Bozkurt Güuenç

SS5»

TÜRKİYE CUMHURİYETİ NİN YETMİŞBEŞ YILI

 History of
Turkish Educatiorı
Bozkurt Güvenç

S p e c i a l

Education and Scienc

■ ■ ■
I s s u e H H İ

f l p r i l 1998, Uol. 2 2 , Ilo:108 ■ ■

a
fl Q u a r t e r l y Journal Published By
Turki sh Education Associatiorı
 T Ü R K E Ğ İT İM D E R N E Ğ İ
B İL İM K U R U L U Ü Y E L E R İ

Başkan Prof. Dr. Özcan DEMİREL

Başkan Yardımcısı Prof. Dr. Sabri KOÇ
Dernek Temsilcisi Yener ERGÜVEN
Üye Prof. Dr. Bozkurt GÜVENÇ
Üye Prof. Dr. Ningur NOYANALPAN
Üye Prof. Dr. İlhan AKHUN
Üye Prof. Dr. Bekir ONUR
Üye Prof. Dr. Cemal TALUĞ
Üye Prof. Dr. Ayşegül ATAMAN
Üye Doç. Dr. Meral ÇİLELİ
Üye Dr. Ferhan OĞUZKAN

ISBN - 975-7583-10-3

Sah ibi: Türk Eğitim Derneği Adına Genel Başkan A. Sezer ERGİN
S o r u m lu Y ayın M ü dü rü : Y enerERG Ü V EN
Eğitim ve Bilim/Education and Science TED Bilim Kurulu’nun bilimsel sorumluluğunda
çıkarılmaktadır. Türk Eğitim Derneği’nce yılda dört kez yayınlanır.
Yönetim Y eri: K ızılırmak Sokak No: 8 • Kocatepe - ANKARA
Tel: 418 06 14 • Fax: 417 53 65
 CONTENTS

A Note on Turkish Historiography 5

P a rt I. F ro m B egin nin gs to Tanzimat (ca 1850) 7-29
1 .1. Education o f Ancient Turks before the Ottomans 7

1.2. Schools and Scholars molding the Ottoman Empire 16

1.3. The Enderun and Upbringing o f Janissaries 26

P art II. F ro m Tanzimat to D em ocracyrH underd Y ea rs 30-60

II. 1. Military Schools Paving the W a y (1 7 7 3 -1 8 3 9 ) 30
11.2. The Tanzimat Refornıs (1 8 3 9 -1 8 7 6 ) 34
11.3. From Monarchy to Republic (1 8 7 8 -1 9 2 3 ) 45
11.4. Quest for Cultural M odem ity (1 9 2 3 -1 9 5 0 ) 49

P a rt I II. From Scholastic to Sodal Education (1950 to Present) 61-84

III. l.D em ocracy for Progress or Restoration? 61
111.2.Demography o f Growing Numbers:
Quantity or Quality ? 64

111.3.Dichotom ies:Genera/ or Technical,

Separate or Comprehensive, 72
English or Turkish; Private or Public; Fee or Free Schools?
111.4 . Dilemma: lslamic vs Secıılar or the Turk-Islam Synthesis? 7
111.5.Prospects o f the

“Uninterrupted 8-Year School” Controversy; 79

N ote on the R ole o f Military:

“ Intervention or Mediation” ?

B ibliograph y o f R eferences C ited in the T ext 8 5 -8 8

3
 A Note on Turkish Historiography
According to a concept of history held in France but
p r e v a ilin g in th e c o n t e m p o r a r y w o rld the vvriting o f
history, in the proper sense of the word, may be divided
into four principal ages:

1) The Classical (First) Ages: BC 3000-AD 476

(From early writings to the fail of Rome)
2) The M iddle (Dark) Ages: AD 476-1453
(From the Fail of Rom e to the Fail of Byzantium)
3) The New Ages: From 1453 to the French
Revolution (1789)
4) The R ecent or N ear Ages : F rom 1789 to the
Present
According to records o f Chinese archives, the T u rk s ’
appearance on the historical stage took place about BC
2 20 . B y th is d a te , T u r k s m ay b e c o n s i d e r e d as la te
comers to world history. Hence, like many nations o f the
E ast, T u rk ish h istory fo llo w ed a road o f d e v e lo p m e n t
m arkedly d iffe ren t from the p attern es ta b lis h e d in the
West. Following the criteria o f western historiography,
S i n a A k ş i n h a s r e c e n t l y p r o p o s e d th e f o l l o w i n g
chronology:

1) The Classical (first) Ages (BC 220 - AD 1071).

(From nomadic beginnings to arrival in Asia Minör).
2) The M iddle Ages (AD 1071-1839)
up to T anzim at (Reforms)
(An Islamic and slow transition to sedentary life )
3) The New Ages (AD 1839 - 1908)
(Process of westernisation to a state o f law)

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 4) The R ecent or N ear Ages
(AD 1908 - to the Present).
(Wide scale migrations, urbanisation and capitalism)

Ali such chronologies tend to be tailored to suit the

d i v e r s e p u r p o s e s o f h i s t o r i a n s . H e n c e , f r o m th e
standpoint o f educational history, the following schem e
m ay be adapted as the three m ain titles or parts o f the
essay that follovv:
1) From early Beginnings to Tanzim at Reforms
(ca 1850),
2) From Tanzimat to Modemity: The First
Hundred Years (1 8 5 0 -1 9 5 0 ),
3) From Scholastic to Social Education
(1950-to Present).

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 P a r t I. F ro m B e g in n in g s to T a n zim a t (ca 1850)

E ducation o f the ancient Turks from early beginnings

to the Tanzim at (or the Ottom an Reformation) period in
the second h a lf o f the 19th century is overview ed in three
parts:

• Education among Ancient Turks before the Ottomans;

• Schools and Scholars molding the Ottom an Empire;
• The E nderun School and Upbringing o f Janissaries.

1.1. E d u ca tio n o f the A n c ie n t T urks before O tto m a n s

T h e h o m e o f th e a n c i e n t H u n s a n d T u r k s , o f t e n
referred to as “C entral A sia” , was actually in the Altai
region located to the north o f China. N om adic peoples of
th is r e g io n w e re e n g a g e d in a s e m i - p a s t o r a l a n i m a l
husbandry. That is, like modern M ongolians, they lived
in portable, round tents and m oved about, grazing their
stock on piedmonts, plateaus and back to the plains. The
G re at W all o f C h ina separated b ut did not block them
from the fertile lands and basins lying in the south. They
f r e q u e n tly c r o s s e d the w all and in v a d e d the C h in e s e
territories but, more often than not, fell prey to cultural
assimilation with agrarian peoples and becam e Chinese.
After the Huns, migrating to and invading Europe, Turks
e s t a b l i s h e d t h e i r o w n s t e p p e e m p i r e k n o w n as th e
G ö k tü r k (A D 5 5 2 - 7 4 5 ) . T o w a r d s t h e e n d o f t h i s
statecraft, they erected the O rhon M onum ents with signs
and symbols o f the early Turkish cosm ology in both the
T u r k i s h ( 3 8 - l e t t e r R u n ic ) a l p h a b e t an d the C h i n e s e
(khanji) characters. After the Gokturks, Uygurs (AD 745-
950) in the Eastern Türkistan or S in -kia n g (agricultural)

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r e g i o n o f w e s t e r n C h i n a , l i v i n g in t o w n s h i p s , h a d
com m ercial relations wilh neighbors and used a ne w (14-
letter S o g d ) alphabet, adapted to the agglutinative nature
o f Turkic languages. A fter a long practice o f A ltaistic
S h a m a n is m (E lia d e , 1964), the U y g u rs s ee m to hav e
be c o m e ac q u a in te d with, and c o n v e rte d to B u d d h ism ,
w h ic h had lo n g b e e n d i f f u s i n g fro m N o r t h e r n I n d ia
t o w a r d s C h i n a , K o re a an d J a p a n . N o m a d i c T u r k i s h
tribesm en, m igrating further vvest, also encou ntered the
Islamic conquest sweeping the region to the east o f the
Caspian Sea and vvest of the Aral lake, a region alternately
referred by Persians as “Turan” or the home o f Turks.
This is w here Turks, gradu ally con vertin g to İslam ,
established their first and im portant dynasties known as
the K a r a k h a n id (A D 9 4 0 - 1 2 1 1 ) , f a llin g n o rth o f the
Oxus, and G haznavid (AD 963-1186) to the south of the
Oxus. To the north o f these peoples, betvveen the rivers
S y r D a ry a and A m u D a ry a , l iv e d the O g h u z (G h u z )
tribes who later founded the Seljuk Dynasty (AD 1038-
1157) in Persia and Asia M inör (Anatolia).
E d u c a tio n in the p re -Is la m ic era was, as ex pected,
m a in ly by e n c u ltu ra tio n , ie, “m o re s m a d e ev e ry th in g
rig h t.” P eople believed sons w ere born to b eco m e like
f a th e r s and d a u g h t e r s lik e t h e i r m o th e rs . H e n c e the
m axim : “ F athers ed ucate their sons and m o th e rs their
d a u g h t e r s . ” T h e f irs t l i te r a r y c u l t u r e a p a rt fro m the
imperial Chinese influences seem ed to flourish am ong the
Uygurs, who, with their simple (14-letter S o g d ) alphabet,
were, according to archeologist B ossert, forerunners in
the invention or diffusion o f the printing press, somewhat
ahead o f the Chinese.
E ducational ideas and practices, in transition from a
w arlike nom ad ism o f m assive h ordes (from the Turkic
w o rd o rd u ) to a m o re p ea cefu l a g g ra ria n is m , m ay be
found in, or traced to the epic stories in the “B o o k o f
(m y) G ra n d a d K o rk u t” (K itab-ı D ede(m ) K orkut). The
b o o k d e p ic ts tw e lv e s to rie s o f O g h u z ia n n a rra to rs
( “o z a n s " or trav e llin g folk bards). T hey a p p e ar to be
c o m p o s e d in d i f f e r e n t t i m e s a n d p l a c e s , s t a r t i n g
p ro b a b ly in the lo w er reaches o f the S y r-D a ry a (fro m
about 9th to lOth centuries), and in north eastern Asia
M in ö r (from lOth to 15th cen tu ries). T he stories as a
w hole reflect the cultural transition from pre-Islam ic to
Islam ic, from the fighting A lp to the wise Sufi o r Ghazi,
from a nom adic stock to an agrarian way o f life. O ghuz
trib e s m e n d is tin g u is h e d th e m se lv e s not o n ly w ith
p h ysical but also with high m o ral strength. T he brave
o ne w ould not brag about his own deeds but h on or other
h e r o e s . S u c h v a l u e s as p r a i s i n g m o r a l i t y , b r a v e r y ,
d e v o tio n to h o m e la n d an d re s p e c t to a n c esto rs as the
high est virtues w ere handed dow n from each generation
to the next. Korkut, the wise old man, was the tutor of
the Khan, princes and com m on peo ple alike. He was the
u n c h a l l e n g e d a u t h o r i t y , s y m b o l an d s p e a k e r o f the
ethos. “V alour is dearer than w ealth” he said. He taught
th e rules o f h o n o r, c o n s c ie n c e , f a ith and d e v o tio n to
ancestors. T here is the story about a captive father who
w as declared dead so that his son would not be asham ed
b y his father’s disgrace. Children were under the care of
th e family until they were 15 years old. Childless couples
w ere held in low esteem.
Tw elve stories o f the epic, tied together aroun d the
G ra n d a d K orkut figüre, were transcribed into a written
t e x t in the 14th or 15th c e n tu r y . T h e y are a b o u t the
r e la t io n s o f the O g h u z w ith n e i g h b o r i n g A r m e n ia n s ,

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R o m a n s (R u m s o r B y z a n t i n e s ) a n d G e o r g i a n s . T h e y
p ro v id e insig h t into sacred c o n v ic tio n s and p ra c tic e s ,
fa m ily s tru c tu re s , e c o n o m ic life an d p o l i ti c a l
organisations. A c co rding to C am sh id o v , the fu n ctional
pu rpo se o f the K orkut stories is to defend peace and to
order in the land and protect the unity and honor o f the
O ghuz peoples. Contrary to the “inner” (iç) and “o u ter”
(d ış) m o ities m e n tio n e d in the sto ries, B a y ın d ır K h a n
living ali the way tıp in north K azan is the ch ie f o f ali
O ghuz tribes. W ars break out with enemy attacks b u t end
with Oghuz victory. The peace loving Khan em erges as a
charismatic leader. The “ego vs others” structures detected
are fictive. Rather than antagonism or dichotomy, a spirit
o f diversity, tolerance, forgiveness, love, affection and
conciliation prevails in the land b etw e en groups. I f the
i n d i v i d u a l t a k e s r e s p o n s i b i l i t i y f o r a l i , th e w h o l e
c o m m u n i ty w ill p r o t e c t the r i g h t s o f i n d i v i d u a l s . A
m o th er’s right is held equivalent to G o d ’s. W om en appear
to be active, leading and respected heroines in ali stories.
A son n a m e d U ru z , d e f y in g or r e b e l l i n g a g a i n s t his
father, declares that he is leaving hom e for the A bhaza, to
ad op t C h ristianity and m arry the p r ie s t’s d au g h ter. As
s u g g e s te d by K o e s t l e r in the T hirteerıth T rib e som e
probably converted to Judaism, too.
A nother sourcebook o f inform ation co ncerning early
T u rkish education, and reflecting Islam ic influ ences, is
the K utatgu Bilig (“Ethics o f H appiness”) by Y u su f Has
Hajib (1069) of Balasagun. It was written in the Uygur
(ıS o g d ) alp hab et an d pre sen ted to H asan Ibn S uleim an
A s la n K han o f the K a ra k h a n id D y n a sty . T h e scenario
consists o f didactic dialogues taking place b etw een the
K h a n r e p r e s e n t i n g j u s t i c e , a n d h i s t h r e e m en
r e p r e s e n t i n g vvisdom , r a t i o n a l i t y a n d c o n t e n t m e n t ,

10
respectively. W here know lege was considered to be the
h i g h e s t g o o d , an d h o n e s ty th e b e s t p o lic y . H u m a n s ,
b e c o m e m e n by e d u c a t i o n . P a r e n t s , t h e r e f o r e , a r e
m orally ac c o u n ta b le for the p ro p e r e d u c atio n o f their
ch ild re n : in S e c tio n 63 and afte r, there are p ie c e s o f
educational advice and wisdom generously offered:

Train each child yourself Teach them knowledge, ethics

Don ’t trust them to others, For happiness in two worlds,
Don ’t let children wander Find a good bride for the son
For they may go yonder Let daughter be married cıway,
Lucky ifgirls weren ’t born at ali
In the last couplet there is a m arked prejudice against
the l'emale sex w hich is either attribu ted to the auth or
him self or the relatively secondary status of wom en in the
new ly adopted İslam, which seems like a departure from
the nomadic and the transient G randad K orkut teaching
o f ethics.

Another text o f educational significance is the D ivan-

ü L u g a t-it Türk A “C y clopaed ic D ictionary o f T u rk ish
L a n g u a g e s ”) by M ahm ut o f Kashgar. It was w ritten in
B a g h d a d ( 1 0 7 2 - 7 4 ) , w ith th e e x p r e s s p u r p o s e o f
i n tro d u c in g and tea c h in g T u rk is h to A ra b ic s p e a k in g
peoples. As in the other books already m entioned, there
i s n o s ig n o f a f o r m a l o r s c h o l a s t i c e d u c a t i o n b u t
f r e q u e n t r e f e r e n c e s to b a b y t r a i n i n g , c u l t u r a l a n d
inform al processes such as the im portance o f hygiene,
ten d er lullabies from by m others for putting b abies to
s le e p in a c rad le; p ro p e r n u rs in g , to ile t tra in in g , ete.
S o m e ghosts or phantom s are m entioned for scaring and
d is c ip lin in g the child w hen and if n ec essary . A lso , a

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v a r ie t y o f c h ild g a m e s w e re d e s c r i b e d fo r c o r r e c t l y
identifying the nam es o f animals and plants living in the
vicinity. A ccording to M ahm ut o f Kashgar, the T urk ish
w o rd bilig (as in the title K utatgu B ilig above), m eans
and is used for Science, p h ilo so p h y and logos. This book
is also a lin g u is tic in tro d u c tio n to T u rk is h p ro v e rb s :
knowledge is an attribute of State existence; listen to the
w ise and do w hat you learn from them, ete. Principles
for effective learning o f the T urkish language are:
• Proceed from sample cases to general rules,
ie. induetion rather than deduetion which is
also followed in Islamic discourse;
• Use samples, poems and proverbs o f daily eyele;
• A pproach culture by m eans of, or through language;
• Repeat generously and use repetitions for effective
teaching-learning.

T a k in g his o w n ad v ic e M a h m u t w rote, ed ite d and

revised his own book several times. He added to his book
a c i r c u l a r m a p o f th e w o r l d l y i n g a r o u n d th e O ld
(Asiatic) W orld which did not inelude Byzantines whom
the Seljuks had ju s t defeated (1071). T hese w ere busy
c o n s o l i d a t i n g t h e i r m i l i t a r y v i c t o r y in A s i a M i n ö r
(Anatolia).
The Seljuk D ynasty o f Iran was a new state founded
by the T u rk ish inv aders, d e sc en d in g from the Sasanid
D y n a s t y . T h e y o v e r w h e l m e d a n d e m p l o y e d th e old
Persian bureaucratic language, k n ow -how and tradition
in statecraft, su rv iv in g the Islam ic tak eo v e r o f Persia.
T heir education is m arked by

12
 (a) the favorable disposition o f statesmen towards the
arts and sciences
(b) the Institutions of formal and informal education and

(c) the A tabeks (honorable m a s te r /fa th e r s ) who

will be discussed below.

F a m o u s S e l j u k ru le r s lik e T u ğ r u l B e y , A l p a s l a n ,
M e lik s h a h , N iza m -al M tılk the a u th o r o f S iy a se tn a m e
( “ B ook o f the P o litic s ” ) and S an ca r had ali d is p la y e d
g re a t trust and re s p e c t for the M a d ra sa sch o lars. The
organisation of the Great Seljuk State after Ghazali was
based on secular separation o f the politico-military affairs
and the Khaliphate, responsible for religious affairs. They
w e re, h o w e v e r. c o o rd in a te d by a G ra n d V iz ie r or
S e c r e ta ry o f State, u n d e r b u t ac tin g on b e h a lf o f the
Sultan. Their official motto was that
A true scholar w ill not yield or bow to the amir,
[but ] a true am ir will alw ays consult the scholar.
Statesm en serving in ali branches o f the governm ent
w ere trained in the M adrasa. Hence, in İslam, ulem a, or
“ scholars”, means priests and pastors. The seljuks tried to
establish and maintain the D ar-al İslam (C om m onw ealth
o f İslam) in Anatolia, for which they fought to the bitter
end. After the first Seljuk M adrasa founded in N ishapu r
in 1040 by T uğrul Bey, several N izam ia M adrasa were
fo un d e d by Alpaslan and his grand vizier N izam -al M ülk
in Baghdad, They were soon extended to ali m ajör cities
like Musul, Basra, Herat, Isfahan, Merv, Amul, Rey and
T u s. Several o f the functions and purposes assign ed to
th e new M adrasa were :
• Defending the S ünni (Orthodox) faith against
the political Shia,

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 • Training state bureaucrats for service to the em pire,
• Ensuring the allegiance of the Oghuz tribesm en
to the state,
• Educating the M üslim scholars (M ullah or clergy),
• Supervising the education o f people in
newly acquired lands,
• Selecting and prom oting the poor for various
state functions,
• Initiating statesm en into Science and education
for public service.
The instruction was in Arabic, the language o f the holy
Koran. The method of teaching was based on rote learning
or m em orizing by repetition. Except for the main cities,
there was only one full professor (mudarris / m aster teacher
or in structor) p e r in stitu tio n w ith several a s s istan ts or
associates. The student enrolments ran ged from an average
o f 40 to several hundred. In Konia, the Capital of Anatolian
Seljukids in the 13th century, for example, there were 15
m adrasa enrolling a total of about 600 students.
F o u n d a t i o n s s e e m to h a v e b e e n i n s t r u m e n t a l and
successful in providing ample funds for the em ploym ent
o f staff for the em plogm ent o f staft including m asters and
s t u d e n t s , an d fo r the m a i n t e n a n c e o f th e i n s t i t u t i o n
including masters, assistants, tutors, imams and students.
Salaries, stipends and scholarships ranged from a yearly
m a x im u m o f 800 dinars (units) paid to the master, down
to 10-15 dinars for the students, in addition to their board
and lodging. M adrasa also had special funds earm arked
fo r b u y in g b o o k s , lig h tin g an d fu el o il, g e n e ra l
housekeeping, ete.

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 During the less than 200 eventful years o f their reign in
A n a to lia , w hich w ere m a rk e d w ith in c e s s a n t fig h tin g ,
c la sh e s and c o n flic ts b etw e en S elju k s o f Ic o n iu m ,
B y zantines o f B yzantium , native peasants and nom adic
T urkom en o f Asia Minör, not forgetting the several waves
o f C r u s a d e r s an d the M o n g o l i a n c o n q u e s t o f 1 2 4 0 ’s
w h i c h s h o o k a n d w e a k e n e d th e S e l j u k h o l d i n g s in
A n a to l i a , th e S e lju k s b u i l t an i m p r e s s i v e n u m b e r o f
cu ltu ral and co m m ercial institutions, such as m adrasa,
hospitals, mosques, caravanserais, ete. Despite great odds
and h an dicaps caused by persisten t wars, they laid the
c u l t u r a l in f r a s tr u c t u r e o f the T u r k i s h s o v e r e i g n ty in
A n a t o l i a , l e a d i n g to e v e n t u a l I s l a m i z a t i o n a n d
Turkification of native and migrant belligerents. Ali these
ac co m p lish m en ts m ay be attributed to their in tegrativ e
p o licies in in terc u ltu ra l ed u c a tio n or a cc u ltu ra tio n . In
1277, M eh m et B eg o f K aram an near K o n ia b o ld ly
decreed that “From now on, Turkish shall be the official
lan g u ag e o f the C ourt and that o f the L an d ” , im plying
obviously that it was not so until then. As the Seljukids of
Ico nium seemed to be nearing exhaustion the Ottom ans
on the northwest frontier, bordering and reckoning with
B yzantium were getting ready for a takeover to replace
the Seljuk Sultanate.
T he S eljuks had in n o v ated an d d e v e lo p e d in fo rm al
institutions like the A his brothers. C o m p arable in m any
ways to the Free Masonic brotherhood of the West, This
re c e iv e d both o p eration al (on the jo b ) and sp eculative
train in g , consistin g o f the 3-Rs, the basics o f religion,
personal and institutional hygiene and an ethical code of
behaviotır, involving the successive tying and untying of
their business aprons. This ritual sym bolized the closing

15
a n d o p e n i n g o f d o o r s : C l o s e th e d o o r to m i s e r y ,
exploitation, greed, torture, carnal desires, talking non-
sense or gossiping and that of the satanic temptations; but
o p e n the d o o r to g e n e r o s i ty , c o n t e n t m e n t , p a t i e n c e ,
h o n esty , tru st an d re lia b ility ete. T he fo llo w in g th re e
should be kept strictly elosed: eyes (not to envy others),
m outh-tongue (to refrain from cursing), and dress belts
(not to com m it adultery). In contrast, A his should have
open hands for generousity, open doors for w e lc o m in g
“God-sent guests” and open tables for feeding the hungry.
The traveller Ibn Battuta vividly testifies that Ahis, ali över
A n a to lia , e a rn e s tly p ra c tis e d w h a t they p r e a c h e d an d
accomodated their foreign guests, visiting the land.

1.2. Schools a n d S cholars M o ld in g the O ttom an E m pire

By and large this is the educational scene and stage that

the Ottom ans had inherited from the Seljuks, including
the basic ingredients like m ektep o r ku tta p (school and
b o o k s). In the O tto m an ch arters for fo u n d in g p rim ary
institutions they are referred to as, “mektep, mektephcıne,
m uallim hane, d a r ü t ’talim an d d a r ü l’ilm ” ete, standing
respectively, for school, schoolhouse, teacher(s) house,
drillhouse and knovvledge house. Primary or elem entary
institutions were generally located either in, or near the
m o s q u e o f the co m m u n ity . P e o p le c a lle d th em e ith e r
“M ahalle (n e g ih b o rh o o d )” or “S ib y a n " (pupil) m ektep.
They were often established by a v a q f (pious foundation),
willed by notables o f the state or honorables (a sh ra p h ) o f
the local society. E x p e n d itu re s, esp e c ia lly that o f the
teach er’s salary were paid from the endovved income of
the vaqf. In k e e p in g with M ü s lim p ra ctice elsew h ere ,
S ib y a n (or p a ris h ) sch o o ls fo llo w e d a sing le tra c k o f

16
simply reading the K oran in the original Arabic, vvithout
tran slatin g , u n d e rs ta n d in g or in te rp re tin g the text. Ibn
K haldun (1332-1405), the m ort A frican Arab historian,
so cio log ist and a contem p o rary o f early O ttom an s had
confirm ed the im portance of reading, revering and loving
the K o ra n in e a rly ch ild h o o d . A ra b eh ild e n w e re , no
d o u b t, le a rn in g the h e r ita g e o f th e ir c u ltu re , T u r k i s h
children o f the sam e age merely learned and becam e hafez
(dcaf and mute guardians o f the book).

T h e ch a rte r o f the F atih ( C o n q u e r o r ’s) F o u n d a tio n

p r e s c r i b e d th e s a m e t e a c h i n g r e g im e . T h o u g h s o m e
schools gave higher priority to orphans, others gave equal
o p p o r t u n i t y to ali 5-6 y e a r o ld b o y s and g irls o f the
n e i g h b o r h o o d . U n t i l th e y h a d s u f f i c i e n t l y m a s t e r e d
reading, ali children shared the same classroom or space
under the supervision o f a single teacher (H ojha). There
were no grades or levels. For Sultans’ (royal) princes there
w ere special (s h e h z a d e g a n ) sch o o ls w ithin the p alac e
com pounds. Som e v a q f schools, depending on the degree
o f affluence in the com m unity, provided clothing, food
and pocket m oney as well. For encouragem ent o f learning
or in com pensation for the hardship that youngsters had to
undergo and survive, the Sultans and high state officials
w o u l d , fr o m t im e to tim e , m a k e to k e n (ie, n o m i n a l
“ tenpence”) distributions o f money. In schools, pupils sat
on th eir knees on the floor c o v e red with m ats o r kilm
c a r p e t s or on s e a t c u s h i o n s th e y b r o u g h t fr o m th e ir
homes. Books were placed on X-shaped low tables, called
“rahle-i ted ris” (study desk), for reading, repeating and
m e m o riz in g the lessons assigned by the teacher. Som e
p r a y i n g r i t u a l s w e r e t a u g h t in T u r k i s h . P h y s i c a l
punishm ent, slapping girls’ hands and beating b o y s ’ feet,

17
was the rule rather than exception. At the school opening
ceremonies, it was a com m on ritual to teli the teacher, in
presence o f the child, “Flesh yours, bones m in e!” The
teacher, was thus authorized to p unish the child in any
w ay he saw fit. In his “M etho d o f T e a c h in g ” , (1453),
H u s e y i n o g l u A li ( h i m s e l f a t e a c h e r ) , r e c o m m e n d e d
beating as an effective cure for misbehaviour and laziness.
He argued that “Even wild animals could be trained with
lashes of the w hip.” If not beaten that much, the S ultan’s
children too were threatened by the fa la k a (bow and rod)
h an g in g on the wall. T he bow w as used for tying and
h o ld in g the feet in p osition . T he m o tto o f the sy stem
seems in effect to have been the same “Spare the rod spoil
the child” which prevailed in western schools until recent
times. H ow ever a G erm an traveller o f the 16th century
o b serv ed that physical p u n ish m en t in O ttom an schools
was not as harsh as in the western schools o f the times.
Teachers o f the Sibyan schools, popularly referred to or
a d d r e s s e d as “ H o j h a ” , w e re g r a d u a t e s o f the sp e c ia l
program s given at the M adrasa.
Ottomans as empire builders were interested in learning
th e p r a c t i c a l a r ts a n d s c i e n c e s b u t n o t so m u c h in
metaphysical speculations. Scholars returning hom e from
the well established M adrasa located in Egypt, Iran and
W estern Asia, brought hom e an old controversy that was
g o in g on a m o n g follovvers o f i m a m G h a z a li an d Ibn
Rushd, regarding the relationship o f rational thinking to
faith. Specifıcally, could the scientific realities of life, for
example, be contradictory to the truth of faith (pillars of
belief or credo)? In 1478, Sultan M ehm et the C onquerer
put this crucial question, long over-due, before a select
group o f M üslim scholars. After weeks o f deliberations,

18
the scholars held up G h a zali’s ta h a fu t (incom patibility)
argum ent against the counter view s held by Ibn R ushd
who, by the way, had strongly influenced the Renaissance
in the west. T he scho larly v e rd ic t was that the h um an
mind, vulnerable as it is, must stop right there and yield to
the faith in dogma. The Sultan had apparently confirm ed
this proposition which thereafter becam e and rem ained the
la w o f th e l a n d . It m a r k e d th e e n d o f ali s c i e n t i f i c
enquiries and speculations that may have fallen or seemed
totally contrary to the established (sunni / orthodox) faith.
T h e O t t o m a n s p r o s e c u t e d m a n y y o u n g an d t a l e n t e d
persons on the grounds of would-be heresy or apostacy.
Soon after the conquest o f Constantinople, the Sultan
had converted eight churches, including the fam ous Aya
(Santa) Sophia, into M adrasa. A nd du rin g 1463-71 he
b u i l t a n ew c o m p le x , stili k n o w n to d ay as th e F a tih
K ulliya, co nsistin g o f a Central m osque s u rro u n d e d by
several M adrasa, an elem entary school, hospital, library,
p u b lic b a th s, g u e s th o u se s and a p u b lic k itc h e n .
S p e c u l a t i o n s a b o u t c u r r i c u l a are n ot c o n c l u s i v e b u t
initially some rado nal and natural sciences like m ath and
m e d icin e were probably taught, soon to be discontinued,
h o w e v e r, for fe ar o f “i n c o m p a t i b i lt y ” w ith the Sunni
faith.

B ased on the prototype set by Sultan the Conquerer,

S u l e i m a n th e M a g n i f i c e n t h a d his o w n S u le im a n ia
K ulliya, designed and built by Sinan, the ch ief architect
a n d m a s t e r b u i l d e r o f th e E m p i r e . T h e S u l e i m a n i a
c o m p le x c o n siste d o f sev e ral sch o o ls and co lle g e s
supported by hostels and services ali conveniently located
aro un d the m osque court. It stili stands erect as the pride

19
o f the Empire. From charters o f authorisation and salaries
p a i d to m a s t e r t e a c h e r s , t h e s e O t t o m a n M a d r a s a ,
in c lu d in g th o se b u ilt and d e d ic a te d by S u lta n s
themselves, seem to have been established especially for
the teaching o f İslam. The education lasted one to two
years but could be extended if necessary.

Students were classified with respect to the levels (or

schools) they attended:
• Talaba, at the sibyan (or elem entary school) level;
• Softa or Ş u h ta at lower levels, in early years of
M adrasa,
• D anishm and, at higher or advanced levels of
M adrasa.
The language o f instruction in ali levels and schools
was Arabic w hich in the long run lead to a dichotom y o f
the literate (ulem a, versed in Arabic) versus the illiterate
(Juchela, speaking Turkish) and the inevitable low status
o f T urk(m en)s and their spoken languages. P rogram s o f
teaching or curricula seem to have been grouped under
three faculties or specialties: (1) R elig io n a n d Law, (2)
The N a tu ra l Sciences, (3) Instrum ental (or auxil'ıary fo r
other) sciences.
1) Religion or Law (the advanced know lege of İslam)
included:
a) Tafsir (the m eaning and interpretations of the
Koranic text),
b) H adith (the P ro ph et’s sayings and checking the
authenticity thereof),
c) Fıqh (the systematic, historical study of Islamic law),

20
 d) K elam (Islam ic p h ilo so p h y d e fen d in g fa ith in
Tevhid / unity),
2) The N atural Sciences (rational sciences, philosophy.
mathematics and astronomy),
3) The instrum ental sciences (logic, rhetoric, eloquence,
precis writing and esthetics).
This last g ro u p o f u s e fu l s c ie n c e s m ay be see n as
c o r r e s p o n d in g to the triviu m an d th e q u cıd riviu m o f
liberal education, innovated by Byzantines (Ostrogorski)
j u s t b e f o r e t h e i r f a i l , w i t h t h e d i f f e r e n c e t h a t th e
fundamentals of western (liberal) education, in addition
to th e 2 - R ’s, w e r e c o n s i d e r e d b y th e O t t o m a n s as
s e c o n d a ry . T h is n o tio n o f e d u c a t i o n in tim e le a d to
vitally critical consequences — as will shortly be seen.
The S h e y k h ’a l İslam (chief m ufti), who carried a wide
span of responsibilities ranging from religious affairs, to
e d u c a t i o n (m a d r a s a ) a n d c u l t u r e , v a q f ( p i o u s
foundations), to municipal administration and justice, held
the highest office, second in rank only to the Sadrazam
(Grand Vizier). M udarris (masters) o f the M adrasa who
ra n k e d ju s t u n d e r the S h e y k h ’a l İsla m , e n jo y e d so m e
degree of administrative autonomy and academic freedom
or immunity, were subject to court trials but as a rule not
given the death penalty. Molla L utfi’s exceptional case is
perhaps comparable to Socrates’.
P riest-preach ers (Im a m -H a tib s), state fu n c tio n a ries,
an d kadis (judge-governors) o f cities and towns were, as
a rule, ali M a d ra sa graduates. T e a ch ers o f elem e n ta ry
( s ib y a n ) s c h o o ls , te a c h in g m a in ly r e a d i n g an d s o m e
w ritin g , w ere g ra d u a te s o f s p e c ia l p ro g ra m m e s ,
com prising Arabic, Arabic gramm ar, literatüre, rhetoric,

21
ethics o f discussion, didactics o f the teac h in g -learn in g
p ro c e s s , m a th e m a tic s and g eo g ra p h y . A rith m e tic w as
included in geom etry while history was part of, or taken
up with, geography. Special requirem ents o f the teac h er
tr a i n i n g p r o g r a m m e s , n a m e ly e th ic s (rııle s ) o f
discu ssio n s and d id a ctics cali for com m ent. T h e s e two
s e e m to b e u n i q u e a n d o f T u r k i s h i n n o v a t i o n .
C a n d id a te s in th e te a c h e r p ro g r a m m e w ere e x e m p te d
fr o m fık ıh (Islam ic Law ); T e a ch ers w ere the a c c e p te d
and re sp e c te d m em bers of co m m u n ity . P ro p h e t
M o ham m ad had declared that “Teachers are like candles
o f th i s a n d th e w o r l d h e r e a f t e r ” . M o r e p o p u l a r l y ,
e d u c a t i o n w as c o n s i d e r e d as th e r o a d to m a n h o o d .
O tto m a n s d isc e rn e d and a p p re c ia te d , h o w e v e r, a
d iffe ren c e b e tw e e n an ed u c a te d p erson and a m an , as
reflected in the following anecdote :
O nce upon a tim e, a f a th e r to ld h is son th a t he
co u ld n ever becom e a man. The son turned out to
be a vizier a n d h a d his fa th e r brought to his office.
“F a th e r ,” the V izier said, “you see, l ’ve becom e
the V iz ie r .” “Yes, I see w hat yo u have b e c o m e ”
sa id the fa th er, “But, T d to ld you that you c o u ld n ’t
becom e a m an — not the Vizier.
After 1550, at the height of the reign o f Suleiman the
Magnifıcent, M adrasa seemed to be in a steady decline, like
the state they were part o f and serving. Scholars like Kochi
Beg (1631), and Katip Chelebi (1656), submitted reports for
an overall reform o f education, but to no avail, however.
The Madrasa system just could not prevent its, fail.
D e s p i t e s e r io u s c u r r i c u l a r s h o r t c o m i n g s ( l a c k o f
n a t u r a l s c i e n c e s ) a n d a n a c h r o n i s t i c as w e l l as
o b s c u r a n t is t te n d e n c ie s — lo o k in g b a c k w ith lo n g in g

22
rather than surging ahead— M adrasa education up to the
1600 may be given credit for
1) The high quality and standards o f physical, plant
and academ ic life around the main m osques located
at the civic centrum;

2) The excellent room and board accom odation either

free o f charge or within easy means and reach of
scholarship holders;
3) An e d u c a tio n a l p h ilo s o p h y c o m p a ra b le to “ earn
and le a r n ” ; stu d e n ts o f M a d ra sa , w ho w ere
e x p e c t e d to t a k e c a r e o f t h e m s e l v e s , o ften
volunteered for trouble shooting assignm ents given
by the state.
In addition to Huseinoglu A li’s (1453) T a r ik ’ül Edeb
(W a y s or M e th o d s o f E d u c a tio n ), alre ad y m e n tio n e d ,
three scholars stand out for their works and ideas about
O tto m a n e d u c a tio n : K ın a lız a d e A li ( 1 5 1 0 - 7 2 ), K a tib
C helebi (1609-56) and İbrahim M üteferrika (1674-1745)
w h o s e c o n t r i b u t i o n s w ill n o w be b r ie f ly m e n t i o n e d .
W ritten in 1564, on behalf o f Ali Pasha the governor of
S y ria (hence the book title), K ın a lız a d e ’s A h la k -ı A la i
c o n s is ts o f three ch ap ters: P r a c tic a l E th ics, E th ic s o f
F a m ily R elations (domestic education) and the Politics o f
S ta te c r a ft. On f a m ily e th ic s , K ı n a l ı z a d e s t r e s s e s the
im p ortance o f m oderate and peaceful parental relations
fo r th e d e v e lo p m e n ta l p s y c h o lo g y o f c h ild re n (o r
personality) of both sexes. In politics he distinguishes two
g e n e ric types b ased on v irtu e and c o rru p tio n . The
A l m i g h t y ’s c h o i c e a n d o r d e r is j u s t as H e is th e
benevolent administrator, striving for the welfare o f his
peop le. T he head o f the state m u st (a) treat everybo dy

23
equally, (b) distribute with equity, (c) never accept gifts
or bribes, (d) know the enemies well, (e) shun decisions
taken in fury or hurry. His ideal state model, know n as
the D a ire -i A d a le t ( “C ircle o f J u s tic e ” ), see m s to be
inspired either by the neo P latonist F a ra b i’s “V irtuo»s
C ity” or taken more directly from A ristotle’s Politics. He
s o m e h o w m a n a g e d to e s c a p e o r s u r v i v e G h a z a l i ’ s
(T a h a fu t-a l fa la s ife ) , w a rn in g s c h o la r s a b o u t th e
incom patibility o f philosophy and ideology.

K â ti b C h e l e b i , w h o w a s a s e l f e d u c a t e d m a n o f
scien ce, well a h e ad o f his tim es, strove a lm o st sin gle
handedly for an Ottoman Renaissance and Enlightenment.
A m o n g h is d o z e n s o f b o o k s is K e s h - fu z Z u n u n a
cyclopaedic, annotated dictionary o f about 15 000 titles.
H e d i s l i n g u i s h e d b e t w e e n r a tio n a l p o l i ti c s a n d th e
S h a ria . He stood for a secular state but was careful not
to a p p e a r a n t i - s h a r ia ( İ s l a m ) . H e e m p h a s i z e d th e
i m p o r t a n c e o f th e 3 - R ’s ( i n c l u d i n g m a t h ) , n a t u r a l
h i s t o r y a n d t h e p r i m a c y o f o r i g i n a l s o u r c e s in
education. In a way rem iniscent o f A ris to tle ’s “G olden
ru le or r a t i o ” , he r e c o m m e n d e d m o d e r a tio n and
conciliation, rather than conflict and extrem es. H e was
c ritic a l o f M a d r a s a 's “in s tru m e n ta l s c ie n c e s ” (ie. the
t e a c h i n g o f A r a b i c ) and r e c o m m e n d e d g o i n g to the
basic 3-Rs instead. In studying philosophy, one should
k now w here to stop and not step out o f bo und s (Islam ic
te a c h in g ) -so sh u n h im w ho d o es n o t k n o w or
u n d e rsta n d . One s h o u ld a p p e a r as he is and be as he
appears; ie, “ K no w thy self” . T h o u g h others c a n n o t duly
j u d g e , one should also believ e in God. In teaching and
le a rn in g s c ie n c e s w atch the p ro p e r o rd e r (se q u e n c e ),
e a c h b r a n c h o f l e a r n i n g m a y b e a p r e r e q u i s i t e fo r

24
ochers. A head o f his time, he was, p robably, visualizing
a m od ern “p y ra m id o f le a rn in g ” w here layers re ste d one
oa another.
İbrahim M üteferrika, was a H ungarian prisoner o f war
a ıd a unitarian turn ed M üslim . In 1727 he in trod uce d
a ıd operated the first printing press in Turkey. T hough
the Jews (since 1492), Gregorian A rm enians (since 1567)
a ıd O rth o d o x G reek s (sin ce 1627) had th e ir ow n
printing p re sses, M u slim s w ere d e n ied the priv iled g e.
Müteferrika (m eaning “carrier o f decrees”), believed that
o^scurantism was the main reason for this delay. After
the d e f e a t in V i e n n a ( 1 6 8 9 ) O t t o m a n p o w e r w a s in
d î c l i n e a n d th e t i m e w a s up f o r s o m e r e n o v a t i o n .
Müteferrika seized on this favorable spirit know n as Lale
Devri (the “Tulip Era”). He was the first to print Turkish-
Arabic dictionaries and natural and social science texts
for the M adrasa student. The fact that the total num b er of
books printed am ounted merely to 180 titles in the first
hundred years, will show what a rem arkable fellow this
prisoner of war was.
B esides these thinkers there are two scientists. The
cartographer-A dm iral Piri Reis in the early 16th century
d re w a se t o f th e m o s t a c c u r a t e w o r l d m a p s . A f t e r
lo o s i n g a s e a b a ttle h o w e v e r , he w as e x e c u t e d . T h e
n a t u r a l h i s t o r i a n İ b r a h i m H a k k ı o f E r z u r u m (1 7 0 3 -
1 7 8 0 ) , in h i s M a r ife tn a m e ( e p i s t e m o l o g y , 1 7 5 6 ) ,
anticipated Darvvin’s ev olutionary theory. A head o f his
time, he cautiously noted that “T ho se who refute such
k n ow ledg e may actually be com m ittin g a erim e again st
t h e i r o w n f a i t h . ” T h e f a c t t h a t h is b o o k w a s f i r s t
p ublished in M eh m et Ali P a s h a ’s Cairo (Egypt) in 1835

25
sh o w s th a t he h a d no i m p a c t o f c o n s e q u e n c e o n th e
O tto m an eo sm o lo g y or M adrasa education.

1.3. The E n d eru n a n d U p -B rin g in g o f Jcınissaries

Parallel to the M adrasa which educated scholars and

s t a t e o f f i c i a l s in a c c o r d a n c e w i t h I s l a m i c t r a d i t i o n
e ls e w h e re , O tto m a n s in n o v a te d a sp e c ia l and u n i q u e
institution of education, the Palace or E nderun (the “ inner
m o s t ” ) S c h o o l s f o r u p b r i n g i n g th e S u l t a n ’ s K u lla r
“ slaves” , better kno w n as “J a n issa ries” (new -soldiers),
w h o were o rig in ally re cru ited from selec ted C h ris tia n
fa m ilie s and c a lle d D evshirm e (“ d r a f t e e s ” ) or A c e m i-
o ğ la n la r (“freshm en”). The E nderun Schools bro u g h t up
th e se fre s h m e n into a p ro f e s s io n a l c o rp s o f s ta te
g u a r d i a n s . O t t o m a n s s e e m e d to h a v e b e e n f a i r l y
successful in this unique experim ent o f trans-[or forced]
c u l t u r a t i o n . M a n y s t a t e s m e n , w h o h e ld th e s e a l o f
a u th o rity and fate o f the E m p ire in th eir han ds, w ere
products o f this process. It should be m entioned at the
outset that the Janissaries as the end products, E nderun as
the school and D evshirm e as the selection system were
closely interrelated. Starting from this last they will now
be briefly described.

a) D evshirm e Boys
Every three to five years, the S u ltan’s special scouts
w o u ld com e to the field in search o f new talent to be
d ra fte d . T h ey w o u ld lo o k fo r h e a lth y , s tro n g and
handsom e boys and youths, aged betvveen 8 and 20. There
w as yearly total o f about 3000 boys but only one boy
would be drafted from about 40 Christian families, settled
in R u m e lia or th e B a lk a n s (A lb a n ia , S e rb ia , G re e c e ,
Bulgaria and Hungary). Orphans, only children and those

26
who were married would be exempted, as were the Jews,
R u s s ia n s , s h e p h c r d ’s son s and T u r k s t h e m s e l v e s for
reasons which lie beyond the scope o f this essay.
T h e c h i l d r e n w o u l d b e b r o u g h t to İ s t a n b u l ,
circ um siz ed and initiate d to İs la m in due p ro c e s s and
t a u g h t to s a y t h e S h a h a d a ( G o d is b u t o n e a n d
M o h am m ad is his P rophet). A fte r the ritual, the boys
would be sent to live with selected Turkish families for
th re e to five y e a r s , le a rn th e l a n g u a g e , c u l t u r e and
I s l a m i c p r a c t i c e o f p r a y i n g . A f t e r th is p r o c e s s o f
enculturation they w ould be re g istered and enrolled in
s ev en A c e m io g la n (fre sh m a n ) s c h o o ls, in an d n e a rb y
İstanbul, for receiving military drill and basic training,
a l o n g w i l h o n e - f i f t h o f w a r p r i s o n e r s ( k n o w n as
pentchick). According to the law and customs they were
considered “slaves” (kullar) o f the S ultan’s sword. Those
m aking the grade then would be selected and sent to the
E n d e r u n S c h o o l l o c a t e d in th e T o p k a p ı P a l a c e (o r
C am pus). Those not qualifying for this high honor would
j o i n th e f i e l d u n i t s t h a t c o n s t i t u t e d t h e r e g u l a r ,
professional Janissary Corps.
b) The Enderun School
T he incom ing students called iç o ğ la n la r (the inner
boys) would be further educated by (1) w orking in the
S u l t a n ’s s e r v ic e s , (2) m a s t e r i n g n a tu ra l and I s l a m i c
sciences, (3) developing their physical fitnesses and (4)
acquiring some vocational or artistic skills.
1) In-service training in the Palace consisted o f going
through seven consecutive cham bers or gates, for one to
two years each, namely:
• The Littlc R oom (learning mainly the 3 -R ’s)

27
 • The Big R oom (preparing for prom otion to h ig her
room services)
• The haw k (D o ghancılar) R oom (taking eare o f the
S ultan’s hunting birds)
• The W ardrobe (Seferli) R oom ( in charge o f
clothing)
• The B utler’s (Kiler) Room (catering services for
the Palace)
• The Treasury (Hazine) Room (the Sultan’s valuables)
• The Private (Hass) R oom (daily private (valet)
services of the Sultan).
E v e r y 5 -7 y e a r s o r v v h e n e v e r a n e w S u l t a n vvas
installed in the Throne (enthroned rather Ihan Crovvned),
the alumni o f the Private R oom vvould be appointed to
im p o r t a n t fu n c tio n s or p o s i t io n s , as q u a lif ie d p u b lic
servants of the state.
2) T h e E n d e r u n p ro v id e d a th e o re tic a l (a c a d e m ic )
education. In addition to the Islam ic sciences taught at
M a d ra sa , the E n d e r u n o ff e re d T u rk is h , P e rs ia n ,
literatüre, history and mathematics. The syllabi o f courses
and scholars invited to teach them lead to speculations
that the E nderun was in fact a school o f liberal arts, vvell
above the level o f M adrasa.
3) The Enderun also required physical training or martial
arts suitable to the young m en’s aptitudes and interests, like
archery, horse-back riding, spear throwing, wrestling, as
vvell as the fin e arts lik e m u sic , p o e tr y , c a llig r a p h y ,
m iniature, draw ing, book-binding ete. The music school
located in Palace was known as the Meshkhane.

28
 c) The Jarıissary Corps
T h e w h o l e s y s t e m w a s p o p u l a r l y k n o w n as th e
Y en ich eri O cak (C o rp s), w here the Sultan h im s e lf was
registered and paid as nu m ber one fellow. Slaves o f the
S ultan were not, before the age o f retirem ent, allo w ed to
g et ra a rrie d , h o ld b u s in e s s or e n g a g e in trad e . T h e y
succesfully served the state in peace and war until 1850,
and the C orps sup plied 79 grand viziers {Sadrazam ), 3
S h e ik h -u l İsla m , 36 A d m ira ls o f the N a v y (K a p ta rı-ı
D erya), along w ith m u ch g re ater n u m b ers o f officers.
T h o u g h the u ltim ate p urp o se m ust have been to prev en t
th e c o r ru p tio n o f s ta te c ra ft, a c c o rd in g to G e ll n e r the
C o rp s o n ly d e la y e d it fo r a w h ile until they b e c a m e
c o r r u p t e d t h e m s e l v e s . A l t h o u g h c o n v e r t e d to a n d
in d o c trin a te d for the d efe n c e o f İslam , they w e re not
s u b j e c t to, o r p r o t e c t e d by, th e I s l a m i c L a w . T h e y
re m a in ed S u lta n s ’ “slaves” who had no chance to regain
th eir freedom . The prestige and po w e r o f o ffices held
by Janissaries were so high that the policy o f isolating
an d k e e p in g th e m o u t o f th e r e a c h an d b r ib e s o f
p r o f i t e e r s — l i k e l y to g a t h e r a r o u n d t h e a b s o l u t e
a u t h o r i t y o f th e M o n a r c h — an d th e E s p ir it de C orps
gradu ally van ished and becam e a State burden instead,
re s is tin g ali re fo rm s and atte m p ts o f re n o v a tio n . The
C o rp s was finally and brutally d isb anded and replaced
in 1826 by a n e w arm y c o r p s , c a lle d N iza m -ı C ed id
(N e w O rder). W hile the E n d e ru n School su rv iv ed the
T a n z im a t a n d som ehovv l i n g e r e d on u n til th e y o u n g
T u r k s ’ t a k e o v e r in 1909, th e M a d ra sa p r o v e d rnore
stable and durable — as will be seen in the next section.

29
 P a r t I I . F ro m A T a n z im a t to T u r k ish D e m o c r a c y :
A H u n d red Y e a rs
II .l. M ilita ry Schools: P a vin g a n d L ea d in g the W a y
In th e y e a r 1 7 7 0 , w h i l e t h e s t e a m e n g i n e w a s
becom ing the sym bol o f the British Empire, scholars of
the French Enlightenm ent were busy with new editions o f
the E n cyclo p a ed ia and the G erm an philosopher Kant was
starting work on his K ritik der reinen Vernunft, a Russian
battle fleet, circum -sailing Europe ali the way from the
Baltic into the M editerrenean and the Egean, burned the
Ottom an Navy lying at anchor in the C heshm e base. In
c o n f u s io n or d e s p e r a t i o n , the O tto m a n s p r o t e s t e d to
Venice (presumably) for letting the Russian fleet via the
Adriatic. In 1773, the first school o f naval engineering
“M ühendishane-i B ahri-i H ü m a y u n ” was inaugurated in
İstan bul with a scientific cu rricu la based on g eo m etry
{H endese). Since ali m athem atical subjects were taught
u n d e r th e g e n e ric n am e o f g e o m e tr y , s c h o o ls o f
e n g i n e e r i n g f o u n d e d t h e r e a f t e r w e re a l w a y s c a ll e d
“M u h e n d is h a n e ”, the “ H o m e o f G e o m e t r i c i a n s ” . (In
m o d e r n T u r k i s h , e n g i n e e r s a r e s t i l i k n o w n as
“ g e o m e t e r s ” .) T h e p h i l o s o p h i c a l c u r r i c u l a o f th e
M a d ra sa p r o p o s e d by G h a z a li an d Ib n K h a ld u n had
a p p a re n tly been e ith e r d isc o n tin u e d or becom e
d y s f u n c t i o n a l . N o m a s t e r o f th e M a d r a s a k n e w or
rem em bered Euclid any more. Therefore the new school
h a d to b e g in w ith the 3 - R ’s, m o d e r n l a n g u a g e s like
French and English and m athem atics to be followed by
m arin e sciences. Tvventy years later, in 1793 the first
M ilitary School o f Engineering {M ühendishane-i B erri-i
H u m a y u n ) was opened, to teach m ilitary sciences like
artillery, military engineering, and cartography. Here too,

30
as th e n a m e s u g g e s t s , th e c u r r i c u l u m w as b a s e d on
geometry, arithmetic, physics and geography. The naval
school joined the new program , which was a revolution
in Turkish education (see Table II. 1.1).

T able 11*1.1 Program o f the F irst M ilitary S chool of

E ngin eering (1793)

First Year Second Year Third Year Fourth Year

Calligraphy Calculations Geography Conic Sections
Dictation Geometry Trigonometry Calculus
Technical Drawing Geography Algebra Mechanics
Arabic Language Arabic Lang Topography B iology
Plane Geometry French History o f War Signalization
Numerical calculus Demolution
French Theory o f Drills
Military E n g’ g

Soıırce : Akyüz , Türk Eğitim Tarihi. 1 9 9 4 : 126.

Students were taken to the field two days a vveek for

practical work, drills, exercises and applications o f their
theoretical studies. Seniors sent to public works projects
w ere expected to draw and bring back maps o f the area
visited.
Sultan Selim III, vvarned and alarm ed by the French
Revolution and trying desperately to m odernize the State,
the A rm y and the Imperial Household, was stopped and
disp o sed by a reactionary plot (1807).
T h e G reek C o m m unity o f İstanbul was ch artered in
1805 to establish a medical school. The school was — for
reasons not quite clear— closed in 1812. The first State

31
School o f M edicine and Urban Surgery (Tıphane-i A m ire
ve Cerrahharıe-i M am ure) was opened in 1827. T he four
year program s ineluded:
Arabic, Turkish, French, Grammar, Dictation. Writing,
Names ofP lants and Drugs (Turkish - Arabic), Religion
(in fr e e tim e), A natom ic A tla s a n d Introduction to
Medical Science, Practice o f Surgery.
The language o f instruetion was French in the M edical
and T urkish in the Surgery school. Except for abolishing
the Janissary “H eart” and shunning the Bektashi Order,
vvhich were deem ed to be necessary for the establishm ent
o f the N e w A rm y C o rp s (1 8 2 6 ), the O tto m a n U lem a
( M ü s l i m s c h o l a r s ) o p p o s e d a n d s t o p p e d n e a r l y ali
a tte m p ts to re s to r e the O tto m a n H o u se. T h e d ie -h a rd
resistance — or self defence— o f the Islamic world view
c o n tin u e d th ro u g h the T anzim at to R ep ublican T urkey
and survives even today as the “political İslam” .
Sultan Mahmut II, who had succeeded Selim, dissolved
the J a n issa ry C o rp s an d fo u n d e d a N e w A rm y C orps,
needed literate officers for running and leading the new
army adapted from post-Napoleonic France. The very few
graduates o f the existing schools o f military engineering
were inadequate to meet the demand. In the aftermath of the
O ttom an defeat by the E gyptian A rm y in 1827, radical
measures had to be taken in a hurry. In 1830 Admiral Halil
Rıfat Pasha reported to Sultan Mahmud II that “Unless the
European (ie, rational or secular) course is followed, there
will be no way left [for Turks], other than going back to
A sia.” In 1831, adult sibyan com panies were formed for
teaching the 3-R ’s to the non-commissioned officers of the
new army. And fınally in 1834, M ekteb-i Funun-u Harbiye
(the School of Military Sciences) or the W ar College was

32
established. Soon thereafter, selected cadets were sent to, and
in return professors were invited from, European capitals.
The school was organized in two levels: (1) a prep section of
e ig h t g rad es and (2) an a d v a n c e d section for tea c h in g
military skills and techniques.

P reparatory Section

İs t grade
2 n d and 3rd grades
4th and 5th grades
6th grades
7th and 8th grades
: The 2 -R ’s
(mastering two letter words)
: The 3 -R ’s
(mastering three letter words)
: The Religion and Foundations
o f İslam
: Field M anuals and
Military Laws
: The Novel, elective writings,
dictionaries, official
correspondence, draft and
com position writing

A d v a n c e d Section
(100 students succesfully com pleting the 8th grade,
vvere introduced to)

E n g in e e rin g M ag a zin es, M ap M ak in g , A p p lied

T o p o g r a p h y , A p p l i e d G e o m e t r y a n d th e S c i e n c e o f
G eo m etry.

33
 Table II.2.3 Courses Prescribed
by the W ar C ollege (1834)
Geometry Chemistry (composition o f matter)

Algebra French Language (study of)

Analitical Geometry Fortifications (light and heavy)

Perspectives Floating Bridge Construction

C onic Sections Technical Drawing

Calculus M ap M aking Techniques

Mechanics Gun, R ifle and Sword Drills

B iolog y Infantry and Cavalry Drills

Natural History (physics) Z o ology (wild animal)

Source : Akyüz : 1994

The W ar College prescribed an ambitious program for

teaching sciences which was not plausible in 1834. The
p r o g r a m w as g r a d u a l l y d e v e l o p e d and o f f e r e d a f t e r
1 8 4 7 , ie d u r i n g T a n zim a t. A rm y o f f ic e r s w h o w e re
m e r e l y e x p o s e d to s u c h s c i e n c e s , h o w e v e r , b e c a m e
p io n e e rs in tr a n s f u s in g the m o d e rn c u rric u la to o th e r
institutions o f the Tanzimat.

11.2. T he T a n zim a t R e fo r m s (1 8 3 9 -1 8 7 6 )

In the T anzim at Declaration officially known as the

“Imperial G ulhane Decree o f 1839” , read by the Grand
V izier M ustafa Reshid Pasha in the name o f Sultan, there
was no m en tio n o f p u blic ed u c atio n . It was ta k en for
granted how ever that such radical m easures could only
be possible by educational reform s effected by the state.
In 1845 before the Im perial D ecree o f 1856 confirm ing
that E uropean ed ucatio n, scien ce and capital w ould be

34
used, Sultan Abdulmecid, who succeeded Sultan M ahm ut
II, had message read, to top officials o f his government.
It stated in effect that:
The Sultan was disappointed that no p ro g ress has
been m ade in education.
New schools should be innovated — ev en invented i f
necessary— fo r puplic education, fo r g en e ra l and
vocational education ali ö ver the country a n d f o r
h a p p in e s s o f th e p e o p le in th is a n d th e w o r ld
hereafter.

T h e M i n i s t r y o f G e n e r a l S c h o o l s , f o u n d e d in
1 8 4 6 , w a s i n c o r p o r a t e d in 1 8 5 7 to th e M i n i s t r y o f
G eneral Education. The S ultan’s m essage also gave the
starting signal long needed for substantive reform s and
r e n o v a t i o n s , k n o w n as “ T h e 1 8 4 7 D i r e c t i v e s ” . In
com pliance vvith the Imperial Orders, the Sibyan school
p r o g r a m s w e re r a d i c a l l y r e v is e d . T h e n e w p r o g r a m
included: The Alphabet, Turkish (writing two and three-
letter words, ethics (brief, anecdotal stories), Calligraphy
a n d R elig iou s info rm ation (a b o u t İslam ), K oran to be
r e a d tw ice (vvithout m e m o rizin g by heart). A rithm etic
(fo u r basic operations), the O utline o f O ttom an history
a n d o n o u tlin e o f g e o g r a p h y . F o r w ritin g e x e r c i s e s ,
introduced anew, pupils were to be given slate boards to
b e supplied by Sultan himself. Schooling was to begin at
th e ag e o f sev e n and co n tin u e for four years vvithout
y e a r ly p a sse s or fa ilu re s, b u t te rm in a tin g w ith a
gradu atio n exam at the end. Those failing the final exams
w e re allowed to remain in school until the age o f 13.

This certainly was a bold and brave leap forvvard. Yet

th e real revolution of the 1847 Directive was effected in

35
secondary education. For, as has been shown, there was
no i n s t i t u t i o n b e t w e e n th e S i b y a n s c h o o l a n d t h e
M a d r a s a , an d the first sc h o o ls o f n aval and m ilita r y
engineering founded in XVIII century had to set up and
run their own prim ary and secondary school program s.
T a n z im a t p r o p o s e d t h r e e n e w s c h o o l s , n a m e l y ,
R u sh d iy a , Id a d iy a an d S u lta n iy a : R u sh d iy a , a 4 - y e a r
make-up or maturity school at the primary level; Idadiya, a
4 -y e ar school for p re p ara tio n to h ig her and v o ca tio n a l
education; and Sultaniya a 6-year secondary school (above
R u sh d iy a bu t in c lu d in g Id a d iy a ), w hich was the first
Ottoman lycee. Due to the lack of a real university, the first
Ottoman Sultanis established in İstanbul, like Galatasaray
a n d D a r u s h a fa k a ( “ D a t c h k a ) ” t o w a r d s th e e n d o f
Tanzimat, set up the national standards of a Baccalaureate
degree, w hich was later taken up and continued by the
Republicans. In 1848 the first teacher training school was
opened in İstanbul for educating the R u shdiya teachers.
There were in 1852 only 12 R ushdiya in İstanbul while in
1874 some 18. In big cities of the Empire there existed a
to ta l o f 25 R u s h d iy a in 1853. T h e T a n zim a t l e a d e r s ’
decision to open a university in 1846 came true in 1863
w ith an im pressive list o f O ttom an scholars lined up as
teachers. The building, constructed of timber, burned dovvn
in 1865 with some 4000 books acquired from abroad.
The m ajör educational break throug h o f the Tanzim at
cam e with the 1869 “O rdinance o f G eneral Education,”
(M aarif-i Umum iye N izam nam esi) conceiv ed and vvritten
by S ad u llah P ash a in re sp o n se to a d ip lo m a tic French
note requesting the establishm ent o f a m odern lycee. The
1869 O rd in a n c e w as an a tte m p t fo r a s u ita b le
infrastructure, based on the following prem ises :

36
 • In d u stry , c o m m e rc e and b u s in e s s h av e n ot
d e v e lo p e d b e c a u s e we h a v e n o t tr a i n e d th e
necessary manpower;
• This o rd in an c e for c o n te m p o r a ry e d u c a tio n will
train the experts who can develop both culture and
industry;
• industry is possible not by im itation but through
science and technology;
• S ib y a n s c h o o l s a n d t e a c h e r s a r e i n a d e q u a t e ,
Rushdiya are not m uch better o ff as they follow the
same Sibyan tradition.

H en ce some o f the o b je c tiv e s o f the re fo rm s to be

undertaken were:
1) C o m p u l s a r y p r i m a r y ( b a s i c ) e d u c a t i o n f o r
everybody
2) Renewal and developm ent o f ali school program s
3) A H i g h e r B o a r d o f E d u c a t i o n f o r p r o g r a m
developm ent
4) S ib y a n s c h o o l s in a li v illa g e s and rural
communities
5) Rushdiya in ali townships
6) Idadiya in ali cities
7) S u lta n iy a (ly c e e s ) in r e g io n a l (s ta te / e y a le t)
capitals
8) T each;rs colleges for men and wom en in İstanbul
9) A nev university in İstanbul
10) Rushûiya for girls (inas) in suitable (settlements)
settlements

37
 11) Q u a lifie d teac h ers for tra n s la tin g school b o o k s
from F rench
12) S ta te in s p e c tio n o f re lig io n c o u rs e s o ff e re d b y
church authorities
13) Science teachers from abroad until native teachers
are trained ready
14) Rushdiya and Idadiya finances were to be shared
by the State %25, and local anthorities %75
15) Pilot projects tried in İstanbul were to be extended
country wide.

Table II.2.1. O rdinance (O fficial)

P rogram s for Rushdiya

Boys Common Core Girls

Introduction to Religion

Ottoman (Turkish) Language

Dictation and Com position

Arabic and Persian (Farsi)

Line Drawing Exercises
Bookkeeping Techniques

Geography
Plane Geometry

General History Outline o f History

Physical training Readings in Literatüre

Local language(s) Embroidery Designs

French (elective) M usic (elective)

Source : A k yü z (1 9 9 4 :1 4 4 )

38
 T h e S u lta n i S c h o o ls ( c o r r e s p o n d i n g to a w e s t e r n
lycee) to be established in some important urban centers
only, were conceived as six-year secondary institutions,
ab o v e the R u sh d iya. In the first three years called the
“A d i” (ordinary) level, the idadiya program s (Table II.
4) would be required. In the last three years, called the
“A li” or the higher level, Science and Literatüre branches
were available and optional.

T able II.2.2.
id a d iy a Program s P rescribed by the 1869 O rdinance
(For Boys)

Turkish Writing (advanced) Natural History

Grammar of Turkish Lang Algebra
French Math and Bookkeeping
Logic Geometry
Wealth of Nations Geometry of Areas
(economics) Technical Drawing
Geography Biology
General History Chemistry

Source : Akyüz (1994: 145)

Notes:
1) Arabic and Persian studies were replaced by Turkish and French.
2) Religious studies were replaced by Natural History and sciences
3) Some course requirements could be changed by the Ministry’s approval.

T h e positivistic spirit o f the 1869 O rdinance is best

ex pressed by the Terakki (“p rogress”) journal, published
b y the “Society for Sciences” in 1869:

/ / the lo n g -h a ired sh o rt-m in d ed w om en a p p ea re d

in fe r io r to m en, it w as d u e to th e ir in a d e q u a te
education and lim ited participation in pu b lic life.

39
 A u n i v e r s i t y in İ s t a n b u l , e n v i s a g e d by th e 1 8 6 9
Ordinance, came to life in 1870 under the able leadership of
Hojha Tahsin Efendi. His live experiments about life and his
night lectures open to the public resulted in harsh reactions
from the M adrasa followers.
Table II.2.3.
Sultaniya Program s : the U pper (L yee) L evel
( A three-year course)

L iteratüre Branch Science Branch

Art of Turkish Writing Descriptive Geometry
Precis writing exercises Analytical Geometry
Readings in Arabic & Farsi Perspectives
Syntax and Dictionary Algebra
French Language Trigonometry (plane
Wealth of Nations and spherical)
Laws of Nations Astronomy
History Biology
Applied Chemistry
Natural Sciences
Topography

Source: Akyüz (1994: 146)

T ab le II.2.3. m erely p rovides the prescrip tio n ; how

well it was fulfilled is another question.

T h e U n iv e r s ity o ff e re d th ree p ro g r a m s for te a c h e r

training. See Table II.7.

After another abortive trial in 1872, the second attempt

to establish a university failed in 1873 with less than 100
students A year later, in 1874, the idea was revived and put
to the test, a re a s o n a b ly safe d is ta n c e aw ay from the
conservative M adrasa (located in the Fatih region) in the

40
Galatasaray Sultaniya buildings, located in the Pera Section
o f the city, across the G olden H orn. A c co rd in g to the
O r d i n a n c e , th is n e w u n i v e r s i t y w a s to h a v e t h re e
departments (faculties or colleges): 1) School o f Arts and
S c ien ce , 2) S ch o o l o f L aw , and 3) S c h o o l o f N a tu ra l
Sciences and Mathematics. Prescribed Course Programs for
each school are shown in Table II.2.4.

Table II.2.4.
University Departments and Prescribed Course Titles (1869)
(A Three Year Program, Academics required the Fourth Year)

Arts and Sciences Lcıw School Sciences and Matlı

Human Body Islamic Law (Sharia) Cosm ology

Bio-Psychology Methods Islamic Law Physics
Logic and Meaning Roman Law Chemistry
Public Speaking French Law Geology
Ethics and Theology Trial Methods Mineralogy & Metals
Natural Law Commercial Lavvs Botanics
Science o f History Penal Codes Zoology
Advanced Arabic Criminal Codes Geometry
Farsi (Persian) Public A d m Law Analytical Geometry
French International Law Descriptive Geometry
Turkish Perspectives
Comparative Grammar Calculus
(linguistics) Mechanics
Study o f Measures Natural History
General History Mathematics
Archeology (Antiquities) Topography
Numismatics

Source: “ Ordinance o f General Education /1 8 6 9 ” ;

A k y ü z (1 9 9 4 :14 7)

41
 These were the ambitious programs that the Tanzim at
h a d u n d e r t a k e n . Y e t th e i m p o r t a n t a n d p i o n e e r i n g
c o n t r i b u t i o n s w e re in a re a s o f t e c h n i c a l - v o c a t i o n a l ,
p ro fe s sio n a l and in fo rm al p u b lic ed u c atio n . T h e first
School of Agriculture in 1857 was followed by the first
S ch ool o f F o re s try in 1857. F o r train in g fo r e m e n or
technicians a School o f M ining was opened in 1874. F or
the clerks of Justice or scribes a three-year middle school
was op en e d in 1862-63 alon g w ith the first scho ol o f
translators o f modern languages. Betvveen 1864 and 68,
Mithat Pasha, a G overnor in European Rumelia, opened
s e v e ra l b o a r d in g s c h o o ls fo r d e l i n q u e n t c h ild r e n . In
addition to the 3-Rs, children were trained in traditional
arts and crafts. He also pioneered establishing vocational
schools for girls. A five-year boarding school o f industrial
arts and crafts was established in İstanbul for children
under 13. Graduates were certified as apprentice, associate
and master in metal works, machinery, joinery works ete.
In 1864 and 1869 new v ocation al institutions for girls
were established for producing supplies, such as military
uniforms and underwear.
At the h ig h er or p ro fessio n al level, pub lic o fficers
were to be educated in a 4-year M ulkiya (a civilian as
o p p o s e d to m ilita ry ) scho ol o f p u b lic a d m in is tr a tio n ,
w hich was opened in 1859. The first graduates o f this
school also served as id a d iy a teachers established after
1873. By the sam e token, M e kteb -i T ıb b iye-i M ülkiye,
which means a “civilian school o f m edicine” (as opposed
to the military school established in 1834), was opened in
1 8 6 7 . I n c e n t i v e s w e r e so h i g h t h a t b e s i d e s g o o d
professionals, this school trained the bıılk o f Young Turks
or future revolutionaries.

42
 L e a d in g s ta te s m e n o f the T a n z im a t, S u lta n
A b d ü lm ecit, R e s h il P asha, Ali P asha, Fuat P ash a, the
“H istorian o f h is to ria n s ” A hm et C ev d et P asha, A h m et
K em al P ash a, M ith a t P ash a, A h m e t V e fik and S a ffe t
Pasha were ali interested in the educational reforms. Ziya
Pasha (1825-1880), translator o f R o u s s e a u ’s Emile, had
been an outspoken opponent and a popular target o f the
c o n s e rv a tiv e M a d ra sa . E b u z z i y a T e v f ik ( 1 8 4 8 - 1 9 1 3 )
an d A li S u av i (1 8 3 9 - 1 8 7 8 ) , as th in k e rs , w r i t e r s and
p u b l i s h e r s g e n e r o u s l y c o n t r i b u t e d to th e T a n z im a t
Reforms.
M ustafa Fazıl Pasha, one of the founders of the Young
(Yeni) Ottomans, wrote to Sultan Abdülaziz from Paris,
in French that “U nless separated, (ie, secularized) both
the S tate and İs la m will fail or fail to g e th e r .” Y o u ng
O tto m a n s , hovvever, seein g T a n zim a t as an a ttem p t at
secularization and hence a threat to the State, tried to stop
such a developm ent or slow it down

A less k n o w n T a n zim a t e d u c a t o r w as an e n g i n e e r
İbrahim Edhem Pasha, whose C ouncils to m y ehilden is a
u n iq u e blend or e x c e p tio n a l c o m p ro m is e o f E a s t and
W est, science and faith. He also translated an excellent
geom etry text.
In sum m ary, the Tanzim at Reforms created a system
o f c o n te m p o r a r y sch o o ls o f th re e y ea rs each: S ib y a n
s c h o o l s , R u s h d iy a , id a d iy a a n d S u lta n iy a , T e a c h e r s
C o l l e g e s a n d U n i v e r s i t y , r e s p e c t i v e l y . W i t h fe w
exceptions m ost o f these schools were located in İstanbul.
A g e n e ratio n afte r the d ecision for T anzim at R efo rm s,
nearly 20 % o f the Imperial schools were following the
m od ern curricula, while more than 70% stili rem ained in

43
the darkness o f the M adrasa tradition. This d ich oto m y
invited a rem ark from a m inister o f education “If not for
the schools, he would run the education perfec tly .” He
was not com plaining of schools as such but rather, and
iro n ic a lly , o f the ru th le s s o p p o s itio n by the M a d ra sa
directed to schools. In brief, despite a variety of obstacles,
Tanzim at succeeded in creating R ushdiya and id a d iya and
in training their teachers in the western tradition. Though
U n i v e r s it y f a il e d o r fe ll s h o r t o f its o b j e c t i v e s , the
professional schools filled the vacuum. M ore specifically,
Tanzim at was succesful in introducing :
• W r it i n g , m a t h e m a t i c s , h i s t o r y , g e o g r a p h y and
some natural sciences
• M odern techniques and aids in classroom teaching
and applications
• T e a c h in g o f T u rk is h an d m o d e rn la n g u a g e s (ie,
French) in schools.

Turkish as the language o f instruction was probably

the greatest asset gained.
Ottomans m ade history but d id n ’t bother to write it.
O tto m a n tex ts o f h is to ry w e re, in fact, o f f ic ia l state
chronologies since the creation, vvritten by official court
scribes. T anzim at brought a new consciousness o f h isto ry
W h o are we, w h a t do w e d o ? an d a n e w w in d o w to
natural history (science).
In ali fairness, it s h o u ld be u n d e rlin e d that if they
could not do any better, it was not because they did net
k now better, but because they did not have the finaneial
m eans and the political will to support them. M any broad
visions of the 1869 Ordinances, are, by and large, vali!

44
m odels of reform s. T anzim at w as further h a n d ic a p p e d
fro m the fact, th a t a lth o u g h th e re w as a M in is tr y o f
General Education, madrasa, military schools, private or
foreign school and vocational and professional (higher)
schools were ali supervised by different State Ministries
o f e q u a l r a n k — w i t h o u t an e f f e c t i v e c o o p e r a t i o n or
coordination between them.

II. 3. F ro m M o n a rc h y to R e p u b lic (1 8 7 8 -1 9 2 3 )
One of the political consequences of the Tanzim at was
that the Ottoman Empire had its first Constitution in 1876.
It was however a short-lived, little appreciated experiment.
H is Im p e r ia l M a j e s t y A b d u l h a m i t II, e x e r c i s i n g the
constitutional povver invested in the Sultan, indefinitely
dissolved the Parliament until the second Hürriyet in 1908.
This interim period is known as the “absolute m onarchy ” .
T a n zim a t e d u c a tio n had aim ed to save the E m p ire by
creatin g an O tto m an nation out o f its ethnic diversity.
M ore realistically perhaps, the Sultan follovved a policy to
h o ld its ow n an d c r e a te a M ü s lim n a tio n . H e n c e the
T a n zim a t p ro g r a m s d is p la y in g p o s itiv is m an d n a tu ra l
history were replaced by technical and vocational schools.
A lth o u g h private schools and colleges were developed,
gen e ra l schools, teac h er training p ro gram s, b oo k s and
press came under the strict (and nervous) censure of the
P a la c e . E d u c a tio n a l A lm a n a c s w e re p u b lis h e d b y the
M inistry of General Education. Under pressure from the
M adrasa lobby, religious courses, subjects and hours were
increased. In 1880 the first School o f Law was established
a n d in 188 3, an e d u c a t i o n a l tax w as i n t r o d u c e d , in
ad dition to A sh a r (literally a plus 10% tax taken from
agricultural producers). In 1885, the first id a d iya ou t o f
İs ta n b u l was op en e d in the K astam o nu vilayet, and in

45
1891 teachers schools for elementary and secondary levels
w ere in co rp o rated as a T ea c h e r T ra in in g C ollege. T he
G r a n d V i z i e r {K ü çü k) S aid P a s h a s p e c u la t e d (in the
1 8 9 0 ’s) t h a t a s e c u la r u n i v e r s i t y c o u l d p e r h a p s be
founded without risking the fate o f the Throne. The same
university was opened for a fourth time (1900). In 1904,
under Education M inister Hashim Pasha, the program of
3-year elem entary (iptidai) schools was radically revised
(T able II.3.1.)
T able II.3.1. E lem entary School Program (1904)

F irst Grade S econd G rade Third Grade

Alphabet H oly K u r ’an H oly K u r ’an
Readings Religious Rules Reading K u r ’an
Writing Readings Religious Rules
H oly K u r ’an Writing Arithmetic
Religious Rules Arithmetic Ottom an History
Readings in Ethics

So u rce : A kyüz (1994 : 198).

This revision was not certainly a return to the Sibyan

based on readings o f the K uran, yet the high key o f İslam
is stili a p p a ren t. T h e sam e y ea r (1 9 0 4 ), the h isto rian
Y u s u f A k çura, o rig in ally from K azan (R u ssia), in his
ep o c h m ak in g e ssa y “T he T h re e P o lic ie s ” w h ich
a p p e a re d in the Turk, p u b lis h e d in E g y p t, s u m m a rily
c o n c lu d e d that O ttom anism o f the T anzim at h ad failed
s i m p ly b e c a u s e the i n d e p e n d e n c e fu ry i n f e c t i n g the
C h r i s t i a n n a t i o n s h a d c o n v i n c e d th e s t a t e s m e n that
M ü s lim and C h ris tia n O tto m a n s co u ld no lo n g e r live
to geth er in peace. The policy o f Islam ism follow ed by
the Sultan — though perhaps not im possible— was very

46
difficult indeed. Hence it was implied, or inferred that
the only viable alternative left for the Ottom an Turks to
follovv was Turkism. Just a year later, a young graduate o f
the W ar College, Captain M ustafa Kemal, who apparently
knew of A k çura’s essay “Three Policies” which and had
read about the final stage vvhich the laıcite m o v e m e n t had
reached in France (1905), confided to his friends “Tim e
has come, this is exactly what we are going to d o.” Yet
th e Y o u n g T u r k s , w h o s u c c e e d e d in d e t h r o n i n g the
Sultan and declaring the Second Meshruticı (1908), soon
split into O ttom anist and Islam ist camps. . In 1911 the
first G irls’ id a d iy a was open ed vvhich vvas follovved in
1913 by the first Su ltaniya for girls. The R egulations for
Private Schools, vvhich vvere effeted in 1915, vvere stili in
fo r c e in 1 9 6 0 ’s. T h e o rd in a n c e fo r the first O tto m a n
U n i v e r s it y vvas fin a lly p u b l i s h e d in 1919. T h is d a te
coincided, as the fates vvould have it, vvith the fail o f the
62 0 -y e ar old em p ire and the beg inin ing o f the W a r o f
T u rk is h In d e p e n d e n c e . M u s ta fa K e m a l, as a vvar hero
fr o m the D a r d a n e lle s , had to vvait fo r the fa il o f the
Em pire, to have his vision com e true.
A t the fail o f the Empire and the birth o f Republic, a
m e re ten p ercen t o f m en and less than one p e rc e n t o f
vvomen vvere estimated to be literate. Every three out of
four citizens lived in remote, small and scattered neolithic
villages. W hat could be done and hovv? Ottom an literati
— divided as they appeared— had proposed a variety o f
solutions.

A k c u ra ’s cultural or national T u rk ism did not quite

re ach the im perial agenda. W hile in the G enç K alem ler
( “ Y o u n g P e n s ” ), O m e r S e y f e d d i n vvas i n v i t i n g his
generation o f vvriters to vvrite in simple folk language (ie,

47
T urkish), and another intellectual nationalist T ekin Alp
(M oiz Kohen, 1912) was reporting to M ercure de F rance
th a t “T u rk s are s e a rc h in g fo r a n a tio n a l s p irit ( “A m e
n a t i o n a le ”). S o m e y o u n g p o e t s p u b l i s h e d G ö k a l p ’s
fam ous poem k now n as “Turan “ which in years to com e
b e c a m e the p r i m e s o u rc e o f p a n - T u r k i s t a s p i r a ti o n s .
S e c u l a r n a t i o n a l i s t s or T u r k i s t s o f th e 1 9 1 0 ’s, w ho
b elo n g e d to the Turk O cağı (H earth) and w rote to the
Türk Yurdu (Hom e-land), never gained enough political
m o m en tum to be reckoned with. P oet Tevfik F ik ret’s cali
for a secular, humanistic identity in his poem P rom etheus
I am I, and you are you
No G od nor slave are we
just faded away without tangible or traceable effects.
In a p u b l i c d e b a t e w i t h A g a y e v ( A g a o g l u ) A h m e t ,
an oth er ardent T urk ist from Kazan, S üleym an Nazif, a
well known Ottom an scholar, proudly declared that

F irst an O ttom an then a M üslim and lastly a Turk,

he would allow his sister m arry a non-Turkish
M üslim , b u t not a non-M uslim Turk.
G ök alp , the id e o lo g u e o f the Y o u n g T u r k s ’ Union
and Progress Party (lttih a d ve Terakki) observing t h a t :
W h ile T u r k is h p e o p le w e r e o f a S h a m a n is tic
civiliz.ation,
M adrasa sch olars w ere o f the Islam ic civlization,
and

M o d ern (sc h o o l) g r a d u a te s vvere o f the W estern

civiliz.ation,

48
had concluded that he him self belonged, sim ultaneously,
to the
Turkish nation speaking Turkish,
M üslim (um m a) com m unity p raying in A rabic, and

Western civilization com m unicating (thinking)

in French.

G ökalp and A k cu ra, the two lead in g p ro p o n e n ts o f

T urkish Nationalism , finally appeared in agreem ent that
“ the N a tio n (ie, m illet) sh o u ld be the b asis o f S ta t e .”
G ökalp later reflected that prior to the Second M ashrutiya
(1908) there vvas no T urkish nation because there was no
n o t i o n o f “ T u r k o r T u r k n e s s ” in th e c o n s c i e n c e or
l a n g u a g e o f th e p e o p le . P r o f e s s o r K a r p a t ( 1 9 7 0 : 5 6 )
critically observed that instead o f integrating his views
u n d e r one, over-all co n c ep t or re so lu tio n , G ö k a lp had
m erely presented them side by side.

11.4. Q u e st f o r C u ltu ra l M o d e rn ity : 1 9 2 3 -19 50

T h i s w as th e s t a t e o f a f f a i r s w h e n th e N a t i o n a l
A ssem bly o f Representatives convened for the first time
( 1 9 2 0 ) in A n k a r a , w h e re M u s t a f a K e m a l P a s h a , the
lead e r of the nationalist m ovem ent, discreetly proclaim ed
o n a mural poster:

“S o vereignty beloııgs to the P eo p le!"

— by in fe r e n c e — no t to G o d the A lm ig h ty or any
im perial [human] dynasty! The early declaration o f Res-
p u b lic a (C umhuriyet) was a signal o f things to come, the
u n f o l d i n g T u r k i s h R e v o l u t io n . T h e m o v in g s p i r i t o f
revolution saw the salvation of his “semi-colonised, war-
w eary, agrarian people” in the creation of a new Turkish

49
Man, a new Turkish Society and a new Turkish Culture so
that it would not fail again to the brink o f extinction. How,
then, was the cultural (Islamic) heritage to be reconciled
w ith the re v o lu tio n a ry R e p u b lic ? T h e re a p p e a re d two
distinct strategies: first, an “Islamic Republic o f Turkey” ;
second, a national culture to sustain the secular republic.
Though the first option seemed difficult — rem em bering
th e lo n g d i c h o t o m y l i n g e r i n g b e t w e e n M a d ra sa an d
school— the second was not m uch easier, although there
were enlightened M üslim scholars like M ehm et A kif Ersoy
w h o e a r n e s t l y b e l i e v e d an d p r o p o s e d th a t “ b e a r d e d
hojhas” could be more effective and therefore should be
given a role. “The foundation of the Turkish Republic vvas
[ g o in g to be] c u l t u r e ” d e c la r e d the l e a d e r — n o t the
“obsolete culture” inherited from Ottom ans but a viable
culture to be created anew by the educational policies and
purposes o f the Turkish Republic :
The p u r p o s e o f o u r r e v o lu tio n is to r e n d e r the
p e o p le o f th e T u r k is h R e p u b lic a m o d e r n an d
civilized society, in every an d p ro p er sense o f the
words, in substance and form .
Easier said than done certainly; but how?
After the proclam ation o f the R epublic (1923), a series
o f th re e law s vvere e n a c t e d on 3 M a r c h 1924. T hey
affirm ed that the Republic o f Turkey :
1) Abolished the Ministry of Pious Foundations
(M adrasa) and Religious (Sharia) Courts
(Law No 429/1924),
2) Placed ali educational institutions (except İstanbul
University but including ali M adrasa) und er the
M inistry o f Education (U nification o f E ducation
Act, Law No 4 30/1924),

50
 3) Shut dow n the office o f K haliphate and exiled the
rem aining m em bers o f the Ottom an D ynasty (Law
No 431/ 1924).
T h e third article o f the U rıification A c t (4 3 0 /1 9 2 4 )
gave the financial control of ali educational endow m ents
to the Ministry o f Education The fourth article, however,
a u t h o r i s e d the M i n i s t r y to o p e n s p e c ia l s c h o o l s fo r
educating the Im am -H atib (Pastor-Preachers) schools and
a T h e o l o g y ( I la h iy a ) F a c u l t y at th e U n i v e r s i t y fo r
educating enlightened scholars o f İslam. M adrasa were
c l o s e d dovvn b u t 29 n e w s c h o o l s w e r e o p e n e d fo r
training the Im am -H atibs who suddenly fell out o f favor
or demand; in the early 3 0 ’s the new schools were closed.

Bold and decisive steps and m easures fo llo w ed and

c o m p le m e n te d o n e a n o th er. In 1924, M u s ta fa K e m a l
addressed the convention o f teachers :

Teachers! The new generation w ill be your creation.

The R epublic needs and w ants guardians w ho are
strong physically, intellectually and spiritually .

P a r a l l e l to t h i s c a l i to a r m s , th e p r i n c i p l e o f
coeducation vvas introduced to elem entary schools. A fevv
months later in Samsun, the leader declared that “Science
is the most reliable guide in life!” For the first time im am
G h a z a l i ’s, “ i m c o m p a t i b i l i t y v e r d i c t ” vvas p u b l i c l y
challenged. Years later this m axim vvas engraved on the
fa ç a d e o f A n k a ra U niversity. D u rin g the sam e (1924)
year, educator John Devvey re com m en ded a M inisterial
B o a r d o f N a ti o n a l E d u c a tio n an d th e fa m o u s p o l i c y
slogan “A school at each vvork place and a vvork place in
e a c h s h o o l.” It s o u n d e d co n v in c in g but th ere vveren’t
m any schools or any vvork places in the country. B efore

51
g o i n g in to a c t i o n , T u r k i s h e d u c a t o r s p o n d e r e d t h i s
“work- school” idea for nearly 15 years.
In 1925, ali mystic or esoteric assocations and shrines
o f any religious affiliation (like tekke, z.aviye and tü rb e)
were closed.
In two years, ali public ed u c a tio n at ali levels w as
m ade free o f tuition fees and the civil code was adapted
from the Swiss. In N utuk, the “ S peech” read before the
National Assem bly in 1927, the leader for the first time
p ro n o u n c ed the w o rd la'icite (“secularism ”) although ali
legal fo u n d a tio n s o f sec ula rism w ere already laid and
m uch had been done without publicity. In 1928 the Latin
alphabet was adapted and accepted. Soon therafter folk-
schools or courses vvere opened for teaching the nation its
new Latin alphabet. Teachers themselves vvere mastering
it vvith t h e i r a d u l t s t u d e n t s . T u r k i s h s t u d e n t s vvere
required, by law, to attend T urkish prim ary schools. The
Arabic Ezan or prayer cali vvas given in Turkish for the
first tim e so o n follovved by ritu a lis tic r e a d in g o f the
K u r'a n in Turkish.
The article stating that “The religion o f State is İslam”
vvas d ro p p e d (192 8) fro m the C o n stitu tio n . S o on the
secularism principle vvas incorporated into by-lavvs o f the
C H P ( R e p u b l i c a n P e o p l e ’s P a r t y ) a n d th e T u r k i s h
nationalist A k c ura vvas installed the as P resident o f the
nevvly f o u n d e d H i s t o r i c a l F o u n d a t i o n ( T H K ) . T h e
Turkish Linguistic Society follovved the lead in History,
in r e v iv i n g a f o r g o t t e n l a n g u a g e . In 1 931, P e o p l e s ’
H o u s e s and P e o p l e s ’ C h a m b e rs vvere i n a u g u r a t e d for
e d u c a t i n g the p a r e n ts o f p u p ils g o in g to R e p u b lic a n
scho ols. T h e y o u th p ro b a b ly b e n e fite d m o re fro m the
novel program s o f these culture centers vvhich convened

52
the co m m un ity together. The F aeulty o f T h eo lo g y was
closed because there w a sn ’t sufficient dem and (students).
In 1933 at the T enth C om m e m o ratio n o f the R epublic,
the sem i-autonom ous İstanbul University was reorganised
(with the help of some A cadem icians running aw ay from
N a z i G e rm a n y .) and b ro u g h t u n d e r M in is te ria l
su p erv isio n. The use o f ali hon orific and titular titles,
I s l a m i c o r o t h e r w is e , vvas outlavved in 1934. A nevv
n a t i o n vvas c o m i n g o f a g e a n d s e e m e d p r o u d o f its
accom plishm ents. Before the death of P ıesident Atatürk
in 1938, by another am endm ent to the C onstitution, the
T u rk is h R epu blic vvas d e c la red to be a “sec u la r s ta te ”
(Lavv No 3115/1937). An old d re a m had fin ally co m e
true. A year later in 1939 the first C onvention of National
Education vvas held in Ankara.

At the start, R epublican schools vvere a continuation of

the O ttom an 3+3+3+3 system vvhich vvas first changed to
6+3+3 and later to a 5+3+3 years model, in vvhich he 5-
year elem entary schools replaced the 3-year iptidai and
th e 3 - y e a r R u sh d iy a , the 3 - y e a r id a d iy a b e c a m e the
m idd le (orta) school and the S u lta n i vvas novv called the
“Lise”. Primary schools concentrated on the 3 -R ’s rather
than H o ly K o r ’an, plus life studies, history, geography,
Science and civics, handivvork, dravving, PT and m usic,
ali taug ht in Turkish. The m iddle (Orta) school and lise
vvere considered the first and second levels o f the nevv
s e c o n d a ry educatio n. For ty p ical sec o n d ary scho ol
curricu la see Table II.4.1.

53
 T able II.4.1
Secondary School Programs: Years,
Subjects and W eekly Hours : 1937-1938
M iddle School Lycee Years and Branches
(Core) Arts* & Sciences**
Subjects 1 2 3 Y ears: 1 2 3* 3**
Turkish 5 4 4
Literatüre 3 3 5 2
History 2 2 2 2 2 3 1
Geography 2 2 2 2 2 1 1
H om e (Civics) 2 2
Sociology 2 2
Psychology 2
Philosophy 3
Logic 2 1
Mathematics 5 4 4 5 4 2 8
Science 3
Chemistry and 2 2 1 2
Laboratory 1 1 1/2
Physics and 3 2 2 1 2
Laboratory 1 1 1/2 1
B iolog y and H yg 2 3
Natural Science 3 3 2 1 1
Foreign Lang 5 4 4 5 5 5 3
Handwriting 2
PT (Gymnastics) 1 1 1 1 1 1
Drawing 1 1 1
M usic 1 1 1
M ilitary Sc. B oy s 2 2 2 2 2 2
Girls 1 1 1 1 1 1
Sewing (Girls) 2 1
Nursing “ 1
Free hour (B oys) 2
W eekly hours 31 31 30 32 31 32 30

Source : A k yü z 1994

54
 The positivistic character and the secular purposes of
th e c u r ric u la a re e v id e n t as no K u r ’a n ic r e a d i n g s or
Islamic studies appear in the official syllabi.
Parallel to the modemisation of public education, the young
Republic made serious efforts to develop the programs for
primary school teachers. In early years these programs reflected
an Ottoman (Islamic) character but in the 1930’s they became a
corollary of the new secular education. (See Table II.4.2.)
Table II.4.2.
Prim ary School Teachers T raining Program
(Above the 3-year Middle / Orta School)
H o u r s p e r W e ek
Subjects First Second Third (Yrs)
Literatüre 3 2 2
Pedagogy 2 1
Psychology 2 2
Education History 2
Teaching Methods 2 7
Sociology 2
History 2 2 2
Geography 2 1 2
Mathematics 4 4 1
Physics & Chemistry 4 4
B iolog y & Hygiene 2 2 3
Foreign Languages 3 2
Physical Training 1 1 1
Drawing 1 1 1
Handivvork 1 1 1
M usic 1 1 1
Military Science (B oys) 2 2 2
G irls’ Teacher Schools
Sevving 2 1 1
Baby Training 1

Total W eekly Hours 29 29 29

Source : A k yü z 1994 : 331

55
 Such was the character o f public education do w n to
th e tovvnship le v e l. B e y o n d th is b o u n d a r y l i v e d the
eternal peasants, or 75 to 85% o f the population (Table
II.4.4). During the Second W orld W ar years, the T urkish
R ep u b lic u n d e r to o k two m ajör p ro jec ts o f e d u c a tio n a l
significance. (1) A n “educational m obilisation p ro g ram
f o r s o c i a l c h a n g e ” , b e t t e r k n o w n as t h e “ V i l l a g e
I n s t i t u te s ” an d (2) P a ra lle l to th e g en e ra l (a c a d e m ic )
s c h o o ls, a s e c o n d trac k o f “ v o c a tio n a l- te c h n ic a l”
s e c o n d a r y s c h o o l s fo r t r a i n i n g th e m a n p o w e r to be
e m p l o y e d in i n d u s t r i a l p r o d u c t i o n s — o r e v e n t u a l
industrialization.
A ccording to the first official p rogram published, the
V i l l a g e I n s t i t u t e s vvere d e s i g n e d as 5 - y e a r , co -
educational, boarding, vvorkschools after and above the
5 -y e a r e le m e n ta ry schools. S tu d e n ts vvere s e le c te d by
examination. For Institute program m es see Table II.4.3.

Village Institutes at long last seem to be designed to

f u l f i l l J o h n D e v v e y ’s i d e a o f c o m b i n i n g vvork an d
ed ucation. G ra d u a te s vvere e x p e cted to be both school
t e a c h e r s a n d c o m m u n i t y l e a d e r s at th e s a m e tim e .
S t u d e n t s a c t u a l l y b u i l t t h e i r ovvn s c h o o l s , h o m e s .
b a r ra c k s , vvork p la c e s ete; an d le a r n e d b y d o in g and
living together. P erceiving education as learning the 3-
R ’s in a classroo m , m any parents vvere shocked to see
their children vvorking hard out in the field vvith pick and
shovel in hand. S o m e parents also objected to the novel
but alien “co-educational boarding school” idea. Sibyar.
schools vvere coeducational but not for teenagers.

56
 T able II.4.3.
The V illage Institutes Program : Y ear 1943
Cultural Studies Agricultural Works Technical Works
Turkish Plantations Rural Ironsmith
History Gardening Horseshoe making
Geography Transplanting Motor Mechanics
H ome studies Orcharding Carpentery, Joinery
Mathemadcs Viniculture Woodworking
Physics Vegetables Building Crafts
Chemistry Industrial plants Brick making
Bio School Hygiene Zoo Technology Quarrying stone
Foreign Language Poultry Cultivation Lime making
Handwntıng Honey Harvesting Masonry
Dravving Handiwork Fishing-aquaculture Concrete
PT and Folk Dancing Agrarian Arts Girls’ Handworks
Music Sewing
Military Drills Embroidery
Homemaking, Babycare Weaving
Educational Sciences Horticulture
Sociology
Technology
W ork psychology
Labor education
Teaching Methods
Agricultural Business
Cooperatives

W eek ly hours 22 + 11 + 11 = 4 4 total

Source: A kyüz 1994: 340

A c co rding to the law o f e s ta b lis h m e n t (1940), only

h i g h l y q u a l i f i e d , u n i v e r s i t y g r a d u a t e s w e r e to be
appointed as Institute teachers. Rumors that there had been
leftist infiltrations into the Institutes caused probably more

57
harm than the leftist teachers themselves, proving the tenet
that “rumors are m ore powerful than actions” .
R e s is tin g ali p re s s u r e s or te m p ta tio n s to e n t e r the
S e c o n d W o rld W ar, T u rk e y m a in ta in e d her n e u tra lity
u n til the very en d. T his m ean t h a rd s h ip n o t o n ly for
Village Institutes but for the whole country and nation. A
h u g e army m o b ilis e d to p rotect the coun try c o n s u m e d
the limited resources, causing shortages o f basic foods,
c o n su m er goods, high prices, b la ck m a rk et pro fitee rin g
and an ensuing general discontent.
H e n c e , the y e a r 1945, w as a t u rn in g p o i n t in the
R e p u b lic ’s destiny. The A llied N ations notifed that, in
o r d e r to b e c o m e a fo u n d e r o f th e U N O , the T u rk is h
R e p u b l i c h a d to q u a l i f y as a l i b e r a l ( w e s t e r n )
d e m o c r a c y . T u r k e y r e s p o n d e d vvithout d e l a y a n d a
D e m o c r a t i c P a r t y w as fo r m e d , in o p p o s i t i o n to the
P e o p l e ’s R e p u b lic a n s P arty in p o w e r. T he p o p u latio n
census gave a d em og rap hic profile o f the nation in 1945
(See Table II, 4. 4.)
T able II.4.4.
D em ographic P rofile o f T urkish S ociety :1945
Items selected % % Total %
Language Turkish 88 Others 12 100
Religion M ü slim 98 Others 2 100

Settlement
Patterns : Rural 75* Urban 2 5 * 100
Sizes : Village 413 C ity 10168 (Average)

Source : Institute o f State Statistics. Populcıtion Census 19 45.

* M unicipalities, ie, above 2 0 0 0 inhabitants vvere taken as city.

58
 With 98 % following İslam and 88% speaking Turkish,
th:s looked like an ideal profile for a m odern nationhood.
There was a draw back, however. Three out o f every four
T ırks vvere stili living in small, neolithic villages that the
republic had only in recent years been trying to reach by
controversial v illage institutes. A n d w hat T urks called
“ c i t i e s ” vvere, in f a c t , s m a l l a g r a r i a n to v v n s h ip s
economically dependent on scarce surplus. Turkey lacked
b o th th e u r b a n a n d i n d u s t r i a l p i l l a r s o f a m o d e r n
nationhood. The snap elections held in 1946 turned out to
be a great surprise. The R epublican G overnm ent barely
managed to stay in power. Not the democratic party, but
the an ti-repu blican o p positio n vvas very strong indeed.
Political analysts gave several likely reasons:
a) The low price and high social cost o f staying out o f
the War,
b) T h e S e c u la r is t la iq u e p o l i c i e s follovved by the
Republican Party governments,
c) The M adrasa, long underground, vvas re-surfacing
for a “dem ocratic” com e back,
d) The co ntin uing p e a s a n ts ’ reactio n to the V illage
institutes im posed on them,
e ) T h e D e m o c r a t s h ad v visely C o n s o lid a te d a li s u c h
fa c to r s o f d is c o n te n t.

The re p u b lic an Party and g o v e rn m e n ts re v is e d and

g e a r e d t h e i r r e v o l u t i o n a r y p o l i c i e s to s t r a t e g i e s o f
vvinning the next general elections due in 1950.
D u r i n g th e R e p u b l i c a n e r a , t h e r e vvere m a n y
sta te s m e n , p o liticia n s and ed u c a to rs vvho s erv cd th eir
coun try vvith d edicatio n — from E m p ire to nationhood.

59
A m ong them, o f couse, A tatürk as a leader and m a s te r
teac h er is u n iqu e and m atchless. A fter A ta tü rk ’s death
however, one philosophy teacher turned educator, H asan
A li Y ücel, as the M in iste r o f E d u c a tio n , fo r n e a r l y a
decade tovvered and outshone the rest. From m obilîsition
f o r n a t i o n a l l i t e r a c y , to p r o g r a m d e v e l o p m e n t s in
prim ary, secondary, rural, vocational-technical, te ac h er
training, adult and informal education projects (like the
tra n s la tio n o f th e W o r ld H e rita g e o f L itera türe,) an d
finally, to the autonom y o f higher educations, he b ec am e
the legendary m inister and unchallenged “C h a m p io n of
N a t i o n a l E d u c a t i o n ” . F r o m t i m e i m m e m o r i a l , he
co n veyed the m essag e “k n ow th y self ” . He said, for a
nation or individual, “W hat is im portant is to k n o w who
y o u a r e ! ” In th e 1 9 4 0 -1 9 4 1 S c h o o l Y e a r , c l a s s i c a l
branches o f selected lycees offered five hours of latin as
an electiv e. U n d e r p o litica l p re s su re this o p t i o n was
d is c o n tin u e d after 1949. W ith the p h e n o m e n a l r i s e cf
d e m o c r a t i c o p p o s i t i o n , M i n i s t e r Y ü c e l y i e l d e d to
conservative colleagues (1946).
In 1 9 4 7 , s o m e p a r l i a m e n t a r i a n s r e c o m m e n d e d
religious courses as a counter or preventive m ea s u re to
the growing C om m unist threat. In 1949 the R epublican
P arty C aucus dec id e d that su b ject to p arental request,
religion may be taught in only the 4th and 5th gra d es of
public schools, and that Im am -H atib Courses, too, may
be opened by the Ministry o f National Education.

60
 P a rt III. F ro m S ch o la stic to S o cia l E d u c a tio n
(1950 to P re sen t)

III. 1. D e m o c ra c y f o r P ro g re ss o r R e sto ra tio n ?

After a landslide victory, the Democratic Party came to

pow er in May 1950 vvith the support o f an Islamic (Sunni-
O r t h o d o x ) r e a c t i o n to s e c u l a r i s m a n d th e a g r a r i a n
majority (see Table II.4.4.)- In June 1950, the Democratic
m a j o r i t y c a n c e l l e d th e a r t i c l e o f t h e P e n a l C o d e
prohibiting the Arabic Ezan (cali for prayer, five times a
day); in effect, ending the Turkish Ezan vvhich had been
practiced since 1928. The rationale vvas that republican
G o v e r n m e n t s h a d m i s c o n s t r u e d ‘s e c u l a r i s m ’ as a
restriction of the “free exercise o f religion.” In N ovem ber
o f the same year, religious courses vvere ineluded in the
school curricula. The requirement for parental request or
c o n s e n t vvas c h a n g e d to a r e q u i r e m e n t fo r re je e t i o n .
Parents who did not vvant their ehilden take religion might
app ly fo r an exem ption. In 1953, co m p u lso ry relig io n
c o u r s e s vvere a d d e d to the n i n t h an d te n th g r a d e s o f
prim ary teacher schools. In 1954, Village Institues vvere
incorporated to the Primary Teachers Schools. In 1956-
57, religion (İslam) and ethics courses vvere reintroduced
to m iddle schools and in 1966-67, the same courses vvere
extended to lycees, on elective bases. Parents had to teli
the school vvhether they vvanted it or not. In 1959, H igher
Islamic institutes vvere established.
A c c o r d i n g to th e f r e e - l a n c e vvriter P e y a m i S a fa ,
transition from the republican to democratic Turkey could
be seen, in retrospect, as either a counter-revolution or a
dem ocratic restoration of İslam, eventually leading to the
Turk-Islam Synthesis of the 1980’s. After having defended
th e T u r k i s h R e v o lu tio n fro m G o k a lp ’ s (1 9 2 4 )

61
F o u n d a tio n s o f N a tio n a lis m to D e m o c r a t s ’ v ic to ry in
1950, Safa had, in the Democratic 5 0 ’s, turned against it in
his “ E a s t- W e s t S y n t h e s i s ” (p u b l i s h e d 1962). H e fe lt
accountable for this change o f heart:
In the 1 9 3 0 ’s, under State control and d iscip lin e a f
writing, I had to com ply with the revolutionary state
id e o lo g y . N o w e n jo y in g f u l l y th e f r e e d o m o f
th o u g h t in s u r e d by th e 1 9 5 0 D e m o c r a c y , I do
express my true convictions.
S a f a w a s n o w q u e s t i o n i n g a n d c r i t i c i z i n g th e
“historical and philosophical foundations” o f the Turkish
R evolution, vvhich he had heartily approved in 3 0 ’s. Here
is a sam ple o f the arguments put forvvard by him:

• No p r o g r e s s is p o s s i b le vvithout s o m e s e n s e o f
history
• Denial of the past may be disastrous for national life,
• N a t i o n h o o d is i m p o s s i b l e vvithout d i s s e n t i n g
philosophers
• T r a n s it i o n to p l u r a l i s m is th e tru e c r i t e r i o n o f
revolutions
• L iteracy s h o u ld be fu n c tio n a l (ie, serve a use:ul
purpose).
L a c k o f p h ilo s o p h y vvas an O tto m a n le g a c y vvhich
could not be blam ed on the R epublic alone. First Gökalp
a n d la te r the vvriter E ris irg il a g r e e d th a t f r e e d o m o f
enquiry vvas a prerequisite o f any philosophical venture.
I f natural Science vvere tolerated then philosophy vvoald
follovv. After relevant and valid observations as abo/e,
Safa com m itted him self to the Dem ocrat P arty ’s politi;al
platform:

62
 • A fter 35 years, we are n e ith e r in d u stria lize d nor
m oderniz ed
• S e c u la r is m c a n n o t be a p r e r e q u is ite to
m odernisation
• There is n o conflict betw een Science (ilim )
and religion
• There is no civiliz.ation w hich is not b a s e d on
religion
• T h e T u r k is h R e v o l u t i o n h a d no b o o k a n d
republicans have no faith
• R e v o lu tio n s fro m top do w n la ck the s u p p o r t o f
p o p u la r w isdom
• T u rk ish R e v o lu tio n is n o t th e vvork o f a s in g le
leader [ie, Atatürk].
T h i s h a s b e e n th e v i a b l e m a n i f e s t o o f p o p u l a r
(M üslim ) rebellion against secularism in Turkey. Point-
b l a n k , c l e a r e n o u g h b u t n o t fa ir ! E x c e p t fo r J a p a n
p e r h a p s , no n a tio n sta rtin g fro m s c r a tc h has b e c o m e
in dustrialized in only one or two generations. W ith o u t
secularization, would not the Turkish Revolution reduce
itself to an Anachronistic Tanz.imatl The vital question of
revolution was not ideology but survival. To Atatürk, the
b e s t d efense ag ain st w estern im p e ria lis m vvas vvestern
civilization itself. There has alvvays been an unresolved
conflict betvveen religion based on dogm a and faith and
Science based on do ubt and enquiry.

T h e r e a l i s s u e s , h o v v e v e r, b e h i n d th e I s l a m i c
r e s u r g e n c e vvere r a th e r d i f f e r e n t . A l t h o u g h T u r k i s h
secularism guaranteed full freedom o f belief, conscience
and conviction, the legal divorce from a povverful state
m a c h in e ry vvas an open blovv — i f not an o ffe n s e — to

63
İslam. For, İslam was both state and politics par excellence
a n d w ith o u t the sta te o r g a n iz a t i o n s b a c k in g an d the
s u p p o rt o f V a q f revenues, İslam was lame or crippled.
Turkish İslam as elsewhere has been trying to regain this
power, a power that it utilized until the fail o f the Ottoman
Em pire. Islam ists, as dem ocratic rep resen tatives o f the
nation, were no w in the parlia m e nt w hich proclaim ed
“The so vereig n ty belongs to nation. ” Thus in this long
prelüde, the dem ocratic restoration o f İslam had began
and m ade some headway.

III.2. D e m o g r a p h y o f G ro w in g N u m b ers:
Q uantity o r Q uality

The dem ocratic “Spirit of the ‘4 6 ” , using the slogan

t h a t “L a îc ite is n o t p a g a n is m , a t h e i s m o r e n m ity o f
religion” , has rem ained in po w er ever since, except for
interim periods o f coalitions and three interventions by
t h e A r m e d F o r c e s ( in 1 9 6 0 , 1971 a n d 1 9 8 0 ) , ali
su p p o s e d ly on b e h a lf o f the “ S e c u la r R e p u b lic ” . The
d e m o c r a tic p la tfo rm ro se a n d ro d e on a “ 5 -p o in t
p ro g ra m ” : water, roads, land, credit and the m osque for
p e a s a n t s . D e a t h r a t e s w e r e g o i n g d o w n a n d life
ex pectancy com in g up, from an average o f 35 years to
u p w a r d s o f 60. T h e i n t e r n a l m i g r a t i o n w as g a in in g
m om entum . R oads allowed peasant to discover the city
for the first time. Land and credits im proved the daily
c y c l e at th e h o m e s t e a d . Nevv d o m e s a n d r e n o v a ı e d
m inarets sym bolized the surviving spirit o f İslam in the
countryside.
D e m o g ra p h ic a lly sp e a k in g T u rk ish so c ie ty vas
grovving and rapidly changing. It vvas grovving at the ıate
o f 2.5 % p er year. This rate vvas enough to double the

64
n a t i o n a l p o p u l a t i o n e v e r y tw o d e c a d e s o r so. M o r e
s ig n ific a n tly h o w e v e r, du e to in te rn a l m ig r a tio n , the
country was urbanising at the rate o f nearly 5%, double
the rate of national growth. Riding pretty on the wave of
rural push and urban pull, peasants began settling in the
city but did n ot turn urban. W ith lim ite d e m p lo y m e n t
opportunities vvaiting for them, they began building their
o w n gecekondus (“built-overnights”) on som ebody-else’s
property. They created new marginal sectors o f the city.
They became their own employers and employees. Com e
election time, political parties prom ised them everything
under the sky. Fines and debts would be forgiven, taxes
d e f e r r e d , or r e f u n d e d , t h e i r m u n i c i p a l s e r v i c e s lik e
electricity. running water, paved roads and public transit
would soon be provided, free o f charge. The G ecekondus
have grown so rapidly that they began outranking, and
outflanking the traditional (agrarian / com m ercial) city,
l a c k i n g th e i n f r a s t r u c t u r e o f a m o d e r n m e t r o p o l i s .
M igrants ou tnum bered the urbanites. For the first time
informal or social processes of education was becom ing
m ore effective than the formal schools. That cities vvere
b e c o m i n g r u r a l i z e d c o u l d b e h e a r d in t h e f o r m o f
A ra b esq u e (m elancholy) m usic p lay in g in the d o lm u ş
( c o l l e c t i v e ) t a x i s (a T u r k i s h i n n o v a t i o n f o r r a p i d -
tra n s p o rt: the ca rs d e p a rt as so o n as full). U n a b le to
integrate with the city socio-economically, rural migrants
congregated with their own kind from back home. Thus
cities becam e a m useum of h isto rical co llec tiv ities,
represen ting the cultural diversity o f Anatolia. S chools
vvere bec o m in g m o re crovvded by the year. F irst, they
practiced tvvo shifts, then three shifts a day. In a ruralising
environm ent and decreasing school hours and substitute
teachers, the quality o f education rapidly deteriorated. No

65
system of municipal administration or governmcnt could
cope with problems o f this magnitude. Industrial projects
beginning to take o ff m ade things w orse by p re ferrin g
urban or near urban sites. As Central and local authorities
conceeded their inabilitiy, nevv urbanites began attending
and solving their own problems as best as they could. The
age of p o st-m o dern ism cam e to m ean “anything com es
anything goes” . Economically it was an anachronistic wild
capitalism or “laissez fa ir e ”.
N e a rly e v e r y b o d y a g re e d th a t the p ro b le m s
encountered could only be solved by education, ie., by
th e M in is te ry o f E d u c a tio n . H e n c e th e e d u c a tio n
m i n i s t e r s w e r e e x p e c t e d to p e r f o r m “ s h a m a n i s t i c ”
miracles, tricks or wonders. People believed in them and
they did not let their pupils down. The fact that the 70 /
30 rural to urban ratio in 1950 will be reversed to 30 / 70
by the year 2000 may give an idea o f the m agnitude of
so cio e c o n o m ic p ro b le m s e n c o u n te re d . In th e o rie s o f
modernisation, this is known as “d em ographic transition”
from rural to urban, from agrarian to industrial services,
m o re t e c h n ic a lly , fro m a h ig h b i r t h - h i g h d e a th rates
p a tte rn to a low b irth -lo w d e a th ra te p a tte rn thro u g h
w h ic h the p o p u la tio n g ro w th ra te first e x p lo d e s then
g r a d u a l l y s lo w s d o w n an d e v e n t u a l l y s t a b i l i z e s . In
E u r o p e th i s t r a n s i t i o n , b e g i n n i n g a b o u t 1 6 5 0 was
com pleted in 300 years (1 6 5 0 ’s-1 9 5 0 ’s). W ith the yearly
rate o f p o p u latio n g row th co m in g d ow n to 1.5% from
2.5% , T urk e y see m s to be c o m p le tin g the transitional
cycle in 50 years. That is at least several times faster than
the average course o f modernisation. This increased pace
o f c h a n g e also re fle c ts the m a g n itu d e o f ed u c a tio n a l
problems.

66
 Table III.2.1
D em ographic Grovvth: Prim ary School Statistics:
19 2 3 -1 9 9 2
Students Teachers
(rounded to the nearest thousand)

Years Schools Boys Girls Males Females

19 23 -2 4 4 89 4 273 63 9 ,0 1,2
1930-31 6 59 8 315 174 11,5 4 ,8
1940-41 10 59 6 661 294 14,6 6 ,0
1950-51 17 42 8 1 017 600 2 6 ,7 9 ,2
1960-61 2 4 398 1 800 1 066 4 8 ,9 1 4 ,0
1970-71 38 2 3 2 2 89 3 2 120 87 ,5 4 5 ,3
1980-81 45 507 3 087 2 567 126,1 8 5 ,5
1990-91 5 0 66 9 3 634 3 236 135,7 9 8 ,4

Source : A k y ü z : 1994 : 3 0 4

Table III.2.2.

D em ographic G rowth: Secondary School

S tatistics:1931-91
Students Teachers
('rounded to the nearest thousand)

Years Schools Boys Girls Males Females

1930-31 83 20, 1 6, 9 0 , 84 0, 22
1940-41 252 69, 1 26 , 2 2, 42 1, 45
1950-51 440 50, 1 19, 0 2, 4 4 2, 09
19 60-61 77 6 241, 2 76, 9 9. 11 4 , 16
19 70-71 1842 569, 7 2 1 3 ,7 18, 58 9 , 87
1980-81 4103 786, 5 3 9 3 ,7 2 0 , 35 10, 58
19 9 1 -9 2 7078 14 97 , 7 9 0 5 ,0 32 , 5 0 18, 6 0

Source : A k yu z 1994 : 308

67
 From the m id-twenties to 1990 the national p o p u latio n
in c re a s e d n e a rly fiv e fo ld fro m 12 to 60 m illio n , a n d
sch ool statistics re flect this in cre d ib le explosion. F o r
samples see Table III. 2.3.
W hile letting the num bers speak for them selves, th e
following trends m ay be underlined:
• At both prim ary and secondary levels, re p u b lic a n
ed uc atio n has ac h ie ved re m a rk a b le results. E v e n
allowing for the natural (demographic) growths, (ie, b y
reducing the Virtual growth by fıve), primary schools
doubled, secondary schools increased nearly 17 times.
• While the schooling ratio at the primary level increased
fıve times, the number of girls seems to have increased
nearly four times faster than boys. So that in 1990, the
sex ratio in primary schools came very close to 1 (= 0.9)
• At secondary levels, achievem ents are even m o re
im pressive — numerically. Student enrolm ent went
up 18 times: boys 15, girls 26 times, as com pared
to the natural growth.
• Whereas the total number of primary school teachers
went up 4,6 times, wom en teachers increased four
times faster than the males. At the secondary schools,
the total num ber o f teachers increasing nearly ten
times, with num bers o f fem ale teachers increased
appeciably faster than those those of males.
• As for the sex ratios in schools: compared to 1920’s
the num bers seem to be converging rapidly in the
o v e r a ll s t u d e n t b o d y and a m o n g te a c h e rs . O n e
n o tew o rth y trend is that w hile in the 1 9 2 0 ’s sex
ratios varied betvveen one-forth and one-third; in the
1990’s there were 2 girls for evedl three boys and
two female teachers for every two male teachers.

68
 T a k in g the sex ra tio s in s c h o o ls as a “m e a s u r e o f
secularism” (laicite), it could safely be concluded that the
Turkish Republic and society have definitely grown more
secular in the last 70 years.

Fig III.2.1. PRİM ARY E DUCA TİO N IN TURK EY

(Sem i - L ogarithm ic)

POPULATİON__________
19’30 ‘40 ‘50 ‘60 *70 *80 19 90 YEARS
10 0 000 000

• • • P O P U L A T İO N
m o jj ,
P O PL'L • • •
r t O U rban '
. « « O O c •o*o*c O O 3 Ö İD R u r a l
>o*c*< Rural< 10 000
U rban > 1 0 001 >
B o ys
»*■ *
Girls
• ••
3O o
3 O ^
. *
*P LP IL: • • \la le
► •
►
TEA. : h e r s
A A
F e m a le
o<J
o O
■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■
S C H O O LS
schoc: LS

• * *
.cf
o
.* ♦ no
o °
o O

ıboo.

*80 19-90 YEARS

SOLR(. E Table III.2.1. Priınary SchnolStali.\tic\: l i) 2 J -i‘M2

From AKYÜ Z (1994:304)

69
 F ig III.2.2. SEC O N D A R Y ED U C A TİO N IN T U R K E Y
(Sem i - L ogarithm ic Curves)

POPULATİON_____________________________________________
19’3 0 *40 *50 *60 *70 *80 19*90 YEARS
100 000 000
I 1
P O P U L A T İO N P O P U L A T İO N
• • •
U rban
O o o O O ç ^ o ° c x )R ural
•o # o *o # o * İ* * °
10 000 000 ı 1Rural <ı 0 1)00
Jrban > 10 000
■

o « °
a a °
o o ° B o ys
►
1 000 000 ► Girls

►STU D EN T5 M ale
▼
100 000
▼
T •
S* F e m a le

y T
•
•# V c
¥
Y

•
• V o
r • •
V Tfy C HERS 0
•
7 hO
10 000
•
•
•
V
u ►SCHOOLS

A A ^o
0°
V Du
1000

♦ ** ♦
o , k** SCHC O L S

100 ?**
19*30 40 50 *60 70 SO 19*90 YEARS

S O L R C E : TA B LE 111.2.1. Şosondun; School Sratisrics: N 2 J-V 2

From A K Y İZ (1994: 308)

W ith in su ch a q u a n tita tiv e g ro w th in m e e tin g the

challenge of big and grovving numbers, schools, students
and teachers m ultiplying at u nprecedented rates, it vvas
im possible to keep or maintain the quality o f education.
F irst, schools b ec am e m ore crovvded than ev e r before.

70
Then, two or three shifts -a- day schools came to being,
re d u c in g the sch ool hours by h a l f or tw o -th ird s . T his
perhaps solved the problem o f teaching space but then
f i n d i n g q u a l i f i e d t e a c h e r s b e c a m e a p r o b l e m . In a
d e v e lo p m e n t e c o n o m y w ith i n f la tio n w ith vvhich the
country stili struggles, the status o f p oo rly-paid school
teachers hit the bottom. Nearly anybody vvishing to teach
fo r th e p a y sc a le o f f e r e d c o u l d teac h . B u i ld i n g nevv
schools vvith a limited or m inim um budget left the old ones
vvith for maintenance, repair and renovation. In classrooms
designed for 30-40 students there were 80 or 90 students.
T eaching aids and equipm ent vvere very scarce as vvere
laboratories. More often than not school libraries, open for
vvorking hours alone, carried no m ore than a collection of
b o o k s specified for the co urses taught. S choo l boo ks
vvritten and printed every fevv years to satisfy the sillabi
specified by the ministry — vvith a slim budget— vvere far
fr o m a t t r a c t iv e . H e n c e s c h o o l b o o k s b e c a m e a big
b u s in e s s o f cheap quality. The in h e re n t and stru ctu ra l
problem s o f school could perhaps be com pensated by the
high quality of enthusiastic teachers. Subject to the lavv of
supply and demand, good teachers m oved from rural to
u r b a n , fro m sm all tovvns to citie s , fro m the p u b lic to
private schools, from the underprivileged to the affluent
com m unities. Private tutoring houses, preparing students
for high school or university entrance exams, becam e the
g e n e r o u s e m p lo y e r s o f r e p u t a b l e t e a c h e r s . S tu d e n t s
attending public school, could hardly identify vvith a single
teacher that he vvould like to be, or see as a mentor in life.
Hence, the negative selection: bright students did not vvish
to b e c o m e teachers. The lovver fifth o f the class vvould
perhaps resolve to go to teaching if they cou ldn ’t qualify
at ali for any other vocation.

71
 P o litic ia n s p ro m isin g p e o p le and p re ssu rin g
b u re a c ra e y for new schoo ls at ali levels, the m in istry
officials opening new schools everyvvhere with the slogan
“b ir m üdür b ir m ü h ü r ” (One teacher director /one official
seal) considered, sufficient for the school. The public and
m e d ia vvere a w a re that the o v e ra ll q u ality o f g en e ral
education vvas rapidly falling. People rem em bered an old
saying to the effect “Start early, the order o f migration
vvill im prove on the roa d”, m eaning that quality may vvait
or soug ht later. S tan dard s kept falling , T h ere vvas not
m u ch left for the education m in isters to do o th er than
make-believe, provide mere vvindovv dressing in changes
to schoo l re g u la tio n s . T h at is e x a ctly vvhat they have
done. They are expected to change som e things -in the
nam e o f re fo rm — and they kindly oblige by changing
p r o g r a m s , c o u r s e s , h o u r s , y e a r s , e v a l u a t i o n s , exam
systems, books, uniforms, shirts or skirt lengths, anything
they can. So that going through any school, regulations
are likely to be changed at least several times. Hovvever
Ministerial terms o f office are not more stable or steady.
L ik e the vveather, e v e r y b o d y t a lk s b u t n o b o d y does
anything about it.

III. 3. D ich o to m ies: G e n era l o r T echnical,

S ep a ra te o r C om p eh en sive;
P riva te o r P ublic; E n g lish o r Turkish;
T u itio n F ees o r F ree S ch o o l?

A fter the 19 50’s vvhen the p rocess o f change began

gaining m om entum , Turkish education has faced several
d i c h o t o m ie s . W h i l e b o th the i n d u s t r y a n d eco n o m y
needed m ore technical-vocational graduates, the p opılar
t r e n d vvas in t h e o p p o s i t e d i r e c t i o n : v v h i t e - c o ll a r

72
p ro fe s s io n s lik e m e d ic in e , law and e n g in e e rin g
(geom etrics, that is) W ere p o pular with families in the
middle echelons wanted their sons to m ove to, or marry
s o m e o n e fr o m th e to p . M o s t o f th e s e c o n d a r y a n d
tech n ic al sch o o ls w ere not c o e d u c a tio n a l. S ep arate
s c h o o l s d e v e l o p e d d i f f e r e n t p r o g r a m s . W h a t th e
ec o n o m y and d e m o c ra c y b a d ly n e e d e d w as a
c o m p re h e n siv e sch o o l of g en e ral and te c h n ic a l
education, boys and girls under the sam e roo f or on the
sam e campus. One school with a variety o f programs.
E d u c a t o r s t a l k e d a n d p l a n n e r s w o r k e d on s u c h
schemes but did not have the political will to im plement
them. Am erican schemes versus the European STET the
F r e n c h o n e o f t e n l e d to s t a l e m a t e s . I f w e h a v e a
com prehensive high school what will be the fate or future
o f the T u rk ish ly cee. W h a t is a ly cee an y w a y ? In the
National E ducation C onvention held in 1960, educators
deliberated for a m onth just to define it as a “school that
p re p a re d ind iv id u a ls for U n iv e r s ity ” . If this is w h a t a
L y ce e is, then ev e ry b o d y vvould prefer to go to the a
Lycee. W hy not the best? The idea o f Sultaniya vvas so
d ea r that educators vvanted to insure its high standards.
T hey succeeded in creating nearly 70 different lycees, ali
equivalent to the lycee, ie, ali graduates eligible at least to
a p p ly and go to u n iv ersity . S cre e n in g the u n q u a lifie d
rather than selecting the qualified, an elaborate system of
e n tr a n c e and p la c e m e n t e x a m in a tio n s vvas in n o v a te d .
T h e n t h e r e vvas th e c r u c i a l q u e s t i o n o f s e c o n d a r y
g r a d u a t e s vvho vvere n o t a d m i t t e d to, o r p l a c e d in a
u n iv e r s ity . S o m e c o n te n d e d th a t the e x a m i n a ti o n fo r
H igh er Education should be abandoned, vvithout offering
hovvever, a feasible alternative. The Open University did
not prove to be the panacea that it vvas once hoped to be.

73
It m a y m a k e up fo r th e s h o r t c o m i n g s o f s e c o n d a r y
e d u c a t i o n b u t n o t fo r m u c h o f a h ig h e r o r t e c h n i c a l
education.
There are two viable contenders to a higher education
degree: foreign languages and Computer sciences. M ost of
the public advertisments for m arket em ploym ent require
both, even before the diploma or the institution. Then the
question is how to acquire these skills. One of the dilemmas
o f re c e n t d e c ad es has b ee n (a) “ teac h in g o f a foreign
lan g u ag e” (Yes) or (b) “teaching in a foreign language
(No!) Private schools that teach in a foreign language also
seem to be more succesful in teaching the foreign language.
Families in middle income groups who cannot afford the
high tuition fees charged by private schools, forced the
ministry to have a new category o f “A natolian S c h o o ls’
teaching some selected subjects like maths and sciences ir
foreign languages so that students will learn. Then, in the
name of “equal opportunity”, everybody is for an Anadolu
C ollege o r Lycee. E ducators vvith som e c o m m o n sense
further argue that teaching the Turkish language is just as
i m p o r t a n t as le a r n i n g a f o r e i g n la n g u a g e . I f f o r e ig r
languages replace the mother tongue, vvill this not lead to £
m o d e r n M a d r a s a l H a v in g b i t te r m e m o r i e s o f re c e n
history, educators d o n ’t vvant to take this responsibility
E v e ry b o d y ag re e s that m a s te rin g at le a s t one fo reig r
language is essential. Yet the m ethod and techniques o:
teac h in g it have yet to be fo u n d or inno vated, vvithou
sacrifıcing, the language o f national instruction — Turkish
T h e p op u larity o f private s ec o n d ary sch ool teac h in g ı
foreign language is so high that the “private classroom s’
(.dershaneler) o f tutoring have already becom e a billioı
dollar business. But the “equal opportunity” principle is stil

74
d ea r and v a lid , T u rk s h a lf iro n ic a lly re m a rk th at
“E verybody is equal but some are m ore so ” (the upper
one-fıfth of the society gets 55% and remaining four fıfths
the 45% o f the GNP.) A m ong the cries for educational
reform , those w ho can afford the tuition fees o f private
colleges teaching one or two foreign languages stand better
c h a n c e s in the h ig h e r e d u c atio n p la c e m e n t e x a m s , for
admission to a foreign language university and finding a
jo b waiting ready at graduation. This is but the classical
“ S o c io -E c o n o m ic — S ta tu s ” p a rad ig m : G ood fam ily
background- good school -good education and success in
life cycle. Many Turkish families aspire to break into this
vicious cycle at some point or phase. So they send their
children to tutoring classrooms but refuse the educational
tax or paying a tuition in public school. The state, on the
o t h e r h a n d , r i g h t f u l l y c o n t e n d s t h a t t h o u g h it is
constitutionally responsible for free and compulsory basic
education, the cost of secondary education, at least, should
be shaved (lycee or college), and for tuition charges in
higher education — public or private, established by non-
profıt foundations. The constitution was recently amended
to legitimize the dichotomy.

III.4. D ile m m a : Isla m ic v.v S e c u la r o r the

T u rk-Isla m S y n th e sis?

It vvas a lre a d y p o in te d o ut (in P art III. 2) th a t the

U n ific a tio n o f E d u c a tio n Lavv o f 1924, vvhile c lo s in g
dovvn M a drasa, had stipulated Im am -H atip schools for
tr a i n i n g the P a s to r P re a c h e rs vvho vvill be n e e d e d fo r
r e lig io u s s e rv ic e s . A n d so m e tvventy o f su ch s c h o o ls
s u rv iv e d until the early thirties. A lth o u g h there is no
clergy class in İslam, there are nevertheless Im am -H atibs

75
vvho perform co m parable services to C hristian M asses,
im a m is any old and respected m em ber of the com m u nity
— not a professional- who may be expected on request to
lead the praying ritual in the m osque. A H atib, on the
o t h e r h a n d , is th e s p e a k e r w h o a d d r e s s e s t h e
c o n g r e g a t i o n g a t h e r e d in the m o s q u e on F r i d a y s o r
special occasions. These two functions may be perform ed
by the same person. So the Republican purpose behind
these schools vvas to train enlightened and enlightening
M üslim scholars. In 1951, these schools vvere revived as
(3 + 4 = ) 7 y e a r i n s titu tio n s . T h e S e v e n th E d u c a t io n a l
c o n v e n t i o n h e l d in 1 9 6 0 ( a f t e r t h e f i r s t m i l i t a r y
intervention) recom m ended that som e 15 o f such schools
vvhich vvere not serving the purposes defined by lavv be
closed. Instead, in 1962 their num bers vvent up to 26 (the
same num ber as in the thirties). In 1971 (after the second
M ilitary interv e n tio n ) the M in iste r o f E d u c a tio n Oral,
converted them to three-year vocational lycees, above the
3 -y e a r m id d le scho ols. In 1972-74, only g ra d u a te s of
m id d le (o rta ) sc h o o l vvere a d m itte d . U n d e r the 1974
coalition governm ent, hovvever, the first cycle o f three
years vvas reinstated. The g overnm ent also decided that
general ethics and morality courses be given by teachers
o f r e l i g i o u s i n s t r u c t i o n . T h e p r e a m b l e o f th e
F u n d a m e n ta l L a w o f E d u c a t i o n e n a c t e d in 1 9 7 3 ,
stipulated several reformative changes in the educational
system. First, there vvas the idea o f an uninterrupted “8-
y e a r b a s i c e d u c a t i o n ” (b y c o m b i n i n g t h e 5 - y e a r
elem entary and the 3-year m iddle schools). Secondly, a
nevv concept o f lycee that vvould prepare its students (1)
fo r h igh er ed uc atio n, (2) for life d irectly (a vocation,
in d u s ty or s e rv ic e s ) and (3) b o th for life and h igh er
education; Thirdly, there vvas a nevv and brave proposal

76
for the Im am -H atib education; it vvas a logical corollary
of the 8-year basic education:
T he İm am -H atibs are vocational schools
at secondary level for boys - only

This vvas simply because İslam did not permit vvoman

pastors and preachers. It vvas logical because ali technical
a n d v o c a t i o n a l e d u c a t i o n vvill b e b u i l t o n 8 - y e a r ,
compulsory basic schools.
D esp ite this p o licy re c o m m e n d a tio n on re co rd , the
1974 coalition governm ent opened the first (orta) cycle
and thus reconstructed the original (3+4=) 7-year im am
H atib school. In 1975, the National Board o f E ducation
e n tr e n c h e d b e h in d the M in is tr y vvalls (b u t u n d e r the
M inister’s control) decided that the Im am -H atib schools
vvere equivalent to general lycees, vvith ali the rights and
privileges o f a B accalaureate degree, m eaning in effect
these Im am -Hatib candidates could apply and attend any
or ali higher education program s that they m ay qualify
for. W ith in tvvo y e a rs , 230 i m a m H a tib sch o o ls vvere
opened and a second track o f Islam ic education vvas thus
created parallel to the secular public education, envisaged
by the U nification o f Education Law o f 1924. T he nevv
system vvas similar to the double track o f State (secular)
and A l-A zhar (Islamic) schools in Egypt. In the 1995-96
School Year, there vvere 561 schools vvith 492 thousand
students and 17 thousand teachers. If an Islamic prim ary
sch o o l and an Islam ic un iversity vvere add ed it m ig h t
rig h tly be c a lle d the “T u rk is h Al A z h a r ” . A p s e u d o -
l e g i t i m a t e vvay vvas t h u s f o u n d to r e s t o r e t h e o l d
M adrasa. In addition to the Standard lycee curriculum ,
I m a m - H a t i b s c h o o l s o f f e r e d 11 to 18 h o u r s o f
professional (Islamic) studies per vveek. Not so m uch the

77
weight of Islamic studies, but the fact that Standard lyee
(se cular) c o u rses vvere o ffered vvith a bu ilt-in Isla m ic
vvorld vievv m a d e ali the d iffe re n c e . F o r e x a m p le the
s c h o o ls vvould te a c h m o d e rn b i o l o g y b u t vvould n o t
a c c e p t e v o l u t i o n . T h e te n th C o n v e n t i o n o f N a t i o n a l
E ducation held in 1981 re co m m en ded that betvveen the
ages o f 6 to 14, ali Turkish students should be given an
8-year basic education. The 1982 C onstitution (soon after
t h e t h i r d m i l i t a r y i n t e r v e n t i o n ) c a m e as a blovv to
secularism. R ather than going to the 8-year basic school,
the constutitution stipulated religious education starting
from 4th grade up, ali the vvay to the end o f secondary
sch ool. R a th e r th an a g en e ral e d u c a tio n , or o b je c tiv e
i n f o r m a t i o n a b o u t r e li g i o n the S u n n i (o r O r t h o d o x )
version o f İslam alone vvas taught. It vvas a constitutional
paradox. W hereas the first paragraph o f the constitutional
article guaranteed unalienable freedom o f conviction and
credo, the third paragraph said that religious culture and
e t h i c s are c o m p u l s o r y in e l e m e n t a r y and s e c o n d a r y
educational institutions. In 1984, there vvere 80 A n a d o lu
im a m H a tib s c h o o ls in s tru c tin g İs la m in E n g lis h . In
1990, there vvere som e 70 th o u san d girls re g istered in
these schools, 50 thousand attending the m iddle and 20
thousand at the higher level. In the 1989-90, school year,
out o f 8 thousand graduates less than one thousand (or
12%) applied to the faculties o f theology. 2000 registered
K u r ’an ( r e a d in g ) c o u r s e s , r e m i n i s c e n t o f the S ib ya n
schools, but und er M in istry ’s supervision. The num ber
vvent up to 5 0 0 0 , vvith as m a n y t e a c h e r s a n d 150
thou san d graduates. The num bers vvere grovving like a
snovv ball. Fanatic M üslim groups deployed in Germany
declared themselves the Khaliph o f the Islamic State that
t h e y h a v e e s t a b l i s h e d t h e r e . M o r e r e c e n t l y , in a

78
conference on “Turkish Identity” , the Seeretary General
o f the “ N a t i o n a l ” V is io n O rg a n is a tio n e s ta b l i s h e d in
Germ any overtly declared that they are not citizens o f the
Turkish Republic but followers o f the M üslim W orld at
large. Their representatives in T urkish politics declared
that the vo lu n tary m ilitia (M u ja h id e e n ) o f the Islam ic
Restoration or Revival vvas being trained in the backyards
o f im am Hatib Schools.
The crux of the problem is that radical İslam does not
re c o g n ise any in term ed iary id en tity betvveen M an and
God except İslam. Radicals even ad vocate vvaging vvar
(j e h a t ) on la'ı'cists, on the g ro u n d s th at they are n o t
Muslims.

Is this a dress rehearsal for a takeover, as vvas staged in

Ira n and A lg ie rs ? M a n y T u rk s vvondered and s e e m e d
vvorried.

111.5. P ro sp e c ts o f the “U n in terru p ted

8 -Y e a r S c h o o l” C o n tro v ersy

N o tes on the R o le o f the M ilitary:

İn terven tio n o r M e d ia tio n ?

In S e c t i o n III. 1., th e r e p u b l i c a n tu r n e d d e m o c r a t
vvriter S afa’s critical vievvs o f the Turkish revolution vvere
b rie fly m e n tio n e d . A g rou p o f in te lle c tu a ls c a lle d
“Aydınlar Ocağı”, follovving up the points raised by Safa,
published in 1973, the “Problems o f Turkey : the Vievv of
intellectuals” . Not only vvere the problems discussed but
there vvere prescrip tiv e solutions vvere provided in this
b o o k vvhich did not g et m u c h a t t e n t i o n o r p u b lic ity .
Apparently, hovvever, some people took the book rather
seriously and vvrote a remedial “Plan for National Culture

79
(M illi K ültür Planı, 1983). This book, which vvas published
by the State Planning Organisation, vvas later adapted semi-
officially as the “National Culture Policy.”
From 1984 to 1989, the plan becam e better knovvn as
the “Turk İslam Synthesis” , simply because it vvas formally
or literally advocating such a synthesis. As a matter o f fact,
hovvever, the “synthesis” vvas a deceptive cover up for the
restoration o f İslam. This vvas seen specifically on tvvo
hypothetical premises : (1) There is an unchanging core of
cu ltu re (s ) and (2) T h a t core is re lig io n [or İslam ], In
accordance vvith this plan, ali manifestations o f culture ie,
educational, linguistic, academic, mediatic, aesthetic and
ideological institutions and their program s vvere revised
and rendered compatible vvith teachings o f İslam. Later it
appeared as if the political vvill that endorsed the plan had
not read the purposes hidden behind the Synthesis cover
and betvveen the lines. As a result, the Turkish Republic for
d e c a d e betvveen 1986 and 1996, vvas lo o k in g W e s t to
E u ro p e an U nion but steadily shifting tovvards political
İslam . T urk s vvere asking each o th e r “Is o u r R epu blic
s e c u la r any m o r e ? ” I f not, i s n ’t it tim e to b u ild in g a
“ S e c o n d R e p u b l i c ” — follovving th e F r e n c h e x a m p le .
P e o p le b e g a n vvondering vvhich vvay vvas th e c o u n try
going, the Iranian or the Algerian vvay? From 1986 on,
there vvere cries for la'icite (laicisme or secularism). For
nearly sixty years people had taken secularism for granted.
It vvas a fundamental atribute o f the Republic and could
not be changed — they believed.
G radually hovvever it b ecam e clea r in the m inds or
consciences o f people that, vvhatesover laicisme is, it vvas
b ein g e x h a u s te d or d e stro y e d . S e m in a rs, panel
d iscu ssio n s, co lu m n ists, teac hers, students: everyb od y

80
was talking and vvriting about it. The so-called Islam ic
tu r b a n s , c o v e r i n g th e h a ir a n d fa c e o f vvomen w e re
b e c o m i n g a c o m m o n s i g h t e v e r y w h e r e . T h e r e w e re
m eeting s and dem on stratio n s also for the laîque front.
T h e 1995 g e n e r a l e l e c t i o n s w e r e h e ld a m i d s t t h e s e
developm ents. The çenter left votes for social dem ocracy
was divided between two parties; so were vvere the çenter
right votes. O ut o f this dividedness, the Islam ist Refah
(W elfare) Party em erged as the n um b er one party vvith
21% of the popular votes cast. A coalition vvas inevitable.
O n e o f the p artie s o f the pre v io u s coalitio n, try in g to
cover up its corruption fileş, becam e the ju nior partner of
the R e fa h co alition. T his g o v e rn m e n t ac c e le ra tin g the
svvay f r o m d e m o c r a c y to f u n d a m e n t a l i s t İ s l a m by
d e c la r i n g th a t i f th ey vvere a v id a tta in the n e c e s s a r y
m ajority for am ending the C onstitution, they vvould lift
a l i l e g a l o b s t a c l e s b l o c k i n g th e vvay to an I s l a m i c
R epublic o f Turkey.

III.5. P ro spects o f the “U rıinterrupted 8-Yecır S c h o o l”

C o n tro v ersy

T h i s s e r v e d as a r e d a l a r m b e f o r e a p e r c e i v e d
d o o m s d a y . In F e b r u a r y 1 9 9 6 in a m e e t i n g o f th e
N a tio n al Security C ouncil, the C o m m a n d ers raised the
issue.They im posed not an ultim atum but a list o f urgent
m easu res to be taken by the governm ent for safe keeping
the principle o f laicisme. The crucial item in the list vvas
the “ uninterrupted 8-year basic education school” vvhich
in e f fe c t m e a n t the c lo sin g o f m id d le s e c tio n s o f the
im a m H a tib schools. F or several m onths novv this has
b e e n the n u m b e r one topic on the natio n al m edia. To
save the schools in question Islamists had proposed 5+3
(= 8 ), vvhich is an interruption. F inally the g o v ern m e n t

81
r e s ig n e d and th re e p a rtie s p lu s o n e s u p p o r tin g fr o m
o u t s i d e f o r m e d a nevv c o a l i t i o n g o v e r n m e n t vvhich
receiv ed the vote o f confiden ce and is currently go ing
full speed ahead, Islam ists, lac k in g the p a rlia m e n ta ry
backing dem and an early election. The lai'cists prefer an
election in 1998, after taking a pop ulation census (by-
passed in 1995 and after), in order to renevv the electoral
registers, and afte r putting the h o u se and the po litica l
backy ard into som e kind o f order by revising Political
Parties Lavv and changing the Electoral Lavv ete. F o r a
m o re d e m o c r a t i c e l e c t io n ali th e s e step s s e e m to be
necessary. Meanvvhile, the C hief Attorney of the Republic
requested the Constitutional Court that the Islamist Refah
Party be declared unconstitutional and closed.
The Refah Party vvas finally closed but unm ediately
replaced by the F azilet (Virtue) Party.
The Refah Party in return tries to excite its ardent and
faithful follovvers that there has been a hidden case of
i n t e r v e n t i o n by th e A r m e d F o r c e s . S o m e M u s l im s
com ing out o f the Friday or Sunday prayers dem onstrate
(vvith green flags o f İslam) against and accuse the present
G o v e rn m e n t eve n tho ug h it has been ap p ro ved by the
President and endorsed by the Military.
On beh a lf o f dem ocracy, the T urkish A rm ed Forces
have, at ten-year intervals, intervened three times, ali for
th e S a k e o f p r o t e e t i n g th e d e m o c r a t i c a n d s e c u l a r
R epublic. The first one in 1960 depo liticized the rural
b a c k b o n e o f the country. T h e s e c o n d in 1971 vvas so
p r e m a t ü r e t h a t it vvas a b o r te d vvithout a f f e e t i n g the
p o litic a l tren d s u n d e r vvay. T h e th ird in 1980 nea rly
t u r n e d o ut, in f a c t to be a d e p o l i t i c i z a t i o n o f u rban
intellectuals and served by proxy the restoration o f İslam

82
— rather than dem ocracy or laicism — since, by taking the
p e a s a n ts and u rb a n ite s o u t o f the p o litic a l a r e n a , the
political stage vvas being turned över to the conservative
townships. So this time, in 1997, the Arm ed Forces put
their weight b ehind the secular education and refrained
f r o m an o v e r t i n t e r v e n t i o n . In d o in g so, th e A r m e d
F o rce s is sayin g “ s to p ” to an u n c o n s titu tio n a l d o u b le
tra c k e d u c a tio n . S in c e the T u r k i s h A rm y has alvvays
pioneered in adapting and im plem enting the western and
m odern education, there is nothing wrong with this. As
g u a r d ia n s o f the s e c u la r R e p u b lic , the A rm e d F o rc e s
m ade the initial m ove but left the rest to the “unarm ed
fo rces” o f the society. The ethical question facing the
R epublic now is hovv, m any o f the benefits o f dem ocracy
could be allovved for a party which does not believe in
and tries to put an end to p arlia m e n ta ria n dem o cracy .
Secular parties have learned to tolerate İslam, novv it is
Is la m ’s turn to accept and tolerate the secular republic.
Political parties like the citizens o f the Republic ought to
co m e to term s on basic values and prerequisites. T hey
also have to learn that a parliam entarian m ajority i s n ’t
necessarily the will o f the nation.

There is no crystal ball to predict the future o f things

to com e, prospects hovvever seem pretty good. The socio-
political and dem ographic indicators o f change shovv that
d esp ite structural handicaps, the Turkish R epublic and
culture have m ade some progress. If Turkish society can
pull out o f this predicam ent peacefully, that is, vvithout
resorting to civil strife, it may be her unique contribution
to vvorld history. For ali m odern nations, from England,
to Am erica, France, Italy, Russia, Spain, Iran and Algiers
h ad civil vvars, follovving their revolutions. Turkey stands

83
a good chance to change or end this historical pattern.
Turks have usually searched the solution to their social
problem s in formal education or schools; the prospects
are such that solutions to some o f the problems m ay now
be found outside the school — by the society or in the
s o c i e t y . T u r k e y e x p e c t e d th e M i n i s t r y o f N a t i o n a l
Education to carry out the reform s are that long overdue.
A huge and bureaucratic m inistry with some 40 general
directorate cannot undertake any reforms. In order to be
able to reduce the 70 different types o f lycees to three the
n um b er o f general directorates had/has to be reduced to
fiv e or six. T h is m e a n s an e x te r n a l o p e ra tio n , fo r no
b u r e a u c r a c y d a r e s u n d e r ta k e a r is k y v e n t u r e o f this
m agnitude.

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