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G F

E
H

y
D
C

A B
x

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Indexing of Planes
William Hallowes Miller devised method to identify/describe the
orientation of lattice planes in relation to unit cell.

Miller indices for Hexagonal unit cells

Indices of direction in 3 axis Conversion of 3 axis coordinate
coordinate system – [u’ v’ w’] system into 4 axis coordinate
system.
Indices of direction in 4 axis
coordinate system – [ u v t w ]
also called Miller-Bravais
indices

Some crystallographic
equivalent directions will not
have the same set of indices

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Miller indices for Hexagonal unit cells

[001] [0001]
C C

[100]
[101]

a3 a3

[010]
a2 a2

a1 a1

C
C
L K
L K

G J
G J
H I
H I
a3
a3

E D
E D

F a2
F a2 C
C

A B
A B
a1
a1

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C C
L K L K

G M J G J
M

H I H I

a3 a3

E D E D

F a2 F a2
C C

A B A B
a1 a1

Density Computation

where,
n = No. atoms per unit cell
A = Atomic mass (in g/mol)
Vc = Volume of unit cell
NA = Avogadro’s no. (6.023 X 1023 )
atoms/mol

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Repeat Distance, Linear Density, and

Packing Fraction
Repeat distance: Distance y
O
b/w the lattice points along
the direction.
½½0
a A

Crystal structure of Copper: FCC

Lattice parameter; a = 0.3615 nm 110
B

OA Repeat distance
OA = 0.2556 nm
[1 1 0 ]
x
Repeat distance for a [110]
direction in FCC copper.

Repeat Distance, Linear Density, and

Packing Fraction
Linear density: Number of
lattice points per unit length y
O
along the direction.

½½0
a A

110
B

[1 1 0 ]
x
Linear density is also the reciprocal of the Linear density for a [110]
repeat distance. direction in FCC copper.

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Repeat Distance, Linear Density, and

Packing Fraction
Packing fraction: Fraction of vector length actually covered by atoms.

Packing fraction for a [110] direction y

O
in FCC copper.

½½0
a A

110
B
R = 0.1278 nm

[1 1 0 ]
x

Planar Density and Packing Fraction

Crystal structure of Copper: FCC
Lattice parameter; a = 0.3615 nm

R
Since, a = 0.3615 nm
O

a A

Planar density and packing fraction

for a (001)plane in FCC copper.

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• Equivalent directions have identical linear

densities.
• Equivalent planes have identical planar
densities.

Close-Packed Planes & Directions

Structure Directions Planes

SC <100> None
BCC <111> None
FCC <110> {111}
HCP (0001)

Crystal defects
Crystal defect: deviations from
the perfect /ideal in
atomic/ionic arrangements in
the crystal.
•Material itself is not
considered defective.
•Defects may be created
intentionally to alter the
property of materials.
Classification of crystal defects:
1. Zero order or Point defect
(a) Vacancy
(b) Self-interstitial
(c) Impurity point defects
(i) Interstitial
(ii) Substitutional
2. Linear or one dimensional
(a) Edge dislocation
(b) Screw dislocation
(c) Mixed dislocation
3. Planar or two dimensional defects
(a) External surface
(b) Grain boundaries
(c) Low angle grain boundary
(i) Tilt boundary
(ii) Twist boundary
(d) Twin boundaries
(e) Stacking sequence fault

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Vacancy
All crystalline solids contain vacancies.
Its presence can be explained using the principle of thermodynamics.
Its presence increase the entropy of crystal.

NV = equilibrium no. of
Vacancy
vacancies
N= total no. of atomic sites
K = Boltzmann’s constant
(1.38 X 10-23 J/atom-K)
Qv = Energy required for
the formation of a vacancy
T= absolute temperature
(Kelvin)
Self
interstitial

Impurity

Substitutional
impurity atom

Solid solution= Solvent atom + Solute Interstitial

impurity
atom
atom

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