LOGICAL

REASONING
Zagazig university
Faculty of computers and
informatics
Department of Computer Science
Logic
 Logic is the study of reasoning and the validity of
arguments.
 It is concerned with the truth of statements
(propositions) and the nature of truth.
 Propositional logic: is the study of propositions.
Proposition
• A statement or proposition is a statement that is either
true or false, but not both.
Example
 7*1=7. true
 7*5=23 False
 What is your name? It is not a proposition
 3 – x = 5 Not proposition. May true or false
 x is a dog. It is not a proposition
 May god bless you! It is not a proposition
 Take two aspirins. Not proposition. command
 2.1. Propositions and Logical Operation
 Paradox
It is a seemingly true statement or group of statements
that lead to a contradiction or a situation which seems to
defy logic or intuition Paradox is not a statement.
EXAMPLES:
 Less is more
 Earn money by spending it
 The louder you are, the less they hear
 Impossible is not a word in my vocabulary
 “Whatever you do in life will be insignificant, but it is very
important that you do it” (Ghandi)
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2.1. Propositions and Logical Operation
 Propositional variables
In logic, the letters p, q, r … denote propositional variables,
which are replaced by statements:
p: 1+2 = 5
q: It is raining.

 Compound statements
Propositional variables can be combined by logical
connectives to obtain compound statements.
p and q : 1+2 =5 and it is raining.
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Logical connectives
• Compound propositions are formed by combining more
than one proposition using logical connectives.
• Example: Ahmed is a boy and Lobna is a girl.
• Types of logical connectives
1. Negation (~) read as NOT
2. Conjunction (⋀) read as AND
3. Disjunction (∨) read as OR
4. Conditional() read as implies
5. Biconditional (↔). If and only if
The most basic connectives are the first three connectives
as we can write any compound proposition using them.
1. Negation
• Negation of the statement is another statement that has
an opposite meaning for the statement.
• If P is a statement, then negation of P is written as ~P (not
P).
P: Yesterday is Monday.
~P: Yesterday is not Monday.
• The truth table for the negation of a proposition is:
p ~p if p is true, then ~p is false. if
T F p is false, then ~p is true.
F T
Examples
 Example:
Give the negation of the following statements
(a) p: 2+3 >1
(b) q: It is snowing.

Solution:
(a) ~p: 2+3 is not greater than 1, namely, 2+3 <=1
(b) ~q: It is not the case that it is snowing. More simply, ~q:
It is not snowing.

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2. Conjunction (⋀)
Truth table of p ⋀ q
• Let p and q are propositions.
• The proposition p ⋀ q is called
conjunction and read as p and q.
• The p⋀q is true if both p and q are true.
• Example:
p: It is snowing. Simple proposition
q: Iam cold. Simple proposition
p ⋀ q: It is snowing and Iam cold.
Compound proposition
3. Disjunction (∨)
• The proposition p∨q is called disjuction and is read as p
or q.
• p∨q is true if either p or q is true.
• p∨q is false if both p and q are false.
• Example:
p: 2 is a number. true
q:√2 is rational. false
p ∨q: 2 is a number or √2 is rational.
true ∨ false = true
4. Conditional ()
• The proposition pq is called
conditional and is read as if p then q.
• In this implication pq, p is called
hypothesis or premise and q is called
conclusion or consequence.
• Example:
• p: Iam hungry.
• q: I will eat.
• pq: Iam hungry then I will eat.
• Note that: pq is true if both p and q
are false, otherwise it is equal to q.
4. Conditional ()
• The proposition pq is called
conditional and is read as if p then q.
• In this implication pq, p is called
hypothesis or premise and q is called
conclusion or consequence.
• Example:
• p: Iam hungry.
• q: I will eat.
• pq: Iam hungry then I will eat.
Note that: pq is true if both p and q are false, otherwise it
is equal to q.
5. Biconditional (↔)
• The statement p↔q is called bicondional and
read as “p if and only if q” or “p iff q”.
• p↔q: p is necessary and a sufficient condition for
q.
• p↔q is true if both p and q are equal.
• Note that: p↔q =(pq) ⋀ (qp)
Question
• Make a truth table for the statement: (p^q) ∨(~p).
p q p⋀q ~p (p⋀q) ∨(~p)
T T T F T
T F F F F
F T F T T
F F F T T
Question
• Is the following equivalence a true statement?
3 > 2 if and only if 0 < 3 - 2.
Answer:
Let p: 3 > 2. true
q: 0 < 3 – 2. true
Both p and q are true, then p ↔q is true.
Tautology
• Tautology is a statement that is true for all
values.
p q pq ~q ~p ~q~p (pq) ↔ (~q~p)
T T T F F T T
T F F T F F T
F T T F T T T
F F T T T T T
Tautology
Contradiction
• The statement that is false for all possible values is
called contradiction.
p ~p p⋀~p
T F F
F T F
Contradiction
Contingency
• The statement is a combination of true and
false values.
p q p⋀q ~p (p⋀q) ∨(~p)
T T T F T
T F F F F
F T F T T Contingency
F F F T T
 Questions. T/F
• Verify that:

1. p∨ ~(p ⋀ q) is a tautology.
2. (p ⋀ q) ⋀ ~(p∨q) is a contradiction.
3. (pq) ⋀(p∨q) is a contingency.
 Conditional statment

symbol Statement
Implication or pq If p, then q
conditional
Converse qp If q, then p
Inverse ~p~q If not p, then not q
Contrapositive ~q~p If not q, then not p
Notes T/F
• Each of the following is a tautology:
• p ⋀ qp
• p ⋀ qq
• p(p ∨ 𝑞)
• q(p ∨ 𝑞)
• ~p(pq)
• ~(pq)q
• (p ⋀(pq))q
• (~p ⋀(p ∨ 𝑞))q
Questions . T/F
• Prove that (p ∨ 𝒒) ⋀ ~p ≡~p ⋀ 𝒒.
(p ∨ 𝑞) ⋀ ~p ≡~p ⋀ (p ∨ 𝑞) ≡ (~p ⋀ p) ∨ (~p ⋀ q)
≡ F ∨ (~p ⋀ q) ≡ (~p ⋀ q)

• Prove that: ~q~p ≡ pq

~q~p ≡~(~q) ∨(~p)≡q ∨(~p) ≡~p ∨ q ≡ pq
Questions
Questions
Precedence rules for logical
connectives
Connective Precedence
() first
~ second
⋀ third
∨ fourth
 fifth
↔ sixth
Questions
Determine precedence rules for the following:

• ~p ∨q. (~p) ∨q
• p ∨~q ⋀ r. p ∨((~q) ⋀ r)
• ~q~p. (~q)(~p)
Predicate
• A predicate is a sentence that contains one or more
variables and becomes a statement or a proposition (to be
true or false) when specific values are substituted for the
variables.
• The domain of a predicate variable consists of all values
that may be substituted in place of the variable.
• If p(x) is a predicate and x has domain D, the truth set of
p(x) is the set of all elements of D that make p(x) true. The
truth set is denoted {x ∈ D : p(x)} and is read “the set of all
x in D such that p(x).”
Logical quantifiers
• Consider the following sentence:
“The integer x is prime and x >17”
This sentence isn’t a statement or proposition until the variable
x is given a value to determine if this statement is true or false.
• Such a sentence is called a propositional function and
denoted by p(x), q(x), r(x), … .
• Consider the sentence in logical form:
“If x is prime, then x is not a multiple of 4”

p(x)  q(x)
Logical quantifiers
• Existential quantifier: The statement is true if at least one value of
x is true.
 “There is x such that p(x)” ∃𝒙(𝒑(𝒙))
 It is read as: There is= There exists= for some= There is some
∃
• Universal quantifier: The stament is true for every value of x.
 “for all x, p(x)”. ∀𝒙 𝒑(𝒙)
 It is read as: for all= for each=for every= given any ∀
• Examples:
• “There exists an x such that x is prime and x+10 is prime”
True as when x=19 then x+10=29 and 29 is prime
Logical quantifiers
• Consider the following statement about a real number x.
Determine the truth value for each of them:
• ∃𝒙(𝒙𝟐 = 𝟐).
True. since there is a value for x= 2 satisfy the statement.
• ∃𝒙(𝒙𝟐 < 𝟎).
False. Since every real number x has the property that x2≥0.
• ∀𝒙(𝒙 + 𝟏 > 𝒙).
True. x=1 and x+1=2, x=-1 and x+1=0, x=0 and x+1=1
• ∀𝒙( 𝑥2 = 𝒙).
False. See what happens if x is a negative number. 4=∓2
For each statement give formula that
represents it:
• For every positive integer n there exists a prime p such that p>n.
+
∀n∈ 𝒛 (∃𝒑, 𝒑 𝒊𝒔 𝒑𝒓𝒊𝒎𝒆 ⋀ 𝒑 > 𝒏)
• There exists two primes p and q whose sum is also prime.
∃𝒑 ∃𝒒, 𝒑 𝒊𝒔 𝒑𝒓𝒊𝒎𝒆⋀𝒒 𝒊𝒔 𝒑𝒓𝒊𝒎𝒆⋀(𝒑 + 𝒒) 𝒊𝒔 𝒑𝒓𝒊𝒎𝒆.
• For all rational numbers x and y, the sum x+y is also rational.
∀𝒙 ∈ 𝑸∀𝒚 ∈ 𝑸 (𝒙 + 𝒚 ∈ 𝑸)
• Every even integer n≥ 4 is the sum of two primes p and q.
∀𝒏 ∈ 𝒛(𝒏 𝒊𝒔 𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒏 ⋀𝒏 ≥ 𝟒 ), ∃𝒑 ∈ 𝑷∃𝒒 ∈ 𝑷 (𝒏 = 𝒑 + 𝒒).
P:symbol for prime.
Logical quantifiers
• All human beings are mortal
∀h ∈ H ⋀ h is mortal.
• The square of any real number is positive.
∀x ∈ R, x2 >0.
• Some cats are black
∃c∈C, c is black.
• There is some real number such that x2=2.
∃𝒙(𝒙∈𝑹 ⋀ 𝒙𝟐 = 𝟐).
• For every real number x2+1>0.
∀𝒙(𝒙∈𝑹 ⋀ 𝒙𝟐 + 𝟏 > 𝟎).
• There is some real number x such that x3-3x+1=0.
∃𝒙(𝒙∈𝑹 ⋀ x3−3x+1=0).
Negation of statements with multiple quantifiers
• ∀𝑥 ∈ 𝐴, ∀𝑦 ∈ 𝐵, 𝑃(𝑥, 𝑦)
~(∀𝑥 ∈ 𝐴, ∀𝑦 ∈ 𝐵, 𝑃(𝑥, 𝑦)) ≡ ∃𝑥 ∈ 𝐴, ∃𝑦 ∈ 𝐵, ~ 𝑃(𝑥, 𝑦)
• ∀𝑥 ∈ 𝐴, ∃𝑦 ∈ 𝐵, 𝑃(𝑥, 𝑦)
~(∀𝑥 ∈ 𝐴, ∃𝑦 ∈ 𝐵, 𝑃(𝑥, 𝑦)) ≡ ∃𝑥 ∈ 𝐴, ∀𝑦 ∈ 𝐵, ~ 𝑃(𝑥, 𝑦)
• ∃𝑥 ∈ 𝐴, ∀𝑦 ∈ 𝐵, 𝑃(𝑥, 𝑦)
~(∃𝑥 ∈ 𝐴, ∀𝑦 ∈ 𝐵, 𝑃(𝑥, 𝑦)) ≡ ∀𝑥 ∈ 𝐴, ∃𝑦 ∈ 𝐵, ~ 𝑃(𝑥, 𝑦)
• ∃𝑥 ∈ 𝐴, ∃𝑦 ∈ 𝐵, 𝑃(𝑥, 𝑦)
~(∃𝑥 ∈ 𝐴, ∃𝑦 ∈ 𝐵, 𝑃(𝑥, 𝑦)) ≡ ∀𝑥 ∈ 𝐴, ∀𝑦 ∈ 𝐵, ~ 𝑃(𝑥, 𝑦)
Find the negation of the following
formula:
• ∀𝒙∈Z+(𝐱 𝐢𝐬 𝐩𝐫𝐢𝐦𝐞 → 𝒙𝟐 + 𝟏 𝒊𝒔 𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒏).
Let p(x): x is prime , q(x): 𝒙𝟐 + 𝟏 𝒊𝒔 𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒏
p(x)q(x) = ~ p(x) ∨q(x).
Negation: ~(~ p(x) ∨q(x))= p(x) ⋀~q(x)
• 𝑨𝒏𝒔𝒘𝒆𝒓:
∃x∈Z+(x is prime and 𝒙𝟐 + 𝟏 𝒊𝒔 𝒏𝒐𝒕 𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒏). Or odd
Methods of proof
• Direct proof
• Indirect proof
Proof by contradiction
Proof by contrapositive
• Proof by induction
Proof by induction

• If p1, p2, p3, …, pn is a sequence of propositions.

 Basis: pn for n=1is true
 Hypothesis: Assume pn for n=k is true.
 Induction: If pn for n=k is true, then pn+1 for n=K+1 is true

• Then pn is true for all n by induction

Example 1
𝒏(𝒏+𝟏)
• Prove that: 1+2+3+….+n = . n≥ 𝟏
𝟐
Step 1: for n=1. min value Step 3:
L.H.S=1. Show that pn is true for n=k+1
𝑘+1(𝑘+1+1)
R.H.S=
1(1+1)
=1. 1+2+3+…+k+(k+1)=
2 2
∴ L.H.S=R.H.S
𝑘(𝑘+1)
∴ pn is true for n=1 L.H.S = + (k+1)= ½ k2 + 3/2k+1
2
𝑘+1(𝑘+1+1)
Step 2: R.H.S= = ½ k2 + 3/2k+1
2
Assume pn is true for n=k ∴ L.H.S=R.H.S
𝑘(𝑘+1)
1+2+3+….+k= .
2
Example 2
𝟑𝒏+𝟏 −𝟏
• Prove that: 1+3+9+27+….+3n = . n≥ 𝟎
𝟐
3 𝑛+1 −1
let: pn: 1+3+9+27+….+3n= .
2
Step 1: for n=0. min value
L.H.S=1.
𝟑𝟎+𝟏 −𝟏
R.H.S= =1.
𝟐
∴ L.H.S=R.H.S
∴ pn is true for n=0
Step 2:
Assume pn is true for n=k
3 𝑘+1 −1
1+3+9+27+….+3k= .
2
Example 2 (cont.)
Step 3:
Show that pn is true for n=k+1
3𝑘+1+1 −1
1+3+9+27+….+3k+ 3k+1 =
2

3𝑘+1 −1 k+1 3 𝑘+1 1

k+1= 1 1
L.H.S = +3 = - +3 ∗3 -
k+1 + 3k+1=
2 2 2 2 2
1 1 3 1 1 1 3 𝑘+2 −1
3k+1( +1)- = ∗ 3k+1- = *3* 3k+1 - =
2 2 2 2 2 2 2

3𝑘+1+1 −1 3𝑘+2 −1
R.H.S= =
2 2
∴ L.H.S=R.H.S
Example 3
 1.1!+2.2!+….+n.n!=(n+1)!-1. n≥ 1
Step1: for n=1
LHs=1.1!=1
RHS=(n+1)!-1 =(1+1)!-1=2-1=1
Pn is true for n=1
Step2: Assume pn is true for n=k
1.1!+2.2!+….+k.k!=(k+1)!-1.
Example 3 (cont.)
Step3: prove that pn is true for n=k+1
1.1!+2.2!+….+k.k!+(k+1).(K+1)!=(k+1+1)!-1.

LHS = (k+1)!-1 +(K+1).(k+1)!=(k+1)!.(1+k+1)-1=

(k+1)!.(k+2)-1=(k+2)!-1
RHS = (k+1+1)!-1=(k+2)!-1
Questions
1+3+5+⋯+(2k−1)=k2

20+21+22+23+⋯+2n=2n+1−1 for all non-negative

integers.