU

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