NUMBER THEORY - INDUCTION

April 26, 2022

Theorem. (Well-Ordering Principle for N)

Every nonempty set of nonnegative integers has a least element.

1 Induction principle.
1. Given P (n), a property depending on a positive integer n, (i) if P (n0 ) is
true for some positive integer n0 , and (ii) if for some k ≥ n0 , , k ∈ N, P (k)
true implies P (k + 1) true, then P (n) is true for all n ≥ n0 .

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2 Induction in Geometry
1. A 2n · 2n square grid, without one square, can be cut into ’corner tromi-
noes’.

’a corner tromino’
The following figure shows a 4 × 4 − 1 board covered with 5 corner tromi-
noes.

2. A convex n -gon has n(n − 3)/2 diagonals.

3. Give a formal inductive proof that the sum of the interior angles of a
convex polygon with n sides is (n − 2)π. You may assume that the result
is true for a triangle.
4. For any natural number n greater than 3 , there exists, a convex ’n-gon’
with exactly 3 acute angles.
5. "Tower of Hanoi" It’s a children ’s game. It has 3 spindles on a base, with
n rings on one of them. The rings are arranged in order of their size It is
permitted to move the highest (smallest) ring on any spindle onto another
spindle, except that you cannot put a larger ring on the smaller one Prove
that
1) it is possible to move all rings to one of the free spindles
2) Peter can do so using 2n − 1 moves.
3) it can not be done in lesser moves.

6. The plane is divided into region by several lines (circles). Prove that one
can colour these regions using 2 colours so that any 2 adjacent regions

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 have different colours.
7. Into how many parts do n straight lines divide a plane if no two of them
are parallel and no three of them concurrent.

The adjoining figure shows 5 lines dividing plane into 16 regions.

8. Given a positive integer n, consider a square of side n made up of n2 1 × 1
squares. Show that the total number Sn of squares present is
n
X n(n + 1)(2n + 1)
Sn = k2 = .
6
k=1

3 Identities by Induction
1. Prove the the following properties for all n, m ∈ N
n
r = 1 + 2 + 3 + · · · + n = n(n+1)
P
a) 2
r=1
n
n(n+1)(2n+1)
r2 = 12 + 22 + 32 + · · · + n2 =
P
b) 6
r=1
n  2
n(n+1)
r3 = 13 + 23 + 33 + · · · + n3 =
P
c) 2
r=1
d) 1 + 3 + 5 + . . . + (2n − 1) = n2

Can you think of a second proof using the above figure?

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e)14 + 24 + · · · + n4 = 30 n(n + 1)(2n + 1) 3n2 + 3n

+1
1 2
f) 1P+ 2 + · · · + n = 12 n (n + 1)2 2n2 + 2n − 1
5 5 5
n
g) r=1 r(r + 1)(r + 2) = 41 n(n + 1)(n + 2)(n + 3)
1 1 1
h) 1·2 + 2·3 + . . . + (n−1)n = n−1
n

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 n+1
i) 1 + x + x2 + . . . + xn = x x−1−1
j)1 · 2 + 2 · 3 + . . . + (n − 1)n = 13 (n − 1)n(n + 1)

4 Divisibility by Induction
1. Prove the the following properties for all n ∈ N
a) 9 | n3 + (n + 1)3 + (n + 2)3
b) 16 | 32n+2 + 8n − 9
c) 9 | 4n + 15n − 1
d) 133 | 11n+2 + 122n+1
e) Prove that a2 − 1 is divisible by 8 for all odd integers a.
f) Prove that a4 − 1 is divisible by 16 for all odd integers a.
g) Prove that n3 + 2n is divisible by 3 for all integers n.

5 Inequalities by Induction
1. Prove the the following properties for all n ∈ N
a) 2n > n
1 1 1
b) n+1 + n+2 + . . . + 2n > 13
24 ∀n > 1
c) 1·3·5...(2n−1)
2·4·6...2n
1
≤ √2n+1
d) (1 + n1 )n < n for all n ≥ 3 without using binomial theorem

2. Find all natural numbers n such that

a) 2n > 2n + 1

6 Other Models of Induction

6.1 Strong form of the Induction principle.
Given P (n), a property depending on a positive integer n,
(i) if P (n0 ) is true for some positive integer n0 , and
(ii) if for every k ≥ n0 , k ∈ N, P (k) true implies P (k + 1) true, then P (n) is true
for all n ≥ n0

1. Every natural number can be expressed as a sum of several distinct powers

of 2 .
2. Prove that any polygon (not necessary convex) can be dissected into tri-
angles by disjoint diagonals.
1 1
3. If x ∈ R such that x + x ∈ Z, then, xn + xn ∈ Z∀n ∈ N

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 4. It is allowed to tear a piece of paper into 4 to 6 smaller pieces. Prove
that following this rule you can tear the paper into any number of pieces
greater than 8
5. Prove that a square can dissected into n squares for n ≥ 6

7 Some classical problems

1. There are n identical cars on a circular track.Among all of them, they
have just enough gas for one car to complete a lap. Show that there is a
car which can complete a lap by collecting gas from the other cars on its
way around.

Assignment
1. 12 | n4 − n2 for all n ∈ N.
2. All numbers of the form 1007, 10017, 10117, . . . are divisible by 53.
3. Prove that (n + 1)(n + 2) · · · 2n = 2n · 1 · 3 · 5 · · · (2n − 1) for all n ∈ N.
4. Prove that 17n3 + 103n is divisible by 6 for all integers n.
5. Prove that, if x > 0 is any fixed real number, then (1 + x)n > 1 + nx for
all n ≥ 2.
6. A bank has an unlimited supply of Rs 3 coins and Rs 5 coins. Show that
it can pay any amount greater than 7 .
7. Prove that an equilateral triangle can dissected into n equilateral triangles
for n ≥ 6
Does this figure provides any help?

8. Prove that n various straight lines in a plane, passing through one point,
divide the plane into 2n parts.
9. Prove that if q is a real number, q 6= 1 and n is a positive integer, then1 +
n+1
q + q 2 + · · · + q n = q q−1−1 .
10. Prove that if q is a real number, q 6= 1 and n is a positive integer, then
n
2n+1
(1 + q) 1 + q 2 1 + q 4 · · · 1 + q 2 = 1−q



1−q .

11. Prove that if q is a real number, q 6= 1 and n is a positive integer, then

n
+nq n+1
1 + 2q + 3q 2 + · · · + nq n−1 = 1−(n+1)q
(1−q)2 .