POPULATION GROWTH
4 Life tables Provide Data for Mortality and Survivorship
Demography - study of populations. It includes the reviews
of changes in population size, natality and death.
13. 1 Mortality is the Probability of Surviving
● Mortality Rate - number of individuals dying in a
given time period.
To calculate mortality, we divide the number of
individuals that died during an interval of time, by
the number alive at the beginning of the period.
● Probability of Survival - the number of survivors at
the end of a time period divided by the number alive
at the beginning.
● Life Expectancy - the average number of years to
be lived in the future by members of the population.
13. 2 Life tables Give a Systematic Picture of Mortality and
Survival
Life table - an account book of death. It was developed by
students of human populations and widely used by life
insurance companies.
13. 3 Plant Life Tables are more Complex
● Mortality and survivorship in plants are not easily
condensed into life tables.
● Mortality of individuals usually stimulates growth of
survivors, increasing the living tissue or biomass
and the size of the modular ves, and stems.
● Furthermore, it is difficult to separate and even
identify individuals. The parent plant may die, yet
live on in sprouts and suckers.
In plant demography the life table is most useful in studying
three areas;
1. Seedling mortality and survival.
2. Population dynamics of perennial plants marked as
seedlings
3. Life cycles of annual plants.
13.
Curves.
● Mortality curve - plots mortality rates. It consists of
two parts;
● a juvenile phase in which the rate of mortality is high
and
● a post-juvenile phase in which the rate decreases
with age until mortality reaches some low point, after
which it increases again.
Survivorship curves - the accuracy of survivorship curves
depends upon the accuracy of of life table.
Three types of survivorship curve;
Type 1: Curves are usually used for humans and other
mammals and some plants.
Type 2: it is used for characterization of adult birds, rodents,
and reptiles, as well as many perennial plants.
Type 3: used for fish, many invertebrates and some plants.
13. 5 Natality is age-specific
● Birth or natality rates are usually expressed as births
per 1000 population per unit time.
● This figure is obtained by dividing the number of
births per unit of time by the estimated population
size at the beginning of the unit or period of time by
multiplying it by 1000.
13. 6 Natality and Survivorship Determine Reproductive
rates
● Natality in plants, like mortality, is perplexing because
plants reproduce both sexually and asexually.
● There are two separate populations, seeds and seedlings,
and two separate processes, the production of seeds and
the germination of seeds.
● Except for annuals and biennials, which have one
reproductive effort resulting in the death of the parent
plant, seed production by individual plants is hard to
estimate
● Woody plants and other perennials, even within a
population, vary longevity, in seed production over the
years, and in the ability of seeds to germinate
13. 7 Net Reproductive Rate is an Estimator of Population
Growth
● Mortality and natality are the two major forces
influencing population growth. When birth exceed
deaths, the population increases. When births equal
deaths, the population remains the same. When
deaths exceed births, the population declines.
● Two additional influences on population growth are
immigration and emigration;
● Immigration - influx of new individuals into a
population.
● Emigration - dispersal of individuals from a
population.
13. 8 Exponential Growth is like compound interest
● If there were no movement into or out of a
population and no mortality, then birthrate alone
would account for population changes. Under this
condition population growth would accrue like
compound interest
13. 9 Rate of increase is Used in population studies.
● The finite rate of increase, lambda can be
expressed as the rate of increase, which describes
instantaneous population growth. The population is
considered to breed continuously, rather than
possessing a discrete breeding season.
● The rate increase depends upon the exponential
rate at which a population grows if it has a stable
age distribution appropriate to the current life table
and fecundity table.
INTRASPECIFIC POPULATION REGULATION
No population continues to grow indefinitely. Even those with
exponential growth confront the limits of the environment.
Most populations, however, do not behave in an exponential
fashion. As the density of a population changes,interactions
set in among members of the population that tend to
regulate its size.
Competition
● One aspect of population regulation
● Among individuals of the same species for
environmental resources.
Competition may be divided into two groups based on the
species identity of the competition
Intraspecific competition - is between individuals of the
same species.
Interspecific competition - is between individuals of
different species.
14.1 POPULATION REGULATION INVOLVES DENSITY
DEPENDENCE
Implicit in the concept of population regulation is density
dependence.
Density- dependent effects influence a population in
proportion to its size.
● At low density there is no influence.
● Above that point, the larger the population becomes,
the greater is the proportion of individuals affected.
Density independent
● the effects of a particular influence do not change
with population density
● the proportion of individuals affected is the same at
any density
a. Birthrate (B) is independent of population density,
as indicated by the horizontal line. Only the death
rate (M) increases with density. At K equilibrium is
maintained by increasing mortality.
b. The situation is reversed. Mortality is independent,
but birth declines with density. At K a decreasing
birthrate maintains equilibrium.
c. Full density-dependent regulation. Both birth rate
and mortality are density dependent. Fluctuations in
either one hold the population at or near K.
14.2 WHEN RESOURCES ARE LIMITED, COMPETITION
RESULTS
Individuals compete only when a resource is in short supply
relative to the number seeking it. As long as resources
enable each individual to survive and reproduce, no
competition exists.
 ● Scramble Competition – occurs when no individual
receives enough of the resource for growth and
reproduction, as long as the population remains
dense.
● Contest Competition – takes place when some
individuals claim enough resources while denying
others a share.
● Scramble Competition can waste resources, from
the point of view of population growth. In Contest
Competition, a fraction of the population suffers,
the unsuccessful individuals.
14.3 INTRASPECIFIC COMPETITION RETARDS
GROWTH AND REPRODUCTION
The intensity of Intraspecific competition is
density-dependent, it increases gradually.
● At first affecting just the quality of life.
● Later it affects individual survival and reproduction.
As population density increases toward a point at which
resources are insufficient, individuals in scramble
competition reduce their intake of food.
● Reducing food intake slows the rate of growth and
inhibits reproduction.
● Examples of this inverse relationship between
density and rate of body growth may be found
among populations of ectothermic vertebrates.
Biomass - a function of accumulated living tissues it
contained in many small individuals or a few large ones.
THE EFFECT OF POPULATION DENSITY ON THE
GROWTH OF INDIVIDUALS IN SCRAMBLE SPECIES
The growth rate of the tadpole Rana tigrina declines swiftly
as density increases from 5 to 160 individuals confined in
the same space.
Growth of bass declines rapidly with density above 1500/ha.
14.4 HIGH DENSITY IS STRESSFUL TO POPULATIONS
● As a population reaches a high density, individual
living space becomes restricted. Often aggressive
contacts among individuals’ increase. One
hypothesis of population regulation is that increased
crowding and social contact cause stress.
● Social stress among pregnant females may increase
intrauterine mortality and cause inadequate
lactation, stunting nurslings. Thus stress results in
decreased births and increased infant mortality.
14.5 DISPERSAL MAY OR MAY NOT BE
DENSITY-DEPENDENT
Dispersal is an ecological process that involves the
movement of an individual or multiple individuals away from
the population in which they were born to another location,
or population, where they will settle and reproduce.
Dispersal is a constant phenomenon in populations:
● Most apparent when population density is high
● Individuals leave the parent population: crowded or
not
● No hard-and-fast rule about dispersal
● Dispersal under conditions of high population density
is a response to overpopulation
● This type of dispersal DOES NOT function as an
effective means of population regulation
● Important to population regulation is Dispersal when
density is low or increasing
14.5 DISPERSAL MAY OR MAY NOT BE
DENSITY-DEPENDENT
● Ecologists: Dominique Berteaux and Stan Boutin
● Studied dispersal of red squirrel (Tamiasciurus
hudsonicus)
● A fraction of older reproductive females left their
home areas during the summer months when food
availability was high.
● Dispersal of females adults: increase in survival
when intraspecific competition at home is intense, dispersers
can relocate in habitats
● resources are more accessible
● breeding sites more available
● competition is less intense
Disperse may experience risks when living in an unfamiliar
terrain
Remember: Dispersal may not functions as a regulatory
mechanism, but it contributes strongly to population
expansion.
14.6 SOCIAL BEHAVIOR MAY LIMIT POPULATIONS
● Social behavior appears to be a mechanism that
limits the number of animals living in a particular
habitat, having access to a common food supply and
engaging in reproductive activities.
● To prove that social behavior limits population in a
density-dependent fashion, population ecologists
have to show that ;
(1) a substantial portion of the population consists of surplus Occasionally the beta male, mates with the alpha female
animals that do not breed because they either die or attempt The alpha female prevents lower-rank females from mating
to breed and fail; the alpha and other males, while alpha male also prevents
(2) such individuals are prevented from breeding by from mating with the alpha female
dominant individuals; Each pack has one producing pair and one litter of pups
(3) nonbreeding individuals are capable of breeding if each year.
dominant individuals are removed; and
(4) breeding animals are not completely using food and Size of Packs
space.
Influenced by the:
14.7 SOCIAL DOMINANCE CAN AFFECT ● Governs the level of the wolf population in a region
REPRODUCTION AND SURVIVAL ● Availability of food - prior to food goes to the
reproducing pair
Many species of animals live in a group with some kind of
social organization. When the population of wolves is low
(1) sexually mature males and females leave the pack
The organization is based on; (2) settle in unoccupied habitat
● ·Aggressiveness (3) establish their own packs that have alpha female
● ·Intolerance
● ·Dominance of one individual over another ● Sexually mature female reproduces and the wolf
population increases
Two Opposing forces are at work; ● At very low densities, females may have difficulty
● ·Mutual Attraction of individual locating males to establish a pack with (may fail to
● ·Negative reaction against crowding and need for reproduce or survive)
personal space
14.8 SOCIAL INTERACTIONS INFLUENCE ACTIVITIES
Each Individual: AND HOME RANGES
● Occupies a position in the group based on ● Social interactions among individuals influence the
Dominance and Submissiveness: movement, distribution and reproductive activity of
1. Alpha individual – Dominant over all others animals over an area. The space that an animal
2. Beta individual – Dominant over others except to normally uses during a year is its Home Range.
Alpha ● Home Range is an area over which an animal or
3. Omega individual – Subordinate to all others. group of animals regularly travels in search of food
or mates, and which may overlap with those of
● Settle social rank by Fighting, Bluffing, and neighboring animals or groups of the same species.
Threatening at Initial Encounters ● Overall size of the home range varies with the
● Maintains social rank by habitual subordination of available food resources, mode of food gathering,
those in lower position body size and metabolic needs. Males and adults
have larger home ranges than females and sub
Social Dominance adults.
Role in population regulation: ● The degree of aggressive behavior among
● When it affects reproduction and survival in a individuals may limit the size of the home range.
density-dependent manner. Dominant individuals hold the largest home ranges,
with some overlap, while subdominant individuals
Example: Wolves occupy home ranges within those of dominant
individuals.
Work in small groups (pack) 6-12 or more individuals in one
pack 14.9 TERRITORIALITY MAY REGULATE POPULATIONS

Have two social hierarchies: Territoriality is a situation in which an animal defends an

exclusive area not shared with rivals.
(1) headed by alpha female;
(2) headed by alpha male The individual secures sole access to an area of habitat and
the resources it contains.
Defense of Territory: well-defined behavioral patterns
1. Song and Call
2. Intimidation Displays: spreading wings and tail in
birds and baring fangs in mammals
3. Attack And Chase
4. Marking with scents that evoke escape and
avoidance in rivals
● The total area available divided by the minimum size
of the territory determines the number of territorial
owners a habitat can support.
● When the available area is filled, owners evict
excess animals or deny them access.
Lewis Petrivish and Thomas Patterson
● Red Grouse (Lagopus lagopus) in Scotland
● Autralian magpie (Gymnorbina tibicen)
● Cassin’s auklet (Ptychoramphus aleuticus) of Alaska
● White-crowned sparrow (Zonotrichia luecophrys) of
Califonia
Remember: Territoriality might regulate the population, but
only if an excess of nonterritorial males and females of
reproductive age occurs.
“Reproduction is limited by territoriality, and we have
density-dependent population regulation”.
14.10. PLANTS CAPTURE AND “DEFEND” SPACE
● Plants are not territorial in the same sense that
animals are territorial; but plants can capture and
hold onto space.
● The faster-growing trees in a forest achieve a height
dominance, shading others. Dominant trees are also
in a superior competitive position for nutrients and
moisture.
● Because of their longevity, some plants, especially
trees, occupy space for a long time, preventing
invasion by individuals of the same or other species.
● Plants also capture space by the release of organic
toxins that reduce competition for light, nutrients and
space
● Allelopathy is the production of biochemicals by
plants that influence growth, survival and
reproduction of other plants.
● Allelochemicals can be released into the air, soil,
or water.
14.11 DENSITY- INDEPENDENT INFLUENCES CAN BE
STRONG
Density Independent factors
● Temperature, precipitation, and natural disasters
(fire, flood, and drought) may influence the rates of
birth and death within a population.
● Do not regulate population growth because
regulation implies feedback.
● The resulting increase in mortality rates can even
lead to the extinction of local populations.
Environmental conditions exceed
= affecting growth, maturation, reproduction, survival, and
movement.
LIFE HISTORY PATTERNS
Reproduction is the major drive of all living things. The role
of The reproductive drive is to transmit genetic
characteristics from one generation to another. The ability of
an organism to leave behind reproducing offspring.
Asexual Reproduction
● It creates new individuals genetically the same as
the parent.
● Asexual reproduction is the mode of reproduction
that is involved in the production of offspring with
only one parent.
● In Asexual reproduction, there is no fertilization of
gametes formation that takes place.
● The organisms multiply and grow at a faster pace
than Sexual Reproduction, as it occurs in a very
short time.
● E.G paramecium, hydras, strawberry plants, aphids
Sexual Reproduction
● Is common in multicellular organisms.
● This is where two individuals produce haploid
(one-half the normal number of chromosomes)
gametes– egg and sperm– that combine to form a
diploid cell or zygote.
● This halving and recombination of genes allow the
gene pool to mux, producing genetic variability
among offspring.
Sexual Reproduction takes several forms
● The most common sexual reproduction involves
separate male and female individuals.
● Plants with the same characteristics are called
dioecious
● In such plant fertilization, this takes place with the
fusion of a female egg and a male gamete in a
pollen
● Hermaphroditic, is an organism with both female
and male organs.
Hermaphrodites
● monoecious plant- is the one which possesses
separate male and female flowers on the same plant
However in animals, hermaphroditic individuals possess
both testes and ovaries.
Sequential hermaphrodites are one sex while they are
young, in which before they develop into the opposite sex
when they mature or become larger.
Social change in the sex ratio of the population stimulates
gender change among some animals, notably fish species.
Removing individuals of the other sex initiates sex reversal
among some species of marine fish.
Plants can also undergo gender change. Usually, an
asexual stage follows a gender change. Gender change in
the specific plant appears to be triggered by an excessive
drain on photosynthate by female flowers. If the plant is to
survive, one carpellate flowering cannot follow another.
12.3 Mating strategies take several forms
1. Monogamy- Is the formation of a pair bond between
one male and one female. It occurs mostly among
species in which cooperation by both parents is
needed to rear young successfully. In birds, the
avian mother is no better suited to provide these
needs than the father. Instead of seeking other
mates, the male can increase his fitness more by
continuing his investment in the young. Among
mammals, the situation is different. The females
lactate, providing food for the young. Males often
can contribute a little or nothing to the survival of the
young, so it is to their advantage to mate with as
many females as possible.
2. Polygamy- is the acquisition by an individual of two or
more mates, none of which is mated to other individuals. It
can involve one male and several females or one female and
several males. A pair bond exists between the individual and
each mate. The more critical resources such as food or
quality habitat are distributed, the greater is the opportunity
for a successful individual to control the resource and
several mates.
Types of Polygamy:
● Polygyny - An individual male gains two more
females
● Polyandry - An individual female gains two more
males
● Promiscuity - Males and females copulate with one
or many of the opposite sex and form no pair bonds.
12.4 Acquisition of a mate involves sexual selection
- Regardless of the mating system, selection of a
proper mate is essential if a plant or animal is to
contribute genetically to the next generation. In any
population, there are just so many males and
females. Because males are not as selective with
whom they mate, females usually have no trouble
finding a partner.
Sexual Selection - Females select a mate from competing
males on the basis of some specific characteristic during
courtship, females attempt to ensure their own fitness.
Charles Darwin observed that the elaborate and often
outlandish plumage of birds and the horns, antlers and large
sizes of polygamous males seemed incompatible with
natural selection. To explain them, Darwin developed a
theory of sexual selection.
Another hypothesis focuses on the reproductive interests for
the female. The basic strategy for both male and female is to
ensure their own maximum fitness. What increases male
fitness is not necessarily what improves female fitness.
In this hypothesis, it was said that...
Sperm is cheap. Eggs are costly.
A third concept of sexual selection is the handicap
hypothesis. It postulates the evolution of three characters:
1. A male handicap
2. A female mating preference for the handicap
3. General viability trait

12.5 Females attempt to acquire mates with the highest
fitness
Selection is of two types: intrasexual and intersexual.
Intrasexual Selection involves male-to-male or
female-to-female competition for the opportunity to mate. It
leads to exaggerated secondary sexual characteristics such
as bright or elaborate plumage in male birds and antlers in
deers.
Intersexual Selection is mostly female choice of a male.
For monogamous females, the criterion for mate selection
appears to be acquisition of a resource, usually a defended
high-quality habitat or territory. Does the female select the
male and accept the territory that goes with him, or does she
select the territory and accept the male that goes with it?
12.6 IN POLYGAMY FEMALES HAVE LIMITED
INFORMATION FOR MATE CHOICE
In polygamous species, females have limited information
about mateselection, potentially choosing from males based
on strength, courtship display, or physical appearance. In
some cases, they have little control, as the dominant male
takes charge of a harem. In other cases, females have more
control, choosing from a variety of displaying males.
Extreme examples of female choice can be seen in lek
species where females visit groups of males.
THERE ARE THREE HYPOTHESIS OF LEK BEHAVIOR:
● Females Choice
● Hotspot
● Male-male Interactions
Females choice
Females show preference for a particular mating territory
because it is the safest place to mate or it forces males to
cluster.
HOTSPOT
Males cluster in places where encounters with females are
potentially high.
MALE-MALE INTERACTIONS
This model envisions a strong hierarchy among the males,
with the dominant male displacing all others and leaving no
opportunity for female choice.
12.7 ORGANISMS BUDGET TIME AND ENERGY TO
REPRODUCTION
● Organisms allocate their reproductive effort to
achieve optimal fitness, with semelparity involving a
single massive reproductive effort and death, and
iteroparous involving multiple reproductions
throughout life.
● The optimal strategy depends on the organism's
specific circumstances, such as annual plants and
insects in ephemeral habitats and perennial plants
and animals.
● The timing of reproduction is also crucial, with early
reproduction sacrificing growth and survivorship,
while later reproduction offers more growth and
maturity.
12.8 PARENTAL INVESTMENT RELATES TO THE
NUMBER OF YOUNG
● The number of offspring that an organism produces
is related to the amount of parental investment that it
can afford to give each individual.
● Organisms that produce a small number of offspring
can invest more energy in each individual.
● These organisms often live in more predictable
environments and are able to provide parental care.
● The degree of parental care that an organism
provides varies widely.
● The amount of parental care that an organism
provides depends on a number of factors, including
the species of the organism, the environment in
which it lives,and the resources that it has available.
12.9 ENVIRONMENTAL CONDITIONS INFLUENCE THE
NUMBER OF YOUNG
● The number and size of young that an organism
produces is influenced by the environmental
conditions under which it evolves and
adapts.r-strategists are typically short-lived and have
high reproductive rates at low population
densities.K-strategists are competitive species with
stable populations of long-lived individuals. They are
well-suited to stable environments.
● Grime's three-strategy system proposes that plants
can be classified as ruderal (R-strategists),
competitive (C-strategists), or stress tolerant
(S-strategists).ruderals occupy uncertain or
disturbed habitats, while C-strategists and
R-strategists occupy more stable environments.
● Plants and animals make adjustments to their
reproductive strategies in response to environmental
conditions.
12.10 FOOD SUPPLY AFFECTS PRODUCTION OF
YOUNG MAY REFLECT THE ABUNDANCE OF FOOD
● The production of young is affected by the food
supply.
● Parents cannot predict the available food at the time
of nesting, so they may have to reduce the number
of young.
● This can happen through asynchronous hatching or
siblicide.
● In asynchronous hatching, the young are of several
ages.
● This is practiced by a number of birds, including
raptors, herons,egrets, gannets, boobies, and
skuas.
● These strategies are a way for parents to ensure
that at least some of their offspring survive, even in
times of food scarcity.
12.11 THE NUMBER OF OFFSPRING MAY VARY WITH
LATITUDE
● David Lack proposed that clutch size in birds is an
adaptation to food supply, with temperate species
having larger clutches due to longer foraging time.
Martin Codymodified this idea by suggesting that
clutch sizes result from different allocations of
energy to egg production,avoidance of predators,
and competition. In tropical regions, with predictable
climate and increased survival probability, there is
no need for extra young. A third hypothesis states
that clutch sizes vary in direct proportion to seasonal
variation in resources, especially food.
● Field examples support these hypotheses, with birds
intemperate regions having larger litters and
mammals at higher latitudes having larger litters.
Insects, such as the milkweed beetle, also support
the hypothesis, with temperate species laying a
larger number of eggs and producing more clutches.
However, more studies along latitudinal gradients
are needed to confirm these hypotheses.
12.12 FECUNDITY RELATES TO AGE AND SIZE
● In many species, clutch size and fecundity are
influenced by the age and size of the parent,with a
particularly strong relationship observed in plants
and ectothermic animals.
● However, annual plants do not exhibit a clear
relationship between leaf area and the percentage
of energy allocated to reproduction.
● Instead, the size differences among annuals affect
the number of seeds they produce, with smaller
plants producing fewer seeds, even if they allocate a
similar amount of energy to reproduction as larger
plants.
● This pattern is mirrored in poikilothermic animals,
such as fish, where fecundity increases with size,
which, in turn, increases with age.
● To maximize reproductive success, fish benefit from
delaying sexual maturation until they reach a larger
size, as early reproduction can hinder growth and
future reproductive potential.
INTERSPECIFIC COMMUNICATION
Population interaction
● Neutral- When neither of the populations affect one
another
● Mutualism- When both populations mutually benefit
1. Non-obligatory Mutualism- If the relationship is
not essential for the survival of both
2. Obligatory Mutualism - If the relationship is
essential for the survival of both.
3. Commensalism- When one benefits and the other
gains nothing
4. Competition - When the relationship between the
two are detrimental to each other’s population
5. Amensalism- When one affects the other but the
affected species does nothing in return
6. Predation- A predator hunts and outright kills a prey
7. Parasitism- One feeds on the other, but does not kill
the host
8. Parasitoisdism- Like parasitism, but leads to the
eventual death of the host
9. Interspecific Competition- is the relationship
between
10. two or more species are affected adversely.
11. Both individuals seek out a common food source,
competing with each other for gain over the resource
12. Interspecific Competition takes on two forms, both
of which will be discussed on the following slides.
13. Interference competition- A direct or aggressive
approach against one another
14. Exploitative competition- An indirect reduction of
shared resources by one another
INTERFERENCE COMPETITION IN PLANTS
Allelopathy is a particular form of interference competition
among plants wherein the production and release of
chemicals by one species inhibit the growth of a different
species.
Four Possible Outcomes of Interspecific Competition
● Case 1: Species 1 inhibits the growth of population
of Species 2 while their population grows.
● Case 2: Species 2 inhibits the population growth of
Species 1, eventually causing the entire population
to disappear.
● Case 3: Both species are abundant, inhibiting each
other’s growth.
● Case 4 Neither species reach a population density
enough to eliminate the other.
The Logistic Equation for Population Growth
- This is used when the growth rate of population's
per capita is decreasing as the population size
reaches the maximum limit of resources (the
carrying capacity).
The Lotka-Volterra Model are a combination of two
different mathematical models from two different people,
namely Alfred Lotka and Vito Volterra.
Even though they never personally met each other, both of
their models are often combined and referred to collectively
as the Lotka-Volterra Model in recognition of their
contributions to the study of population dynamics.
● These studies led to the concept of the Gause
principle called the Competitive Exclusion
Principle, which means that complete competitors
cannot coexist.
● Basically no genetic changes in competing species,
no takeover of the vacant niche by others, and
stable environmental conditions.
The Lotka-Volterra Model were also used in various
laboratory experiments to determine the growth and
decrease of population in microorganisms.
● Russian biologist G.F. Gause used Paramecium
species (P. aurelia and P. caudatum). P. aurelia
showed a higher rate of population increase and can
tolerate high population density compared to P.
caudatum. When these Paramecium species were
introduced in a test tube with bacterial food, P.
cautdatum died.
● David Tilman and his associates studied the diatom
population of Asterionella formosa and Synedra
ulna. These species need silica to form cell walls.
When they were grown alone in a liquid medium,
these species kept silica at low level. When they
were grown together, S. ulna kept the silica level too
low for A. formosa to survive, which made them
extinct.
Lotka-Volterra Model in Practice
This idea contributed to the study of competitive
relationships in natural situations and determines what
ecological conditions are needed for species to coexist.
Competition experiments in the field are difficult
because we have no control on their environment, we
cannot identify whether the population is above or below
carrying capacity, and we lack full knowledge about the
overall life history requirements of the species.
From the results of various field experimental studies, it
shows that there is a strong competition for flowing water
between toads, frogs, and arthropods. In herbivores,
interspecific competition is less significant compared to
intraspecific competition since they are equally strong.
Exclusion may involve more than competition
Four species of chipmunks inhabit the eastern slope of the
Sierra Nevada Mountains; the alpine chipmunk, the
lodgepole pine chipmunk, the yellow pine chipmunk and the
least chipmunk. Although quite similar to one another, each
species settles on different altitudinal zones. The reason for
this is because of aggressive exclusion and their ability to
survive in the habitat that the other species cannot occupy.
From this example, we can learn that competitive exclusion
does not conform with the Lotka-Volterra equation. Instead,
exclusion takes place due to physiological tolerances and by
aggressive behavior.
A Variable Environment Upsets the Equilibrium
Environmental conditions play a key role in competitive
advantage. Different variations of environmental conditions
with limited resources influence the carrying capacity of an
area. In a nutshell, environmental variations enables the
coexistence of competitors that exclude one another.
Factors that affect competition:
● Growth
● Survival
● Reproduction
Coexistence limits the population of each species
Competing species can exist together even if they decrease
the fitness of each other as well as other species from
different taxonomic groups. An example of this are the
rodents and ants in the desert scrub of Arizona. Both of
them feed on seeds, and this seeds are heavily affected by
rainfall.
James Brown and Diane Davidson conducted a study to
determine how the rodents and ants compete for food
supply
● A total of six experimental plots were provided.
● From the two of them, they excluded rodents by
trapping and by adding a fence.
● From the other two plots, they excluded ants by
spraying insecticide repeatedly.
● For the remaining plots, they removed both of the
rodents and ants.
The results showed that the ants and rodents compete. The
absence of rodents increased the population of ants, while
the absence of ants increased the population of rodents, and
the absence of the two showed an increase in the amount of
seeds.
Resource Sharing and Species Coexistence
Animals consume different kinds of food, feed at different
times, and occupy different areas within their environment.
Plants occupy areas according to the soil moisture gradient,
their nutrient requirement and tolerance for light and shade.
Species use a portion of the resources that are not available
to others. This partitioning is a result of interspecific
competition.
It is the exact reason why Savannah predators don’t
commonly come into contact with one another, as
they have different designated feeding and hunting
times, forming a sort of hierarchy amongst them.
Guild - a group of similar species whose members interact
strongly with each other, using the environment in the same
manner.
A niche is an adaptation of an organism in its environment.
An organism's niche includes the full range of conditions and
resources which enables the organism to survive and
reproduce. Once it comes contact with other niches, a
competitive interaction will occur.
Fundamental Niche - an organism that is free from
interference from another species and can use the full
range of conditions and resources where it resides
Realized Niche - the part of the fundamental niche
where the species uses in the presence of competitors
Niche width is the sum total of the different resources used
by an organism. It can also be described as either narrow or
broad.
A niche overlap takes place when different organisms use a
part of the same resource simultaneously
Niche Compression - happens when an intense
competition of species forces them to restrict their use of
space, range of foods, and other resources
Competitive Release - happens when a species enters an
area or an island that does not have potential competitors,
migrates into a habitat that was not occupied and increases
its abundance
Niche Shift - an adjustment between two or more species
which involves the reduction of competition by adjusting their
use of the shared niche
PREDATION

● simply defined as the ecological process in which an

animal (or an organism) kills and feeds on another
animal (or an organism. An animal that kills another
organism is called a predator while the one that is
killed to be eaten is known as prey.
● Predation is more than a transfer of energy. It is a
direct and often complex interaction of two or more
species, the eater (predator) and the eaten (prey).
● The numbers of some predators may depend upon
the abundance of their prey
● The population of the prey may be controlled by its
predator. Each can influence the population growth These paired equations, when solved, show that as a
of the other and favor new adaptations. single predator population increases, the single prey
population decreases to a point at which the trend reverses.
Forms of Predation The prey increases, followed by an increase in the predator
population. The two populations rise and fall in oscillations.
1. CARNIVORY - predator that consumes meat.
FUNCTIONAL RESPONSE MODELS RELATE PREY
2. PARASITOIDISM- a parasitoid is an organism that
TAKEN TO PREY DEnsity
lives in close association with its host at the host’s
expense.
Models of interactions between predator and prey suggests
3. HERBIVORY- an animals that is a plant-eater
two distinct responses of the predator to changes in prey
4. CANNIBALISM- consuming organisms wherein the
density;
predator and the prey are the same species.
(1) is for their individual predator to eat more prey as the
mathematical models describe the basics of predation
prey population increases or to take them sooner;
LOTKA-VOLTERRA MODEL
(2) the other is for predators to become more numerous
through increased reproduction or immigration.
ALFRED JAMES LOTKA (1880-1949) --transfer from
physical chemistry into biology, and was a man of The former is called functional response and the latter
exceptional creativity and one of the fathers of what would numerical response.
later become theoretical population ecology.
The response of predators to different prey densities
VITO VOLTERRA (1860-1940) -was an italian depends on:
mathematician and physicist, known for his contributions to
mathematical biology and integral equations, being one of (1) the feeding behavior of individual predators which is
the founders of functional analysis called the functional response; and
(2) the response of the predator population through
In the 1920s, Lotka and Volterra turned their attention to the reproduction, immigration and emigration, which is called the
effects of predation on population growth. Independently, numerical response.
they proposed mathematical statements to express the
relationship between predator and prey populations. They The basis of a functional response is that a predator will
provided one equation for the prey population and another take more prey as the density of the prey increases.
for the predator population. Crawford Stanley Holling (C.S Holling), a Canadian ecologist
has classified functional responses into three types.
The population growth equation for the prey population
consists of two components: Functional responses model describes or expresses the
intake rate of consumers as a function of prey density and is
the maximum rate of increase per individual and the generally divided into three types: Type I, Type II, and Type
removal of the prey from the population by the predator III.
3 TYPES OF FUNCTIONAL RESPONSES
TYPE I response. -the number of prey taken per predator
increases in a linear to a maximum as prey density
increases.
Type I functional response assumes that the amount of food
a predator consumes increases linearly with the prey
density. This linear increase assumes that the food
processing time is negligible, meaning that the time for the
consumer to prepare and its food does not interfere with the
search for food.
TYPE II response -the number of prey affected rises at a
decreasing rate toward a maximum value.
Type II functional response states that as the density of prey
population increases the slower the predator it’ll consume or
capacity of a predator to consume and search for a food will
decrease. The time it takes a predator to eat and process its
prey is interfering with its ability to search for more prey so
as the density of prey increases, there is any eating as many
prey as possible and cannot search for anymore
TYPE III response. -as prey numbers increases, surplus
animals are forced out to be the best habitat into poorer
habitat where they become vulnerable to predation.
Type III functional response can be distinguished by its
accelerating relationship between density of a population not
prey consumed and this exponential increase is caused by
learning. Predators learned how to managed their prey
density for them to consume it and we find the natural
improvement of our predators searching and attacking
efficiency.
PREDATORS DEVELOP A SEARCH IMAGE FOR PREY
Another reason for the sigmoidal shape of the Type III
functional response curve may be the search image.
A search image is what an individual uses in order to
detect their prey. For the predator to detect something as
prey, it must fit their criteria. The rare morph of a species
may not fit the search image, and thus not be seen as prey.
The more adept the predator becomes at securing a
particular prey item, the more intensely it concentrates
on it. The search image for the prey items begins to wane,
and the predator reacts to another prey species.
substances, which they have taken from plants and stored
PREDATORS MAY TURN TO ALTERNATE, MORE
ABUNDANT PREY
SWITCHING- In a type III response, we assume that there is
a predator capable of choice and an alternate prey. Although
a predator may have a strong preference for a certain prey, it
can turn to another, more abundant prey species that
provides a more profitable hunting. Ecologists call the act
of turning to more abundant alternate prey switching.
At what point in prey abundance a predator switches
depends considerably on the threshold of security for the
prey species involved. The threshold of security may be
much lower for a highly desirable prey.
A predator may hunt longer and harder for a palatable
species before it turns to a more abundant, less palatable
alternate prey.
Conversely, the predator may turn from the less desirable
species at a much higher level of abundance than it would
from a more palatable species.
PREDATORS RESPOND NUMERICALLY TO CHANGING
PREY DENSITY
As the density increases, the number of predators may also
increase. Numerical response takes three basic forms:
(1) direct response- the number of predators in a given
area increases as the prey density increases
(2) no response- the predator population remains
proportionately the same
(3) inverse response- the predators cannot keep up with
the increasing density of prey.
Most numerical responses involve an increase in
reproductive effort. Because reproduction usually requires a
certain minimal time, a lag exists between an increase of a
prey population and a numerical response by a predator
population.
PREY HAVE EVOLVED DEFENSES AGAINST
PREDATORS
The relationship between predator and prey is influenced
considerably by prey defenses and the ability of predators to
overcome them. The predator does not succeed in every
encounter. Prey employ a different means of defense:
Chemical Defense - is widespread among many groups of
animals. Some species of fish release alarm pheromones
(chemical substances that are synthesized and released in
response to predators to reduce predation risk), inducing
flight reactions. Many arthropods possess toxic secondary
bodies. Other arthropods and venomous snakes, frogs, and
toads synthesize their own poisons. -Example: skunk
releasing spray liquid; releasing ink like squid, cuttlefish, and
octopus.
Cryptic Coloration - Also called camouflage. It is a defense
or tactic that organisms use to blend in with surroundings. A
great example of this is background matching like the
feather of a screech owl matching the tree.
Movements- Movements and other behaviors also tend to
hide prey species from predators. Single prey animals
frequently flee from a predator in an irregular manner,
zigzagging, spinning, looping, or bouncing. Armadillos rolls
up as an act of its defense.
Warning Coloration- Aposematism or warning color. Some
animals exhibit warning coloration to signal that they are
highly toxic or possess other chemical defense. Warning
colors are usually bright color patterns that serve to warn
possible predators that the animal is undesirable as prey (as
by being poisonous or bad-tasting)
Mimicry- Defensive or protective mimicry takes place when
organisms are able to avoid harmful encounters by
deceiving enemies into treating them as something else.
Batesian mimicry, for example, is when a harmless organism
looks like a dangerous one, deterring potential predators.
Physical Defense- Some animals employ physical means
of defense. Claws, Teeth, and spikes are some of the
physical defenses used by animals. Some smaller animals,
like house cats and raccoons, also have them . House cats
may be sweet pets, but they still have sharp claws for
defense. Some animals have sharp spikes to keep predators
away . Porcupines are covered in sharp spikes called quills
Alarm Signals- Other animal defenses are behavioral. One
is to give an alarm call when a predator is sighted. Because
high-pitched alarm calls are not species-specific, a wide
range of animals nearby recognize them. Alarm calls often
bring in numbers of potential prey that mob the predator.
Other behavioral defenses include distraction displays, most
among birds, They direct the attention of the predator away
from the prey.
Living in Groups- For some prey, living in groups is the
simplest form of defense. Predators are less likely to attack
a concentrated group of individuals. By maintaining a tight,
cohesive group, prey make it difficult for any predator to
obtain a victim.
Timing of Reproduction- A more subtle form of defense is
the timing of reproduction so that most of the offspring are
produced in a short period of time. Then prey is so abundant
that the predator becomes sadiated, allowing a percentage
of the young to escape and grow to a less vulnerable size.
Such is the strategy employed by ungulates such as the
caribou
Predators have evolved efficient hunting tactics
As prey have evolved ways of avoiding predators, predators
have evolved better ways of hunting. Predators have three
general hunting methods:
1. Ambush- Ambush predators like lions and tigers
rely on stealth and concealment. They hide in
vegetation or behind rocks and wait for prey to get
close before suddenly rushing out to attack. This
allows them to conserve energy rather than
constantly chasing prey.
2. Stalking- Stalking predators like wolves and coyotes
slowly and quietly follow prey over a distance,
getting progressively closer before finally rushing in
for the kill. This allows them to single out weaker or
slower individuals from a herd.
3. Pursuit- Pursuit predators like cheetahs and hyenas
rely on speed and stamina to run down prey over
longer distances. They tire out fleeing prey by
constantly chasing them. Pursuit hunting requires
high endurance.
Predators use deception by resembling their prey. Robber
flies (Mallophora bomboides) mimic bumblebees, their prey.
The female of certain species of fireflies imitates the mating
flashes of other species, attracting males of those species,
which she promptly kills and eats. Predators may also
employ chemical poisons, as shrews and rattlesnakes do.
Cannibalism is common to many animals
● Intraspecific predation refers to when a member of a
species preys upon other members of the same
species. This includes cannibalism as well as other
forms.
● Cannibalism is a specific type of intraspecific
predation where an animal eats conspecifics -
members of its own species.
● Among terrestrial animals, cannibalism is relatively
rare, though it can be observed in some mammals
(rodents, bears), spiders, scorpions, and insects
under certain conditions.
● In aquatic environments, cannibalism appears to be
more common among fish, amphibians, and
invertebrates like crabs, snails, and cephalopods.
Cannibalism has been associated with stressed populations,
particularly those facing starvation although some animals
do not become cannibalistic until other foods run out, others
do so when alternative foods decline and individuals are
malnourished. Other conditions that may promote
cannibalism:
● Overcrowding - When population density becomes
too high, cannibalism can increase due to
competition for limited resources. This is common in
species that aggregate like fish or crustaceans.
● Stress - Environmental stressors like habitat loss,
pollution, or human encroachment could trigger
cannibalistic tendencies in struggling populations.
● Presence of vulnerable individuals - such as
nestlings, eggs, or runty individuals that provide
easy prey - even in the presence of food.
A species may prey on its competitor
Intraguild predation - When two species compete for the
same prey resources, the larger or more dominant species
may turn to preying directly on its competitor rather than
sharing the prey. This eliminates the need to divide
resources.
The simplest form of intraguild predation involves two
predator species competing for the same prey resource.
Here is an explanation of the basics:
● Two predator species (A and B) both prey upon a
shared target prey species (C).
● Predators A and B occupy the same ecological
niche and rely on prey C as their primary food
source.
● Predators A and B will initially compete for prey C,
with the total population of C dictating how much
food is available to support populations of A and B.
● When prey C becomes scarce due to environmental
factors like drought, the two predator populations
are forced to compete more intensely for the limited
C resources.
● At this point, predator A faces a choice - either
compete even harder with predator B for the
remaining prey C, or simply start praying directly on
predator B as an alternative food source.
● By switching to feed on predator B, predator A
engages in intraguild predation to alleviate
competition and secure more prey C for itself.
Animals use a foraging strategy
Foraging refers to the search for and exploitation of food
resources by animals. It involves behaviors for locating,
procuring, and ingesting food.
● Optimal foraging theory suggests animals will select
food sources and patches to maximize their energy
gains while minimizing costs like time and effort.
● Optimal Diet - The diet that provides the nutrients
an animal needs to survive and thrive in the most
energy efficient way. This depends on the digestive
system, food availability, etc.
● Optimal Foraging Efficiency - The ability to obtain
optimal foods with minimal energy expenditure and
risk. Improves chances of survival.
Foragers seek productive food patches
The robin has been following the rules of optimal foraging:
(1) concentrate on the most productive patches;
(2) stay with those patches until their profitability falls to a
level equal to the average for the foraging area as a whole;
(3) leave the patch once it has been reduced to the level of
average productivity;
(4) ignore patches of low productivity
Herbivory affects plant growth and reproduction
● Grazing is a specific type of herbivory that involves
animals feeding on grasses and herbaceous plants.
● Grazers preferentially consume grasses and
non-woody vegetation like stems, leaves, and tender
shoots.
● Grazing animals include livestock like cattle, sheep,
goats as well as wild herbivores like bison, deer,
antelope.
● Grazing can alter plant community structure by
changing competitive balances and allowing
unpalatable plants to dominate.
Defoliation is another important concept related to herbivory
and plant-animal interactions.
● Defoliation refers specifically to the removal of
leaves from plants, usually by herbivorous animals
grazing or browsing.
● Both insects (like caterpillars) and vertebrate
herbivores (deer, goats) can cause defoliation
through feeding.
● Defoliation reduces the photosynthetic capacity of
plants by removing leaf surface area needed for light
capture and energy production.
Plants defend themselves from herbivores
Plants have evolved a diverse array of defenses to protect
themselves from herbivores: Chemical defenses - Toxins,
repellent chemicals, antinutrients etc. discourage herbivores
from feeding.
Quantitative defense
● These are defenses that lower the overall nutritional
quality or palatability of plant tissues to herbivores.
● Examples include high fiber content, silica, tannins,
and other antinutrient compounds that inhibit
digestion.
● They are dose-dependent - increasing quantities
make the plant progressively more unsuitable as
food.
Qualitative defense
● Involve toxic secondary metabolites that target
specific physiological processes in herbivores.
● Examples are alkaloids, cyanogenic glycosides, and
non-protein amino acids.
● Not dose dependent - even small amounts disrupt
herbivore biochemistry and deter feeding.
Plants may also employ the least costly form of defense -
hairy leaves, thorns, and spines, structures that evolved
early, when they may have been subject to even greater
predatory pressure.
Vegetation, herbivores, and carnivores interact
The relationships between plants, herbivores, and
carnivores in an ecosystem:
● Plants are producers that make their own food
through photosynthesis. They form the base of the
food chain.
● Herbivores are primary consumers that eat plants
and other producers. Examples include deer,
rabbits, cattle, etc. Herbivores depend on plants for
their energy and nutrients.
● Carnivores are secondary or higher-level consumers
that eat other animals. Examples include wolves,
lions, hawks, etc. Carnivores depend on herbivores
and other animals for their food source.
● Plants and herbivores have a symbiotic relationship.
Herbivores get food and nutrients by eating plants.
In return, herbivores aid in seed dispersal and
pollination when they eat fruits, berries, etc. Grazing
by herbivores can also stimulate plant growth.
● Carnivores help regulate herbivore and plant
populations through predation. Too many herbivores
can damage plant life through overgrazing.
Carnivores help keep herbivore numbers under
control.
Human interactions with Natural Population
Throughout history, humans have maintained intricate
relationships with plants and animals, serving as both
providers and potential threats. The evolution of technology
and the domestication of certain species shaped larger
societies, but also brought competition and invasive plants.
As populations grew, so did resource exploitation, affecting
forests and large mammals. These interactions birthed a
cultural bond with certain species, which continues to
influence everything from religion to art, even in our
high-tech world. However, it's only recently that a portion of
society recognized the rapid decline of Earth's natural
populations, prompting efforts to manage and conserve
wildlife. These endeavors focus on maintaining exploited
species, increasing endangered populations, and reducing
those perceived as detrimental to human interests.
Managing exploited populations began with Fisheries
● Humans have exploited plant and animal
populations for thousands of years without concern,
leading to some species absorbing the effects or
extinction. Only in the late 1800s did efforts to
manage exploited populations, causing debates over
human impact on fisheries.
● C.G.J. Petersen, a Danish Fishery Biologist,
developed a technique for estimating population size
using tagging and mark-recapture, enabling
biologists to assess fish stocks.
● Norwegian fishery biologist Johannes Hjort
suggests that the highest sustained yield can be
achieved at the point where overfishing began.
Continued exploitation depends on sustained yields
● Harvesting at a level that will ensure a similar yield
without forcing the population into decline is called
sustained yield.
● Sustained yield management considers a resource
as a single biological unit, not an ecosystem, and
considers population dynamics, natural mortality,
and environmental uncertainty, ensuring continuous
productivity for human use. Management differs for
K-selected and r-selected species.
● Maximum sustained yield (MSY) is the level of
sustained yield above which the population declines,
and harvest takes the population down to a level
where the remaining stock can replace the removed
amount.
● Optimal sustained yield (OSY) is a more complex
approach that considers biological and sociological
factors
Overexploited populations show danger signs
● Overexploited populations are causing a potential
disaster, with decreased catch per unit effort and
related species catch, and a decreasing proportion
of pregnant females.
● After the war, the fishery industry grew rapidly,
becoming a thriving industry by 1820. Improvements
in transportation, fishing boats, gear, and techniques
increased catch by 20% annually.
● However, by 1890, stocks depleted, but increased
fishing intensity and capital helped maintain catch
until the late 1950s. Early delicacies included lake
sturgeon, walleye, blue pike, and yellow perch. By
1960, walleye and blue pike stocks were
commercially depleted. Pollution in the lake also
contributed to the decline.
Economics interferes with sustained yield management
● Traditional fisheries management often overlooks
ecological roles, leading to bypass, resulting in
discard of non-economically valuable species like
sea birds, seals, and endangered sea turtles.
● Discards can disrupt predator-prey interactions, alter
interspecific competition, enrich benthic
detritus-based food chains, and potentially alter
ecosystem structure and function.
● Economics influence game species management,
as biologists prioritize hunting over welfare.
Reducing hunting license revenues benefits wildlife
agencies but reduces funding for habitat restoration
and acquisition programs. 18.5 “Sustained yield” in
forestry may not be sustained yield
“Sustained yield” in forestry may not be sustained yield
● Forests have not fared much better than wildlife.
They were destroyed rapidly over the centuries to
clear land for agriculture and supply building
materials and firewood.
● Forest management began in Europe in the 1600s
and has since spread to the US, where it has been
heavily cleared and exploited.
● The goal of sustained yield in forestry is to balance
net growth and harvest, with mature or unexplored
forests being cut to stimulate regeneration.
However, this approach is often used to justify the
clearcutting of renuining old-growth forests.
● Sustained yield forestry, utilizing silvicultural and
harvesting techniques, is effective on large
acreages, but poor cutting practices and poor
species composition have led to poor quality and
quantity of forests.
● Forestry, like fisheries, focuses on the resource as
an economic opportunity, not as a biological
community. Once an old-growth forest is cut, that
ecosystem will not return.
Exploitation decimated wildlife
● Human populations have led to the extinction of
many species of wildlife, including the ivory-billed
woodpecker, passenger pigeon, and Carolina
parakeet.
● In the early 1900s, efforts were made to stop the
destruction of wildlife through the Lacey Act of 1900
and the Migratory Bird Act of 1913.
● However, by the 1930s, wildlife was still in serious
trouble, and restoration efforts began with the
Pittman-Robertson Act. The Endangered Species
Act of 1973, administered by the National Biological
Service, covers vertebrate animals, invertebrates,
and plants.
● The Act lists endangered species, designates critical
habitats, and mandates recovery programs. It
prohibits federal funding for harming listed species.
Opponents, like land developers and loggers, argue
it hinders their interests.
● Congressional politicians slow species listing and
habitat protection, ignoring economic benefits of wild
plants and animals, while ignoring the Endangered
Species Act's impact on projects involving threats.
Wildlife restoration is a complex task
● After the 1930s, white-tailed deer, pronghorn
antelope, and wild turkey re-emerged receiving strict
protection from hunting, regulated seasons, and
large empty habitat established by states and federal
governments.
● Wild turkeys, once a threatened species, are now
approaching extinction due to habitat loss and
habitat destruction. White-tailed deer, a species that
caused accidents and threats to native plants, are
now more abundant.
● The turkey, originally from 39 states, was eliminated
from the northeastern and midwestern states by the
mid-1800s.
● Intensive studies financed by Pittman-Robertson
money provided information for restoration efforts.
Live-trapped wild turkeys were transferred to
suitable habitats in the western US, and by 1960,
they had increased to 7,000 birds.
● However, capturing wild turkeys in eastern forests
proved challenging due to genetically-nested
crosses and hybridization.
● Intensive studies financed by Pittman-Robertson
money provided information for restoration efforts.
Live-trapped wild turkeys were transferred to
suitable habitats in the western US, and by 1960,
they had increased to 7,000 birds.
● However, capturing wild turkeys in eastern forests
proved challenging due to genetically-nested
crosses and hybridization.
Habitat restoration and protection is the key to saving wildlife
● Habitat restoration is crucial for the survival of
wildlife populations, as it involves planting,
protecting, and managing an area. Small reserves,
such as eroded lands, cutover forests, and
wetlands, hold populations that represent different
samples of the gene pool and help maintain genetic
diversity in species populations.
● Corridors connecting habitat patches can
enhance the integrity and stability of fragmented
populations.
● Many wildlife species are migratory, and their
survival depends on winter habitat. Small
populations cannot survive unless remaining
available habitat is protected against intrusions such
as development, agricultural clearing, and logging.
● Most reserves do not provide habitat for an
expanding population or embrace the entire
ecosystem.
● Human activities outside park boundaries, like
logging, grazing, agriculture, housing, and
recreational development, threaten ecosystem
integrity. To protect reserves, concentric buffer areas
should be established.
● Excessive land use can lead to overuse and habitat
destruction.
We may control wildlife populations to maintain habitat
When a restoration effort succeeds in bringing back a
species, it can inadvertently create a problem of
overpopulation. This overpopulation puts stress on the
habitat as the species consumes resources beyond what the
environment can naturally support. This leads to a
deterioration of the habitat, making it less suitable for the
species and negatively affecting other associated species
that depend on the same ecosystem. To address this issue,
the surplus individuals can be removed and transplanted to
areas with depleted populations, providing a potential
solution to both overpopulation and habitat restoration.
However, making the decision of when to intervene is a
complex task, as it requires a deep understanding of the
natural cycles and relationships within the ecosystem. For
instance, in the case of elephants converting tree savannas
to grassland, deciding whether to let this cycle proceed or
reduce the elephant population to achieve balance between
the elephants and the trees is challenging due to the long
lifespan of elephants and the time it takes for trees to
regenerate. This decision has far-reaching consequences,
as it impacts not only the elephants but the entire
ecosystem's stability and health.
Reintroductions can return species to depleted habitats
● Restoring a species to its natural range involves
introducing a core population into available but
locally extinct habitats, either by capturing wild
individuals or using captive-reared ones.
● Captive propagation is a last resort, with potential
issues like small population size, inbreeding, and
loss of adaptability. Reintroduction should be
considered when feasible.
● Reintroducing captive-bred individuals into the
wild requires training for survival skills, but success
varies, and careful consideration of genetic and
ecological compatibility is vital to prevent negative
impacts on native populations. Inappropriate genetic
backgrounds can weaken resident stocks, as seen in
attempts to increase northern bobwhite quail
populations with birds of southern origin.
Protection and education must accompany restoration
● Island Species Vulnerability. Species confined to
habitat islands face increased vulnerability to
poaching and predation. Waterfowl nesting in small
wetlands surrounded by farmland are easy targets
for nest predators like skunks, raccoons, and
opossum, making predator protection crucial.
● Protection of Larger Mammals. Concentrated
populations of large mammals, such as bears and
rhinoceroses, are susceptible to poaching and
trophy hunting. Safeguarding reintroductions
requires long-term support from governments and
local communities, often dependent on
demonstrating economic benefits and providing
education about species and habitats.
● Human Population and Biodiversity. The fate of
wildlife and ecosystems hinges on controlling the
explosive growth of the human population.
Mechanical and cultural control can be effective
● Mechanical pest control methods include fencing,
trapping, cultivation, hoeing, and hand weeding.
These methods have been used for centuries to
keep livestock in, deter predators, and prevent
herbivores from feeding on crops. Sticky traps,
baited with pheromones and sticky paper at night,
attract and capture males of specific insect pests like
gypsy moths. Light traps, although effective, also
attract and kill beneficial insects. Various methods of
trapping are used to catch mammalian and avian
pests. Homogeneous habitats provide the
opportunity for large outbreaks of pests, as large
fields and extensive stands of forest trees can be a
breeding ground for pests.
Integrated pest management combines approaches to
control
● IPM is a holistic approach to pest control that takes
into account biological, ecological, economic, social,
and aesthetic factors. Its goal is to control pests
while their population size is the smallest,
depending on natural mortality induced by weather
and enemies. Knowledge of the population ecology
of each pest and its associated species, as well as
the dynamics of host species, is required for
successful IPM. Fieldwork is required to monitor
pest species and their natural enemies in order to
determine the need for, timing of, and intensity of
control efforts. IPM employs minimum chemical
spraying and thinning to prevent pesticide genetic
resistance. Control strategies must be altered from
one area to the next based on long-term harm,
control costs, and decision benefits. IPM has been
effective in controlling pests.
PARASITISM AND MUTUALISM
PARASITISM- is a condition in which two organisms live
together, one deriving its nourishment at the expense of the
others.
MICROPARASITES- It includes viruses, bacteria, and
protozoans. They are characterized by small size and a
short generation time.
MACROPARASITES -They are relatively large.
Examples include flatworms, acanthocephalans,
roundworms, flukes, lice, fleas, ticks, fungi, rusts,
smuts, dodders, broomrape and mistletoe.
HOSTS PROVIDE DIVERSE HABITATS FOR PARASITES
Hosts are the habitats for parasites, which have exploited
every conceivable habitat on and within these hosts.
Parasites that live on the skin within the protective cover or
feathers and hair are ECTOPARASITES. Others, known as
ENDOPARASITES, live within the host. Some burrow
beneath the skin.
● Parasites of insects live on the legs, on the upper
and lower body surfaces, and even on the
mouthparts
● Plant parasites divide up the habitat. Some live on
the roots and stems, others penetrate the roots and
bark to live in the woody tissue beneath.
● Digestive tract parasites enter the host through the
mouth and escape the rectum. A path used by other
parasites as well.
● Parasites of the lungs enter the mouth or the skin
and travel to the lungs through the pulmonary
system..They escape by being coughed up and
swallowed into the alimentary tract
● Parasites of the urogenital system enter orally, travel
through the gut to the site of infection, and exit by
the urinary system.
● Blood parasites enter and escape through the skin
● Parasites in muscle tissues usually form capsules,
and reach a blind end. The only way out is for their
host to be killed or eaten by a predator.
MANY PARASITES SPREAD BY DIRECT CONTACT.
Direct transmission is the transfer of a parasite from one
host to another by direct contact with a carrier. The parasite
has no intermediate stages of secondary host. Typically
microparasites are transmitted directly.
SOME PARASITES SPREAD BY INDIRECT
TRANSMISSION
Many parasites, both plants and animals, use indirect
transmission spending different stages of the life cycle with
different hosts.
TRANSMISSION AMONG HOSTS IS ESSENTIAL TO
PARASITES
Transmission from host to host is the key to parasite
survival. It can take place only with the dispersal of an
infective stage independent of the definitive host. Parasites
requiring more than one host can complete their life cycle
only if they can infect the right series of hosts.
HOSTS RESPOND TO PARASITIC INVASIONS
● Just as prey responds to predators, so the host
reacts to parasites. Some responses are defensive
attempts to counter parasitic invasion. Other
responses are negative reactions to parasitic
infection.
● The host may also react to parasitic infections with
abnormal growth. For example, plants respond to
bacterial and fungal invasion by forming cysts in the
roots and scabs in fruits and roots, cutting off contact
of the fungus with healthy tissue. Plants react to
attacks on leaf, stem, fruit, and seed by gall wasps,
bees, and flies by forming abnormal growth
structures unique to the particular gall insect.
PARASITES AND HOSTS ESTABLISH AN UNEASY
TRUCE
● When a foreign protein or antigen enters the
bloodstream it is taken up by white cells called
lymphocytes which produce ANTIBODIES.
 ● The immune response, however, can be breached.
Some parasites vary their antigens more or less
continuously. By doing so, they are able to keep one
jump ahead of the host's response. The result is a
chronic infection of the parasite in the host.
Antibodies specific to an infection are normally
composed of proteins.
● The ultimate breakdown in the immune system
occurs in humans infected with the Human
Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV) the causal agent of
AIDS, transmitted sexually, through the use of
shared needles, or by infected donor blood
PARASITES MAY REGULATE HOST POPULATION
● The impact of parasites on host populations
depends on the mode of transmission and the
density and dispersion of the host population.
Microparasites, dependent for the most part on
direct transmission, require a high host density to
persist.
● Indirect transmission typical of macroparasites, is
more complex parasites with indirect transmission
requiring a highly effective transmission stage.
Social Parasitism in Different Species:
TEMPORARY FACULTATIVE PARASITISM WITHIN
SPECIES: Examples include intraspecific nest parasitism
among certain bird species, where parasitic females lay
eggs in the nests of host females of the same species, such
as among ants, wasps, and certain groups of birds like
waterfowl.
TEMPORARY FACULTATIVE PARASITISM BETWEEN
SPECIES: An instance occurs between ant species, where
a newly mated queen of one species enters the nest of
another, kills its queen, and gets the host workers to care for
her brood, eventually leading to the replacement of the host
colony with the parasitic species
TEMPORARY OBLIGATORY PARASITISM BETWEEN
SPECIES: Common in ants and notably found in birds like
cowbirds and cuckoos. These birds lay eggs in the nests of
a host species, relying on the host's care for their young.
Strategies differ among hosts, some rearing the parasitic
offspring at the expense of their own, while others may try to
reject the foreign egg
PERMANENT OBLIGATORY PARASITISM BETWEEN
SPECIES: This type is exemplified in certain ants and
wasps. Workerless species have queens that infiltrate host
nests, either dominating the host queen or eliminating her to
take control of the colony.
Symbiosis and the Evolution of Mutualism
Symbiotic Relationship between Parasite and Host:
● Parasites and hosts engage in a symbiotic
relationship where dissimilar organisms live closely
together.
● Initially, the parasite draws its sustenance from the
host.
Evolution of Mutualism from Parasitic Relationship
● Over time, in the coevolution of the host and
parasite, the relationship can become beneficial to
both parties.
● The host, becoming tolerant of the parasitic
infection, might exploit this relationship. Eventually,
the two species can become interdependent, leading
to mutualism
Mutualism Definition and Characteristics
● Mutualism is a positive, reciprocal relationship at an
individual or population level between two different
species, where both benefit in terms of survival,
growth, or reproduction.
● Evidence suggests that this relationship is more
about reciprocal exploitation rather than cooperative
efforts between individuals.
Types of Mutualism
1. Symbiotic Mutualism- Involves physical interaction
and is often obligatory, where at least one member
becomes entirely dependent on the other. In extreme
cases, the two organisms function as one, as seen
in the relationship between algae and fungi in
lichens.
2. Nonsymbiotic Mutualism - Can be obligate or
facultative and might have started with exploitation.
For example, in plant pollinator relationships, birds
and insects feeding on pollen inadvertently carry
pollen to other plants, benefiting the plants'
reproductive success. This led to the plants
exploiting the visitors as pollen dispersers.
Obligatory symbiotic mutualisms, focusing on the
example of mycorrhizae, a mutualistic relationship between
plant roots and fungi.
Mycorrhizae is an example of such a relationship. It
involves a mutually beneficial interaction between plant roots
and fungi. The fungi aid the plant in nutrient uptake from the
soil, while the plant provides the fungi with carbon as an
energy source.
Mycorrhizae play a crucial role in the growth of forest trees
and the overall functioning of forest ecosystems. This
mutualism is essential to the vitality of these environments
and is the subject of ongoing research.
Mycorrhizae are particularly important in nutrient-poor soils.
They aid in nutrient decomposition, the translocation of
nutrients, and selective ion accumulation and absorption.
They also mobilize nutrients in infertile soil and make certain
nutrients available that are bound in silicate minerals
Mycorrhizae help their host plants resist disease by
providing a physical barrier and stimulating root production
of inhibitory substances
Types of Mycorrhizae
1. Endomycorrhizae- Common in temperate and
tropical forests, they form a network (arbuscle)
within the host plant's cells, aiding in nutrient
absorption without altering root structure
2. Ectomycorrhizae- Produces modified, coral-like
roots, working between root cells and extending into
a network outside the root, enhancing nutrient
absorption.
Mutualisms mutualisms may be obligatory but obligatory
but nonsymbiotic
The term "obligatory" in these mutualistic relationships
implies that the participants are highly dependent on each
other for their survival or reproduction, but these
relationships are described as "nonsymbiotic" because
they don't involve the intimate physical interactions typically
associated with symbiosis. Instead, they are mutually
beneficial interactions that may be critical for the organisms
involved.
Mycorrhizae and Small Mammals
● Some mycorrhizae have belowground fruiting
bodies, like truffles, which depend on small
mammals, particularly voles, for spore dispersal. -
● Small mammals detect these underground fruiting
bodies by smell, dig up and consume truffles, and
then disperse mycorrhizal spores when they
defecate.
● Mycorrhizal spores can only germinate upon
coming into contact with tree roots
Three-Way Obligatory Relationship
● In this scenario, a three-way obligatory relationship
exists: Trees rely on mycorrhizae for nutrient uptake,
mycorrhizae depend on tree roots for energy, and
small mammals benefit from consuming the
mycorrhizal fruiting bodies.
Non Symbiotic Obligatory Mutualism
● The relationship between mycorrhizal spores and
small mammals is described as non symbiotic
obligatory mutualism.
● -Although the participants in this mutualism lead
separate lives,they rely on each other for specific
benefits.
● In this case, the mycorrhizal spores need the
mammals for spore dispersal, and the mammals
obtain a significant portion of their food from the
mycorrhizal fruiting bodies.
Facultative Facultative mutualisms such mutualisms such as
seed dispersal as seed dispersal are diffuse
● Facultative mutualisms, particularly in seed dispersal
and pollination, are diffuse relationships not limited
to specific species but involving a wide array of
related species.
● Various plants employ different strategies for
dispersing their seeds, such as relying on animals
like jays, squirrels, ants, and frugivores. Some plants
provide nutrients attractive to ants
(myrmecochorous) in the form of elaiosomes on
seed coats, ensuring seed dispersal to suitable
locations
● Others attract frugivores by producing nutritious
fruits to entice animals that eat the surrounding seed
tissue without harming seed vitality. The strategy of
quantity dispersal involves scattering numerous
seeds and relying on diverse consumers to disperse
seeds to suitable sites.
Mutualisms are Mutualisms are often necessary for
necessary for pollination
● Mutualisms are vital for pollination as plants rely on
various mechanisms to ensure the transfer of pollen
from the anthers to the stigma of conspecifics.
● Some plants disperse pollen via wind in specific
conditions, scattered or patchy plant distributions
necessitate the involvement of insects, nectivorous
birds, and bats for effective pollination.
● Plants have evolved specialized methods to attract
specific pollinators, offering rewards such as nectar,
oils, and pollen in exchange for successful pollen
transfer.
Some mutualisms are mutualisms are defensive
● Certain mutualistic relationships, like the one
between certain grasses and fungi (Clavicipitaceae),
exhibit defensive mutualism. In this case, the fungi
residing within the tissues of the host grasses
produce physiologically active alkaloids.
 ● These alkaloids render the grasses bitter-tasting
and toxic to grazing mammals, causing adverse
effects such as constricted blood vessels in the
brain, convulsions, and even death. This
mechanism acts as a defense against herbivores,
protecting the host plant from being consumed by
grazing animals and certain insect herbivores
● The mutualism, although defensive, does come with
costs to the host plant. It leads to sterility by
inhibiting flowering or causing seed abortion. While
some plants have adaptations to counteract this
sterility, in many cases, the overall benefits involve
the trade-off between reduced sexual reproduction
and increased vegetative growth. The fungal
infection contributes to enhanced growth in the
absence of herbivores, compensating for the loss of
sexual reproduction, suggesting a balanced
relationship where the plants gain defensive
advantages against grazing while incurring certain
reproductive costs.
Population Population effects of effects of mutualism may
mutualism may be complex
● The population effects of mutualism can be complex
and challenging to define. While the benefits of
mutualism at the individual level are relatively easy
to understand, assessing its consequences at the
population level is more intricate than evaluating the
effects of predation or parasitism
● For obligate symbiotic mutualists, the relationship is
relatively straightforward. If species A is removed,
species B's population will cease to exist. For
example, if ectomycorrhizal fungi fail to infect the
rootlets of young pines, the pines won't develop
well. In such cases, mutualism is critical to the
survival of the populations involved
● In contrast, for non symbionts, whether they are
obligate or facultative, the population effects of
mutualism may be limited to specific stages of the
life history cycle where the mutualistic relationship
occurs.
COMMUNITY STRUCTURE
Community- A collection of organisms interacting directly or
indirectly.
Guild- Some species that carry out similar functions or
exploit the same resource within a community.
𝗭𝗼𝗼𝗹𝗼𝗴𝗶𝘀𝘁𝘀 apply the term to related species, such as the
bird community or mammal community of a particular forest
or grassland.
𝗕𝗼𝘁𝗮𝗻𝗶𝘀𝘁𝘀 prefer the term association for a plant community
possessing a definitive mix of species.
𝗘𝗰𝗼𝗹𝗼𝗴𝗶𝘀𝘁𝘀 use the term to contrast basic characteristics.
They speak of heterotrophic and autotrophic communities.
Although ecologists classify communities in different ways,
all communities have certain characteristics that define their
biological and physical structure. These characteristics vary
in both 𝘀𝗽𝗮𝗰𝗲 𝗮𝗻𝗱 𝘁𝗶𝗺𝗲.
Communities Vary in Biological Structure
The mix of species, including both their number and relative
abundance, defines the biological structure of a community.
DOMINANTS- A single or few species predominate within a
community. They possess the highest biomass, preempt the
most space, make the largest contribution to energy flow or
nutrient cycling, or by some other means control or influence
the rest of the community.
Abundance alone is 𝐧𝐨𝐭 𝐬𝐮𝐟𝐟𝐢𝐜𝐢𝐞𝐧𝐭.
Ecologists measure such dominants by 𝐛𝐢𝐨𝐦𝐚𝐬𝐬 𝐨𝐫 𝐛𝐚𝐬𝐚𝐥
𝐚𝐫𝐞𝐚.
Dominance- Basal area or aerial coverage, species A Area
samples
Relative Dominance- Basal area or coverage, species A
Total basal area or coverage, all species.
The predatory starfish 𝐏𝐢𝐬𝐚𝐬𝐭𝐞𝐫, for example, preys on
several associated species and reduces competitive
interactions among them, so they are able to coexist.
● Dominant species achieve their status at the
expense of other species in the community.
● The concept of species dominance is
𝗰𝗼𝗻𝘁𝗲𝘅𝘁-𝗱𝗲𝗽𝗲𝗻𝗱𝗲𝗻𝘁.
● A predator species that maintains one mix of species
in the community may not be defined as dominant if
the criterion is the cycling of nutrients or density.
Number and Relative Abundance Define Species Diversity
Relative Abundance- is the percent composition of an
organism of a particular kind relative to the total number of
organisms in the area.
Species diversity- is the number and relative abundance of
species found in a given biological organization (population,
ecosystem, Earth).
Two Major Components of Species Diversity:
𝗦𝗽𝗲𝗰𝗶𝗲𝘀 𝗿𝗶𝗰𝗵𝗻𝗲𝘀𝘀 - The number of different species that live
in an area.
𝗦𝗽𝗲𝗰𝗶𝗲𝘀 𝗲𝘃𝗲𝗻𝗻𝗲𝘀𝘀 (𝗼𝗿 𝗿𝗲𝗹𝗮𝘁𝗶𝘃𝗲 𝗮𝗯𝘂𝗻𝗱𝗮𝗻𝗰𝗲) - The
representation of each species relative to the total number of
individuals in an area
Shannon Diversity Index - measures the diversity through
the variety and abundance of species in a community.
Shannon Equitability Index- is a way to measure the
evenness of species in a community.
The term “𝗲𝘃𝗲𝗻𝗻𝗲𝘀𝘀” simply refers to how similar the
abundances of different species are in the community.
Types Of Biodiversity
● 𝗔𝗹𝗽𝗵𝗮 𝗗𝗶𝘃𝗲𝗿𝘀𝗶𝘁𝘆 - measures of diversity within a
community.
● 𝗕𝗲𝘁𝗮 𝗗𝗶𝘃𝗲𝗿𝘀𝗶𝘁𝘆 - measures species diversity change
between communities.
● 𝗚𝗮𝗺𝗺𝗮 𝗗𝗶𝘃𝗲𝗿𝘀𝗶𝘁𝘆 - describes diversity on a regional
basis, including species replacement over large
geographical regions.
Communities have Defining Physical Structure
● Communities are characterized by physical features.
● The physical structure of the community reflects
𝗮𝗯𝗶𝗼𝘁𝗶𝗰 𝗳𝗮𝗰𝘁𝗼𝗿𝘀, such as the depth and flow of water
in aquatic environments.
● It also reflects 𝗯𝗶𝗼𝘁𝗶𝗰 𝗳𝗮𝗰𝘁𝗼𝗿𝘀, such as the spatial
configuration of organisms.
● In a forest, for example, the size and height of the
trees and the density and dispersion of their
populations define the physical attributes of the
community.
● The form and structure of terrestrial communities
reflect the 𝘃𝗲𝗴𝗲𝘁𝗮𝘁𝗶𝗼𝗻.
● The plants may be tall or short, evergreen or
deciduous, herbaceous or woody.
In 1903 by the Danish botanist 𝗖𝗵𝗿𝗶𝘀𝘁𝗲𝗻 𝗥𝗮𝘂𝗻𝗸𝗶𝗮𝗲𝗿, he
classified plant life by the relation of the embryonic or
meristematic tissues that remain inactive over the winter or
prolonged dry periods—the 𝗽𝗲𝗿𝗲𝗻𝗻𝗮𝘁𝗶𝗻𝗴 𝘁𝗶𝘀𝘀𝘂𝗲𝘀 (buds bulbs,
tubers, roots, and seeds) —to their height above ground.
Raunkiaer's Life Forms
(𝗮) 𝗣𝗵𝗮𝗻𝗲𝗿𝗼𝗽𝗵𝘆𝘁𝗲𝘀 (𝗚𝗿𝗲𝗲𝗸 𝙥𝙝𝙖𝙣𝙚𝙧𝙤𝙨, “𝘃𝗶𝘀𝗶𝗯𝗹𝗲"). Perennial
buds carried well up in the air . and exposed to varying
climatic conditions. Trees and shrubs over 25cm; typical of
moist, warm environments.
The vertical structure of aquatic (freshwater) ecosystems is
𝗯) 𝗖𝗵𝗮𝗺𝗮𝗲𝗽𝗵𝘆𝘁𝗲𝘀 (𝗚𝗿𝗲𝗲𝗸 𝙘𝙝𝙖𝙢𝙞𝙖, “𝗼𝗻 𝘁𝗵𝗲 𝗴𝗿𝗼𝘂𝗻𝗱").
Perennial shoots or buds on the surface of the ground to
about 25cm above the surface. Buds receive protein from
fallen leaves and snow cover
(𝗰) 𝗛𝗲𝗺𝗶𝗰𝗿𝘆𝗽𝘁𝗼𝗽𝗵𝘆𝘁𝗲𝘀 (𝗚𝗿𝗲𝗲𝗸, 𝙝𝙚𝙢𝙞, “𝗵𝗮𝗹𝗳" 𝗮𝗻𝗱 𝙠𝙧𝙮𝙥𝙩𝙤𝙨,
“𝗵𝗶𝗱𝗱𝗲𝗻").. Perennial buds at the surface of the ground,
where they are protected by soil and leaves. Many plants
have rosette leaves. Characteristics of cold, moist climates.
𝗱) 𝗖𝗿𝘆𝗽𝘁𝗼𝗽𝗵𝘆𝘁𝗲𝘀 (𝗚𝗿𝗲𝗲𝗸, 𝙠𝙧𝙮𝙥𝙩𝙤𝙨, "𝗵𝗶𝗱𝗱𝗲𝗻"). Perennial buds
are buried in the ground on a bulb or rhizome, where they
are protected from freezing and drying. Typical of cold, moist
climates.
(𝗲) 𝗧𝗵𝗲𝗿𝗼𝗽𝗵𝘆𝘁𝗲𝘀 (𝗚𝗿. 𝙩𝙝𝙚𝙧𝙤𝙨, "𝘀𝘂𝗺𝗺𝗲𝗿"). Annuals, with a
complete life cycle from seed to seed in one season. Plants
survive unfavorable periods as seeds. Typical of deserts and
grasslands.
(𝗳) 𝗘𝗽𝗶𝗽𝗵𝘆𝘁𝗲𝘀 (𝗚𝗿. 𝙚𝙥𝙞, "𝘂𝗽𝗼𝗻"). Plants growing on other
plants; roots up in the air.
Life forms spectra of a tropical rainforest, a Minnesota
hardwood forest, and a New Jersey pine barren.
Vertical Layering is Characteristic of All Communities
Vertical structure- Is determined largely by the life form of
the plants—their size, branching, and leaves—which, in turn,
influences and is influenced by the vertical gradient of light.
Layers of the Rainforest
1. 𝗖𝗮𝗻𝗼𝗽𝘆 - the primary site of energy fixation through
𝗣𝗵𝗼𝘁𝗼𝘀𝘆𝗻𝘁𝗵𝗲𝘀𝗶𝘀 which has a major influence on the
rest of the forest depending on the amount of
sunlight that penetrates to lower layers.
2. 𝗨𝗻𝗱𝗲𝗿𝘀𝘁𝗼𝗿𝘆 - generally consists of 𝘁𝗮𝗹𝗹 𝘀𝗵𝗿𝘂𝗯𝘀 and
understory 𝘁𝗿𝗲𝗲𝘀, and younger trees, some of which
are the same species as those in the canopy.
Species that are unable to 𝗧𝗼𝗹𝗲𝗿𝗮𝘁𝗲 𝗦𝗵𝗮𝗱𝗲 will die;
others will eventually grow to reach maturity after
some of the older trees in the canopy die or are
harvested
3. 𝗦𝗵𝗿𝘂𝗯 𝗹𝗮𝘆𝗲𝗿 - a layer of small to medium 𝗦𝗵𝗮𝗱𝗲
𝗧𝗼𝗹𝗲𝗿𝗮𝗻𝘁 𝗦𝗵𝗿𝘂𝗯𝘀
4. 𝗛𝗲𝗿𝗯 𝗼𝗿 𝗴𝗿𝗼𝘂𝗻𝗱 𝗹𝗮𝘆𝗲𝗿 - the nature of this layer will
depend on the soil moisture and nutrient conditions,
the slope position, the density of the canopy and
understory, and the aspect of the slope, all of which
vary from place to place throughout the forest.
5. 𝗙𝗼𝗿𝗲𝘀𝘁 𝗳𝗹𝗼𝗼𝗿 - the site where 𝗱𝗲𝗰𝗼𝗺𝗽𝗼𝘀𝗶𝘁𝗶𝗼𝗻 takes
place and where nutrients are released from
𝗱𝗲𝗰𝗮𝘆𝗶𝗻𝗴 𝗼𝗿𝗴𝗮𝗻𝗶𝗰 𝗺𝗮𝘁𝘁𝗲𝗿 for reuse by the forest
plants.
determined by light penetration and profiles of temperature
and oxygen.
Four General Layers are Recognized:
𝗘𝗽𝗶𝗹𝗶𝗺𝗻𝗶𝗼𝗻 - a layer of 𝗙𝗿𝗲𝗲𝗹𝘆 𝗖𝗶𝗿𝗰𝘂𝗹𝗮𝘁𝗶𝗻𝗴 water, found in the
summer in well-stratified lakes.
𝗠𝗲𝘁𝗮𝗹𝗶𝗺𝗻𝗶𝗼𝗻 - a layer characterized by a thermocline—a
very steep and 𝗥𝗮𝗽𝗶𝗱 𝗱𝗲𝗰𝗹𝗶𝗻𝗲 𝗶𝗻 𝘁𝗲𝗺𝗽𝗲𝗿𝗮𝘁𝘂𝗿𝗲 .
𝗛𝘆𝗽𝗼𝗹𝗶𝗺𝗻𝗶𝗼𝗻 - a deep, 𝗰𝗼𝗹𝗱 layer of dense water about
40°C, often 𝗟𝗼𝘄 𝗶𝗻 𝗼𝘅𝘆𝗴𝗲𝗻.
𝗕𝗼𝘁𝘁𝗼𝗺 𝗺𝘂𝗱 - a layer of bottom mud.
The following two structural layers are based on Light
Penetration:
𝗧𝗿𝗼𝗽𝗵𝗼𝗴𝗲𝗻𝗶𝗰 𝗭𝗼𝗻𝗲 – (𝗟𝗜𝗚𝗛𝗧 𝗭𝗢𝗡𝗘) an upper layer roughly
corresponding to the epilimnion which is dominated by
autotrophic phytoplankton and is the site of 𝗣𝗵𝗼𝘁𝗼𝘀𝘆𝗻𝘁𝗵𝗲𝘀𝗶𝘀 .
𝗧𝗿𝗼𝗽𝗵𝗼𝗹𝘆𝘁𝗶𝗰 𝗭𝗼𝗻𝗲 - (𝗕𝗢𝗧𝗧𝗢𝗠 𝗭𝗢𝗡𝗘) a lower layer roughly
corresponding to the hypolimnion and bottom mud where
𝗗𝗲𝗰𝗼𝗺𝗽𝗼𝘀𝗶𝘁𝗶𝗼𝗻 𝗶𝘀 𝗺𝗼𝘀𝘁 𝗮𝗰𝘁𝗶𝘃𝗲.
Communities Exhibit Horizontal Patterns
● Horizontal patchiness in communities is influenced
by both physical and biological factors.
● Soil structure, fertility, moisture conditions, and
aspect shape plant microdistribution.
● Light and shade patterns, runoff, topography, and
microclimate also shape vegetation development.
● Abiotic disturbances like wind and fire also affect
vegetation patterning.
● Shading suppresses some plant species and
encourages others.
● Like vertical structure, horizontal patchiness of plant
life influences the distribution and diversity of animal
life within the community.
Communities have Characteristic Patterns of Dispersion
● The dispersion of populations within a given area is
characteristic for a community.
● The dispersion patterns of the populations reflect
the interactions among individuals within the
community, both intraspecific and interspecific.
A climax community is the “endpoint” of succession within
the context of a particular climate and geography
COMMUNITY DYNAMICS
Community dynamics are the changes in community
structure and composition over time
DYNAMICS
Ecosystems are dynamic. This means that the
characteristics of ecosystems and their populations vary
over time.
COMMUNITY
Ecological communities are composed of populations which
shares a defined area and interact
ZONATION - division of an ecosystem into distinct zone,
band,region in horizontal region due to an environmental
gradient
ECOTONE - An ecotone is a transition area between two
biological communities, where two communities meet and
integrate. It may be narrow or wide, and it may be local (the
zone between a field and forest) or regional (the transition
between forest and grassland ecosystems).
EDGE EFFECT- changes in community or population
structures that occur at the boundary of two or more habitats
ISLAND BIOGEOGRAPHY- Study of ecological relationship
& community structure on islands. Islands can be Actual
Island in a body of water or Figurative habitat islands such
as Central Park in New York City or National Parks.
TWO BASIC “RULES” OR OBSERVATION OF ISLAND
BIOGEOGRAPHY
1. Larger Islands support more total species
2. Islands closer to the “mainland” support more
species
METAPOPULATION - A metapopulation consists of a group
of spatially separated populations of the same species which
interact at some level.
HABITAT FRAGMENTATION- Happens when parts of a
habitat are destroyed leaving behind smaller unconnected
areas.
SUCCESSION- Is the series of changes in the composition
of the community over a period of time..
● Primary succession- occurs on a site previously
unoccupied by a community.
● Secondary succession occurs on previously
occupied sites following disturbance.
DISTURBANCE- is a relatively discrete event in time that
disrupts communities or populations, changes substrates
and resource availability, and creates opportunities for new
individuals or colonies

Disturbance is the matter of scale

● There are SMALL SCALE DISTURBANCES, such
us the death of a single tree in a forest,
● LARGE SCALE DISTURBANCES that covers
extensive areas swept by fire, buried under volcanic
ash, torn by landslides, or denuded by human
land-clearing.

RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN PLANT AND ANIMAL

SUCCESSION
● As plant succession advances, animal life changes
too. Each successive stage has its own distinctive
fauna. Because animal life is often influenced more
by structural characteristics than by species
composition, successional stages of animal life may
not correspond to the stages identified by plant
ecologists.
● Animals can quickly lose their habitat by vegetation
change. In eastern North America, grasslands and
old fields support meadowlarks, meadow mice, and
grasshoppers. When woody plants—both young
trees and shrubs—invade, a new structural element
appears. Grassland animals soon disappear, and
shrubland animals take over. Towhees, catbirds, and
goldfinches claim the thickets, and meadow mice
give way to white-footed mice.

The successional changes in vegetation following the

retreat of the Pleistocene ice sheet

● The Pleistocene was an epoch of great climatic

fluctuations throughout the world. At least four times
in North America and three times in Europe an ice
sheet advanced and retreated. With each movement
the biota retreated and advanced again with a
somewhat different mix of species.
● Each glacial period was followed by an interglacial
period. The climatic oscillations in each interglacial
period had two major stages, cold and temperate.
During the cold stage tundra-like vegetation
dominated the landscape. As the glaciers retreated,
light-demanding forest trees such as birch and pine
advanced. Then as the soil improved and the
climate warmed, these trees were replaced by more
shade-tolerant species such as oak and ash.