Lec 6 and 7 - Sequences

MATH F111- Mathematics I
Saranya G. Nair
Department of Mathematics
BITS Pilani
August 26, 2023
Saranya G. Nair (BITS Pilani) Mathematics I August 26, 2023 1 / 21

Properties of limits
Theorem
Uniqueness of Limits. A sequence in R can have at most one limit.

Theorem
Proof. Let (an ) be a real sequence and suppose that ℓ1 and ℓ2 are both
limits for (an ) and let ℓ1 ̸= ℓ2 .

Theorem
• Let ϵ := |ℓ1 − ℓ2 |/2. Since ℓ1 ̸= ℓ2 , ϵ > 0.

Theorem
• Let ϵ := |ℓ1 − ℓ2 |/2. Since ℓ1 ̸= ℓ2 , ϵ > 0.
• Since ℓ1 is a limit of the sequence, for the chosen ϵ, ∃ N1 ∈ N such
that
|an − ℓ1 | < ϵ, for all n ≥ N1 .

Theorem
• Let ϵ := |ℓ1 − ℓ2 |/2. Since ℓ1 ̸= ℓ2 , ϵ > 0.
that
|an − ℓ1 | < ϵ, for all n ≥ N1 .

that
|an − ℓ2 | < ϵ, for all n ≥ N2 .

Theorem
• Let ϵ := |ℓ1 − ℓ2 |/2. Since ℓ1 ̸= ℓ2 , ϵ > 0.
that
|an − ℓ1 | < ϵ, for all n ≥ N1 .

that
|an − ℓ2 | < ϵ, for all n ≥ N2 .

Let N = max{N1 , N2 }. Then:
|an − ℓ1 | < ϵ and |an − ℓ2 | < ϵ for all n ≥ N,
and hence,
|ℓ1 − ℓ2 | = |(aN − ℓ2 ) − (aN − ℓ1 )| ≤ |aN − ℓ1 | + |aN − ℓ2 | < ϵ + ϵ = |ℓ1 − ℓ2 |
which is a contradiction. Hence, ℓ1 = ℓ2 . ■

Theorem
A convergent sequence is bounded.

Theorem
Suppose an → ℓ.

Theorem
Suppose an → ℓ. Let ϵ := 1. There is N ∈ N such that
|an − ℓ| < 1 for all n ≥ N.
Hence
|an | ≤ |an − ℓ| + |ℓ| < 1 + |ℓ| for all n ≥ N.

Theorem
Suppose an → ℓ. Let ϵ := 1. There is N ∈ N such that
|an − ℓ| < 1 for all n ≥ N.
Hence
|an | ≤ |an − ℓ| + |ℓ| < 1 + |ℓ| for all n ≥ N.
• Thus it remains to find a bound for a1 , a2 · · · , aN−1 . Choose

β = max{|a1 |, |a2 |, · · · , |aN−1 |}. Then |an | ≤ β, for all
1 ≤ n ≤ N − 1.
• Define α := max |a1 |, . . . , |aN−1 |, |ℓ| + 1 . Then

|an | ≤ α for all n ∈ N. Hence (an ) is bounded.

If an is convergent, then an is bounded. Equivalently, if an is not bounded,
then an is not convergent. This result can be used to show if a sequence is
not bounded.
• The sequence {(−1)n n : n ∈ N} divergent since it is not bounded.
• A bounded sequence need not be convergent. For example, the
sequence {(−1)n : n ∈ N} is bounded but not convergent.

Theorem
Limit theorems. Let {an } and {bn } be two convergent sequences that
converge to A and B respectively. Then:
• lim(an ± bn ) = A ± B.
• lim(an bn ) = AB.
In particular, lim(can ) = cA for c ∈ R.
• lim ban = BA , provided (bn ) is a sequence of non-zero real numbers and
n
B ̸= 0.

Theorem
• lim(an ± bn ) = A ± B.
n
B ̸= 0.
• limn→∞ −1 1
n = − limn→∞ n = 0.

Theorem
• lim(an ± bn ) = A ± B.
n
B ̸= 0.
• limn→∞ −1 1
n = − limn→∞ n = 0.
• limn→∞ n+1 1

n = limn→∞ 1 + n = 1.

Theorem
• lim(an ± bn ) = A ± B.
n
B ̸= 0.
• limn→∞ −1 1
n = − limn→∞ n = 0.
• limn→∞ n+1 1

n = limn→∞ 1 + n = 1.

4
6 6 −7
• limn→∞ 4−7n
n6 +3
n
= limn→∞ 1+ 3 = 0−7
1+0 = −7.
n6

Theorem
Let (xn ) converges to ℓ and there exists a positive integer m such that
xn ≥ 0 for all n ≥ m. Then ℓ ≥ 0.

Theorem
Proof:
• Assume that ℓ < 0.

Theorem
Proof:
• Choose an ϵ neighbourhood around ℓ such that xn < 0 for infinitely
many values of n. What is the ϵ you choose?

Theorem
Proof:
• Did you arrive at the contradiction?

Theorem
Proof:
Corollary
If (xn ) and (yn ) are convergent sequences of real numbers and if there is a
positive integer m such that xn ≤ yn for all n ≥ m, then lim xn ≤ lim yn .

Theorem
Proof:
Corollary
Proof. Let zn := yn − xn .

Theorem
Proof:
Corollary
Proof. Let zn := yn − xn . Then (zn ) is convergent sequence of real

numbers such that zn ≥ 0 for all n ≥ m.

Theorem
Proof:
Corollary
Proof. Let zn := yn − xn . Then (zn ) is convergent sequence of real

numbers such that zn ≥ 0 for all n ≥ m. Can you conclude from the
preceding theorem?
Theorem
Sandwich Theorem. Let (an ), (bn ), (cn ) be three sequences of real
numbers and there is a natural number m such that
an ≤ bn ≤ cn for all n ≥ m.
If lim an = lim cn = ℓ, then (bn ) is convergent and lim bn = ℓ.

Theorem
Examples:
cos n
(i) lim
n→∞ n

Theorem
Examples:
cos n
(i) lim
n→∞ n
cos n
−1 ≤ cos n ≤ 1. Therefore − n1 ≤ cos n
n ≤ 1
n and lim = 0.
n→∞ n

Theorem
Examples:
cos n
(i) lim
n→∞ n
cos n
n ≤ 1
n and lim = 0.
n→∞ n
1
(ii) lim =0
n→∞ 2n
as 0 ≤ 2n ≤ n1
1

Theorem
Examples:
cos n
(i) lim
n→∞ n
cos n
n ≤ 1
n and lim = 0.
n→∞ n
1
(ii) lim =0
n→∞ 2n
as 0 ≤ 2n ≤ n1
1
1
(iii) lim (−1)n = 0.
n→∞ n
Examples (continued)
n3 + 3n2 + 1
(iv) Let an := for n ∈ N. Then an → 0,
n4 + 8n2 + 2
1 1
(iii) Let an := sin for n ∈ N. Then an → 0,
n n

n3 + 3n2 + 1
n4 + 8n2 + 2
1 3 1
since 0 ≤ an ≤ + + → 0.
n 8n2 n4
1 1
n n

n3 + 3n2 + 1
n4 + 8n2 + 2
1 3 1
since 0 ≤ an ≤ + + → 0.
n 8n2 n4
1 1
n n

n3 + 3n2 + 1
n4 + 8n2 + 2
1 3 1
since 0 ≤ an ≤ + + → 0.
n 8n2 n4
1 1
n n
1
since |an | ≤ → 0.
n

Subsequences
Definition
A subsequence of a sequence is a sequence that can be derived from the
given sequence by deleting some elements without changing the order of
the remaining elements.

Subsequences
Definition
A subsequence of a sequence is a sequence that can be derived from the
given sequence by deleting some elements without changing the order of
the remaining elements.
Let (an ) = {a1 , a2 , a3 , . . .}. Then

{a1 , a5 , a6 , a13 , . . .}
{a1 , a3 , a5 , a7 , . . .}
{a1001 , a100001 , a200001 . . .} are subsequences
{a5 , a4 , a6 , a7 , . . .} is not a subsequence.
Remark
Why are we interested in subsequences?

Theorem
A sequence converges to a limit ℓ if and only if every subsequence also
converges to the same limit ℓ.

Theorem
A sequence converges to a limit ℓ if and only if every subsequence also
converges to the same limit ℓ.
{1, −1, 1, −1, · · · } doesn’t converge as it has a subsequence {1, 1, 1, · · · }

that converges to 1 and another subsequence {−1, −1, −1, · · · } that
converges to −1. Since the limits of both subsequences are different we
can conclude that original sequence doesn’t converge.

Understanding limit of a function
Definition
We say that the limit of f (x) as x approaches ∞ is the number L, and
write
lim f (x) = L
x→∞
if,

Definition
We say that the limit of f (x) as x approaches ∞ is the number L, and
write
lim f (x) = L
x→∞
if, for every number ϵ > 0, there exists a corresponding number M ∈ R

such that
|f (x) − L| < ϵ, ∀x ≥ M.

Definition
Let f (x) be defined on an open interval about x0 , except possibly at x0
itself. We say that the limit of f (x) as x approaches x0 is the number L,
and write
lim f (x) = L
x→x0
if,

Definition
Let f (x) be defined on an open interval about x0 , except possibly at x0
itself. We say that the limit of f (x) as x approaches x0 is the number L,
and write
lim f (x) = L
x→x0
if, for every number ϵ > 0, there exists a corresponding number δ > 0 such
that
|f (x) − L| < ϵ, ∀x ∈ (x0 − δ, x0 + δ).
Refer Chapter 2 in Thomas Calculus for a thorough understanding of

definition of limit of a function.
Example
√
For the limit limx→5 x − 1 = 2, find a δ > 0 that works for ϵ = 1.

Example
Show that limx→1 (5x − 3) = 2.

Example
For any given ϵ > 0, we have to find a suitable δ > 0 such that whenever,
0 < |x − 1| < δ, =⇒ |f (x) − 2| < ϵ.

Example
0 < |x − 1| < δ, =⇒ |f (x) − 2| < ϵ.
|(5x − 3) − 2| = |5x − 5| = 5|x − 1|.

Example
0 < |x − 1| < δ, =⇒ |f (x) − 2| < ϵ.
|(5x − 3) − 2| = |5x − 5| = 5|x − 1|. Thus for any given ϵ, take δ = 5ϵ .

Then for all x such that
ϵ ϵ
0 < |x − 1| < =⇒ |f (x) − 2| = 5|x − 1| < 5 × = ϵ.
5 5

Example
Using definition of limits, prove that limx→x0 x = x0

Example
Using definition of limits, prove that limx→x0 x = x0
(i). Let ϵ > 0 be given. We must find δ > 0 such that for all x,
0 < |x − x0 | < δ =⇒ |x − x0 | < δ.
Choose δ = ϵ or any positive real number smaller than ϵ.

Example
Using definition of limits, prove that limx→x0 k = k.
(ii). Let ϵ > 0 be given. We must find δ > 0 such that for all x,
0 < |x − x0 | < δ =⇒ |k − k| < ϵ.
Choose δ to be any positive real number.

Properties: Limit
Theorem (Theorem 1)
Let limx→x0 f (x) = L, limx→x0 g (x) = M and k be a real number.
• Constant Multiple Rule limx→x0 kf (x) = kL.
• Sum Rule limx→x0 [f (x) + g (x)] = L + M.
• Difference Rule limx→x0 [f (x) − g (x)] = L − M.
• Product Rule limx→x0 [f (x) · g (x)] = L · M.
f (x) L
• Quotient Rule limx→x0 g (x) = M where M ̸= 0.
• Power Rule limx→x0 f (x)n = Ln where n is
a positive integer.
p √ 1
• Root Rule limx→x0 n f (x) = n L = L n , where n is a positive integer.

Remark
Define limx→x0 f (x) ̸= L.
• limx→x0 f (x) ̸= L can be expressed as ¬(∀ϵ > 0, ∃δ > 0 such that

∀x ∈ 0 < |x − x0 | < δ =⇒ |f (x) − L| < ϵ.)

Remark
Define limx→x0 f (x) ̸= L.
• limx→x0 f (x) ̸= L can be expressed as ¬(∀ϵ > 0, ∃δ > 0 such that

∀x ∈ 0 < |x − x0 | < δ =⇒ |f (x) − L| < ϵ.)
• i.e ∃ϵ > 0, ∀δ > 0, ∃x ∈ 0 < |x − x0 | < δ ∧ |f (x) − L| ≥ ϵ.

Example
Use quantifiers and predicates to express the fact that limx→x0 f (x) does
not exist where f (x) is a real-valued function of a real variable x and x0
belongs to the domain of f .

Example
• limx→x0 f (x) does not exist means that for all real numbers L,
limx→x0 f (x) ̸= L.

Example
• limx→x0 f (x) ̸= L can be expressed as
∃ϵ > 0∀δ > 0∃x ∈ 0 < |x − x0 | < δ ∧ |f (x) − L| ≥ ϵ.

Example
∃ϵ > 0∀δ > 0∃x ∈ 0 < |x − x0 | < δ ∧ |f (x) − L| ≥ ϵ.
• limx→x0 f (x) does not exist means
∀L, ∃ϵ > 0, ∀δ > 0, ∃x ∈ 0 < |x − x0 | < δ ∧ |f (x) − L| ≥ ϵ.

Example
∃ϵ > 0∀δ > 0∃x ∈ 0 < |x − x0 | < δ ∧ |f (x) − L| ≥ ϵ.
• limx→x0 f (x) does not exist means
∀L, ∃ϵ > 0, ∀δ > 0, ∃x ∈ 0 < |x − x0 | < δ ∧ |f (x) − L| ≥ ϵ.
This last statement says that for every real number L there is a real
number ϵ > 0 such that for every real number δ > 0, there exists a
real number x such that 0 < |x − x0 | < δ and |f (x) − L| ≥ ϵ.

Definition: Continuity
Definition
Let f : D → R be a function where D ⊆ R. For x0 , we say that the
function is continuous at x0 if the following conditions hold:
1 x0 ∈ D.
2 limx→x0 f (x) exists.
3 limx→x0 f (x) = f (x0 ).
A function is continuous if it is continuous at all points of it’s domain.
Suppose f is defined in an interval around x0 . How do we define f is not

continuous at x0 ?

Lec 6 and 7 - Sequences

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MATH F111- Mathematics I

August 26, 2023

Saranya G. Nair (BITS Pilani) Mathematics I August 26, 2023 1 / 21

Saranya G. Nair (BITS Pilani) Mathematics I August 26, 2023 2 / 21

Saranya G. Nair (BITS Pilani) Mathematics I August 26, 2023 2 / 21

Saranya G. Nair (BITS Pilani) Mathematics I August 26, 2023 2 / 21

Saranya G. Nair (BITS Pilani) Mathematics I August 26, 2023 2 / 21

• Since ℓ2 is a limit of the sequence, for the chosen ϵ, ∃ N2 ∈ N such

Saranya G. Nair (BITS Pilani) Mathematics I August 26, 2023 2 / 21

• Since ℓ2 is a limit of the sequence, for the chosen ϵ, ∃ N2 ∈ N such

Saranya G. Nair (BITS Pilani) Mathematics I August 26, 2023 2 / 21

|an − ℓ1 | < ϵ and |an − ℓ2 | < ϵ for all n ≥ N,

|ℓ1 − ℓ2 | = |(aN − ℓ2 ) − (aN − ℓ1 )| ≤ |aN − ℓ1 | + |aN − ℓ2 | < ϵ + ϵ = |ℓ1 − ℓ2 |

which is a contradiction. Hence, ℓ1 = ℓ2 . ■

Saranya G. Nair (BITS Pilani) Mathematics I August 26, 2023 3 / 21

Saranya G. Nair (BITS Pilani) Mathematics I August 26, 2023 4 / 21

Saranya G. Nair (BITS Pilani) Mathematics I August 26, 2023 4 / 21

Suppose an → ℓ. Let ϵ := 1. There is N ∈ N such that

|an − ℓ| < 1 for all n ≥ N.

|an | ≤ |an − ℓ| + |ℓ| < 1 + |ℓ| for all n ≥ N.

Saranya G. Nair (BITS Pilani) Mathematics I August 26, 2023 4 / 21

Suppose an → ℓ. Let ϵ := 1. There is N ∈ N such that

|an − ℓ| < 1 for all n ≥ N.

|an | ≤ |an − ℓ| + |ℓ| < 1 + |ℓ| for all n ≥ N.

• Thus it remains to find a bound for a1 , a2 · · · , aN−1 . Choose

|an | ≤ α for all n ∈ N. Hence (an ) is bounded.

Saranya G. Nair (BITS Pilani) Mathematics I August 26, 2023 5 / 21

Saranya G. Nair (BITS Pilani) Mathematics I August 26, 2023 6 / 21

Saranya G. Nair (BITS Pilani) Mathematics I August 26, 2023 6 / 21

Saranya G. Nair (BITS Pilani) Mathematics I August 26, 2023 6 / 21

Saranya G. Nair (BITS Pilani) Mathematics I August 26, 2023 6 / 21

Saranya G. Nair (BITS Pilani) Mathematics I August 26, 2023 7 / 21

Saranya G. Nair (BITS Pilani) Mathematics I August 26, 2023 7 / 21

Saranya G. Nair (BITS Pilani) Mathematics I August 26, 2023 7 / 21

Saranya G. Nair (BITS Pilani) Mathematics I August 26, 2023 7 / 21

Saranya G. Nair (BITS Pilani) Mathematics I August 26, 2023 7 / 21

Saranya G. Nair (BITS Pilani) Mathematics I August 26, 2023 7 / 21

Proof. Let zn := yn − xn . Then (zn ) is convergent sequence of real

Saranya G. Nair (BITS Pilani) Mathematics I August 26, 2023 7 / 21

Proof. Let zn := yn − xn . Then (zn ) is convergent sequence of real

If lim an = lim cn = ℓ, then (bn ) is convergent and lim bn = ℓ.

Saranya G. Nair (BITS Pilani) Mathematics I August 26, 2023 8 / 21

If lim an = lim cn = ℓ, then (bn ) is convergent and lim bn = ℓ.

Saranya G. Nair (BITS Pilani) Mathematics I August 26, 2023 8 / 21

If lim an = lim cn = ℓ, then (bn ) is convergent and lim bn = ℓ.

Saranya G. Nair (BITS Pilani) Mathematics I August 26, 2023 8 / 21

If lim an = lim cn = ℓ, then (bn ) is convergent and lim bn = ℓ.

Saranya G. Nair (BITS Pilani) Mathematics I August 26, 2023 8 / 21

If lim an = lim cn = ℓ, then (bn ) is convergent and lim bn = ℓ.

Saranya G. Nair (BITS Pilani) Mathematics I August 26, 2023 9 / 21

Saranya G. Nair (BITS Pilani) Mathematics I August 26, 2023 9 / 21

Saranya G. Nair (BITS Pilani) Mathematics I August 26, 2023 9 / 21

Saranya G. Nair (BITS Pilani) Mathematics I August 26, 2023 9 / 21

Saranya G. Nair (BITS Pilani) Mathematics I August 26, 2023 10 / 21

Let (an ) = {a1 , a2 , a3 , . . .}. Then

Saranya G. Nair (BITS Pilani) Mathematics I August 26, 2023 10 / 21

Saranya G. Nair (BITS Pilani) Mathematics I August 26, 2023 11 / 21

{1, −1, 1, −1, · · · } doesn’t converge as it has a subsequence {1, 1, 1, · · · }

Saranya G. Nair (BITS Pilani) Mathematics I August 26, 2023 11 / 21

Saranya G. Nair (BITS Pilani) Mathematics I August 26, 2023 12 / 21

if, for every number ϵ > 0, there exists a corresponding number M ∈ R

Saranya G. Nair (BITS Pilani) Mathematics I August 26, 2023 12 / 21