CHAPTER ONE

1.0 INTRODUCTION

1.1 DEFINITION OF SIWES

SIWES, meaning Student Industrial Work Experience Scheme is the skills training

programme which forms part of the approved minimum academic standard in the

various degree programme for all Nigerian tertiary institutions (N.U.C.1996)

1.2 HISTORY OF SIWES

The Student Industrial Work Experience Scheme (SIWES) is a skills training

programme designed to expose and prepare students of Nigerian tertiary

institutions (i.e. Universities, Polytechnics. Colleges of Technologies, Colleges of

Educations, e.t.c.) For the industrial work situation they are likely to encounter

after graduation. The scheme also affords students the opportunity to be familiar

and be exposed to the needed experience/technique in equipment and machinery

handling, which are usually not available in their institutions.

Prior to the establishment of the scheme, there was a growing concern among the

industrialist that graduates of the Nigerian institution on higher learning lacked

adequate practical background studies preparatory for employment in industries.

Thus, the employers were of the opinion that the theoretical education given in

higher institutions was not responsive to the need of the employers of labour. It

was against this background that the rationale for initiating and designing the

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 scheme by the Industrial Training Fund (ITF) during its formative years-

(1973/1974) - was introduced to acquaint students of the skills of handling

employer’s equipment and machinery.

The scheme was solely funded by ITF during its formative years, but the financial

involvement became unbearable to the ITF, thus withdrew from the scheme in

1978. The Federal Government handed over the scheme in 1979 to both the

National University Commission (NUC) and the National Board for Technical

Educational (NBTE). Later the Federal Government in November 1984 reverted

that the management and implementation of the SIWES programme to ITF and it

was effectively taken over by the ITF in July 1985 with the funding being solely

borne by the Federal Government.

1.3 BODIES INVOLVED IN MANAGEMENT OF SIWES PROGRAMME

AND THEIR ROLES

Various bodies involved in the effective management of the scheme include:-

 The Federal Government,

 The Industrialist Training Fund (ITF)

 The supervising agencies (i.e. NUC, NBTE, NCCE)

Employers of labor, the institution and the students also have their specific roles

assigned to them in the management of the SIWES programme.

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 The Federal Government

 To provide adequate funds to the Industrial Training Fund through the Federal

Ministry of Industries for the scheme.

 To make it mandatory for all ministries, companies and parastatals to offer places

for the attachment of students in accordance with the provision of Decree No.47 of

1971 as amended in 1990.

The Industrial Training Fund (ITF).

 Formulating policies and guidelines on SIWES for distribution to all the

participating bodies, institutions and companies involved in the scheme.

 Regularly organizing orientation programmes for students prior to their

attachment.

 Receive and process Master and Placement list from the institution and supervising

agencies (i.e. NUC, NBTE, and NCCE).

 Supervise students on industrial attachment and access their log book on regular

bases

 Disbursement of students and supervisors allowances

 Provide insurance cover for students on industrial attachment.

 Providing logistics and materials necessary for the effective administration of the

scheme.

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 Ensure the visitation of ITF officers to the supervision agencies, institutions,

employers and students on attachment.

The Supervising Agencies (NUC, NBTE, NCCE)

 Ensure the establishment and accreditation of SIWES units in institutions under

their jurisdiction.

 Direct the appointment of full time SIWES unit in all institutions

 Liaise with ITF, to ensure the implementation of Federal Government policies on

the scheme.

 Research into the development of SIWES in line with advances in technological

development.

 Vet and approve master and placement lists of students from participating

institution and forward it to ITF.

 Regularly reviewing courses qualified for SIWES in collaboration with other

bodies.

1.4 IMPORTANCE OF SIWES

The importance of SIWES cannot be overemphasized, this is because it goes a long

way in telling the level of experience student has acquired during the period of

his/her training, which normally runs for six months. It seeks to bridge the gap

between theory and practice of engineering, technology, science and other

professional programmes in the Nigerian Tertiary Institutions.

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 1.5 AIM

The Student Industrial Work Experience Scheme (S.I.W.E.S.) is to enable students

acquire practical experience of their various field to augment their theoretical

knowledge.

1.6 OBJECTIVES

 To create an avenue for students in the Nigerian Tertiary Institutions to acquire

industrial skills and experience in their course of study, which are restricted to

engineering and technology, including environmental studies.

 To expose students to work methods and techniques in handling equipment and

machinery that may not be available in the institution.

 To prepare students for the work situation they are likely to meet after graduation

from their various institutions.

 To make transition from the institution to the labour market easier and thus

enhance students contacts for job placement later after graduation.

 To enable the student to be exposed industrially and practically, in their field of

training in order to be mature, mentally and physically for future life challenges.

 To bridge the gap between our practical deficiencies alone with knowledge

acquired theoretically in order to develop critical and realistic approaches to

problems and their possible solutions.

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 To strengthen the managerial skill of the student and show them how the affairs of

the companies are being run in details.

 This gives room for ones mind and its physical being to be mature in carrying out

instruction practically in relation to his/her field of study.

1.7 BRIEF HISTORY OF THE COMPANY

Geoterrain Nigeria Limited is a multi-engineering company located at 145 Adamu

Ciroma Cresent Maraba Abuja and has developed an enviable reputation for

customer service and satisfaction. They have their sister company in Italy. The

company is able to provide range of service in environmental, structural design,

building, procurement, Mechanical and Project management organization.

 Vision

To be the preeminent high end provider of our service in our market areas

 Mission

Committed to serving our clients by exceeding their expectations. We will be

successful and profitable with satisfied, empowered employees, maintaining high

ethical standards and continually improving our quality and technical capability

1.8 ACTIVITIES DURING SIWES

I was opportune to work in Geoterrain Nigeria Limited, where I learnt the

processes and technique involved in the construction of buildings; block molding

water, treatment, installation of tanks and pipes and a few others.

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 CHAPTER TWO

2.0 PERSONAL PROTECTIVE EQUIPMENT (PPE)

2.1 PPE for Construction Crews

Figure 2.1: Personal Protective Equipment

A. Hard Hats
These are essential at most construction sites. They protect against head injuries
related to swinging or falling objects, striking the head against something, or
accidental head contact with an electrical hazard. Hard hats should be inspected for
dents, cracks, and other damage prior to each use; damaged ones should never be
worn.
B. Foot protection
This often refers to steel-toe boots. Work boots should be worn on site that protect
against crushed toes due to heavy or falling equipment or materials. They also need

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 puncture-resistant, nonslip soles, as work surfaces can have sharp objects on them,
and slips are a major hazard at the job site.

C. Hand protection
Different types of work gloves are best suited to particular tasks and risks at
construction sites. For example, there are heavy-duty leather and canvas gloves for
protecting against cuts and burns, welding gloves for welders, heavy-duty rubber
gloves for working with concrete, insulated gloves with sleeves for working with
electric hazards, and chemical-resistant gloves for working with chemical agents.
D. Work pants and work shirts
Workers should protect their full legs, full arms, and torso against cuts, scrapes,
burns, and other superficial injuries with thick, flexible work pants and shirts.
These should fit closely and never be baggy, while allowing for maximum
mobility.
E. Face and/or eye protection
Safety glasses or face shields should be worn whenever there is a danger of flying
debris or harmful dust getting in the eyes. Cutting, grinding, welding, chipping,
and nailing are some activities that necessitate protective eyewear. Along with
basic safety glasses, some other protective wear for the face include welding
shields, chemical splash goggles, and dust goggles.
F. Hearing protection
Chainsaws, jackhammers, and other tools and heavy equipment create noise levels
that can damage workers’ hearing particularly with prolonged exposure. Pre-
moulded or formable ear plugs are usually the best bet, but acoustic foam-lined ear
muffs that tightly seal against the head can work well too.
G. Reflective/high-visibility garments

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 Brightly colour and/or reflective jackets, vests, or other upper-body clothing is
important for worker visibility. It’s generally advisable to wear it at all times at a
job site, but it’s especially crucial along active roadways, in low lighting, and for
dusk and night-time work.
Other Personal Protective Equipment
This certainly doesn’t cover all types of PPE. Personal fall protection, for example,
is an entire class of personal protective equipment. There are numerous varieties
for all types of elevated construction work. Respiratory protection is another
important class at sites where workers are exposed to airborne hazards. Again,
every job site and every task must be individually assessed for potential dangers,
and workers must be made to wear appropriate personal protective equipment for
the situation.

THE 10 MOST COMMON HEALTH AND SAFETY RISKS IN

CONSTRUCTION SITE

1. Working at Height
The construction and/or demolition of buildings frequently require tradesmen to
work at height. In 2014, falls from height were the most common cause of
construction site fatalities, accounting for nearly three in ten fatal injuries to
workers.

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 Construction of a building with Scaffold
Source: Field work

The risks associated with working at height are often increased by added access
and mobility restrictions. Training, including safety awareness training, is essential
for employees required to work at height.

2. Moving Objects

Hazards are inherent to the construction industry, and only increase as a

construction project progresses.

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 Construction sites can get quite hectic what with the sheer volume of constantly

moving vehicles and tradespeople – overhead lifting equipment shifting heavy

loads, supply vehicles, dumper truck. all manoeuvring around on an uneven terrain.

3. Slips, Trips, & Falls

When you consider the diverse range of activities going on at a construction site at

any one time it seems hardly surprising slips, trips, and falls happen on an almost

daily basis.

Construction sites are a Mish-mash of holes in the ground, buildings at various

stages of completion, scaffolding, stored materials and equipment: you really do

need eyes in the back of your head at times.

4. Noise

Noise is a major hazard within the construction industry. Repetitive, excessive

noise causes long-term hearing problems and can be a dangerous distraction,

causing countless accidents.

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 Beware, using simple ear plugs does not necessarily offer total protection against

hearing damage – employers are required to carry out and document a

comprehensive noise risk assessment – and issue appropriate PPE.

5. Hand Arm Vibration Syndrome

Hand arm vibration syndrome, or ‘vibration white finger’ as it is commonly

referred to, is a painful and debilitating industrial disease of the blood vessels,

nerves and joints, triggered by prolonged use of vibratory power tools and ground

working equipment.

This industrial disease is frequently cited in compensation claim cases opened by

ex-construction workers who worked for years with little or no protection, using

inappropriate and poorly maintained equipment.

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6. Material & Manual Handling

Materials and equipment is being constantly lifted and moved around on a

construction site, whether manually or by the use of lifting equipment. Different

trades will involve greater demands, but all may involve some degree of risk.

Where an employee’s duties involve manual handling, then adequate training must

be carried out. Where lifting equipment is used, the competency of the employee

must be tested before they are allowed to use the equipment. Records of training

must be maintained for verification.

7. Collapse

Not exactly a hazard, more a risk – an accident in waiting. Every year excavations

and trenches collapse bury and seriously injure people working in them –

precautions need to be planned before the work starts. The risk of an unintended

collapse is generally more associated with demolition works or when a partially

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 completed building or scaffolding collapses, but still accounts for a percentage of

fatalities each year.

8. ASBESTOS

There are an estimated 500,000 public buildings in the Nigeria that contain harmful

asbestos materials: often hidden away, forgotten, and by and large, harmless – in

its undisturbed state. Workers need to know where it is and what to do if they come

across suspicious materials that might contain asbestos.

9. Airborne Fibres & Materials – Respiratory Diseases

Construction sites are a throng of activity and kick up a lot of dust… an often

invisible, fine, toxic mixture of hazardous materials and fibres that can damage the

lungs, leading to diseases such as chronic obstructive pulmonary, asthma and

silicosis. Simply issuing PPE is not enough; employers have a duty to ensure

protective equipment is actually used. Failure to do so could lead an employee to

disciplinary action and put the company in hot water with the health and safety

executive.

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10.Electricity

On average, three construction industry workers are electrocuted each year during

refurbishment work on commercial and domestic buildings. People working near

overhead power lines and cables are also at risk. There are also a growing number

of electrocutions involving workers who are not qualified electricians but who are

carrying out electrical work, such as plumbers, joiners and decorators.

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2.2 SAFETY

Safety is the state of being "safe" (from French sauf), the condition of being

protected against physical, social, spiritual, financial, political, emotional,

occupational, psychological, educational or other types or consequences of failure,

damage, error, accidents, harm or any other event which could be considered non-

desirable. Safety can also be defined to be the control of recognized hazards to

achieve an acceptable level of risk. This can take the form of being protected from

the event or from exposure to something that causes health or economical losses. It

can include protection of people or of possessions.

2.3 MEANINGS OF SAFETY

There are two slightly different meanings of safety. For example, home safety may

indicate a building's ability to protect against external harm events (such as

weather, home invasion, etc.), or may indicate that its internal installations (such as

appliances, stairs, etc.) are safe (not dangerous or harmful) for its inhabitants.

Discussions of safety often include mention of related terms. Security is such a

term. With time the definitions between these two have often become

interchanged, equated, and frequently appear juxtaposed in the same sentence.

Readers unfortunately are left to conclude whether they comprise a redundancy.

This confuses the uniqueness that should be reserved for each by itself. When seen

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as unique, as we intend here, each term will assume its rightful place in influencing

and being influenced by the other.

Safety is the condition of a “steady state” of an organization or place doing what it

is supposed to do. “What it is supposed to do” is defined in terms of public codes

and standards, associated architectural and engineering designs, corporate vision

and mission statements, and operational plans and personnel policies. For any

organization, place, or function, large or small, safety is a normative concept. It

complies with situation-specific definitions of what is expected and acceptable. [1]

Using this definition, protection from a home’s external threats and protection

from its internal structural and equipment failures (see Meanings, above) are not

two types of safety but rather two aspects of a home’s steady state.

In the world of everyday affairs, not all goes as planned. Some entity’s steady state

is challenged. This is where security science, which is of more recent date, enters.

Drawing from the definition of safety, then:

Security is the process or means, physical or human, of delaying, preventing, and

otherwise protecting against external or internal, defects, dangers, loss, criminals,

and other individuals or actions that threaten, hinder or destroy an organization’s

“steady state,” and deprive it of its intended purpose for being.

Using this generic definition of safety it is possible to specify the elements of a

security program.

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 2.4 LIMITATIONS OF SAFETY

Safety can be limited in relation to some guarantee or a standard of insurance to the

quality and unharmful function of an object or organization. It is used in order to

ensure that the object or organization will do only what it is meant to do.

It is important to realize that safety is relative. Eliminating all risk, if even possible,

would be extremely difficult and very expensive. A safe situation is one where

risks of injury or property damage are low and manageable.

2.5 TYPES OF SAFETY

It is important to distinguish between products that meet standards, that are safe,

and those that merely feel safe. The highway safety community uses these terms:

 Normative safety

Normative safety is achieved when a product or design meets applicable standards

and practices for design and construction, regardless of the product's actual safety

history.

 Substantive safety

Substantive or objective safety occurs when the real-world safety history is

favorable, whether or not standards are met.

 Perceived safety

Perceived or subjective safety refers to the users' level of comfort and perception of

risk, without consideration of standards or safety history. For example, traffic

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 signals are perceived as safe, yet under some circumstances, they can increase

traffic crashes at an intersection. Traffic roundabouts have a generally favorable

safety record yet often make drivers nervous.

Low perceived safety can have costs. For example, after the 9/11/2001 attacks,

many people chose to drive rather than fly, despite the fact that, even counting

terrorist attacks, flying is safer than driving. Perceived risk discourages people

from walking and bicycling for transportation, enjoyment or exercise, even though

the health benefits outweigh the risk of injury.

 Security

Also called social safety or public safety, security addresses the risk of harm due to

intentional criminal acts such as assault, burglary or vandalism.

Because of the moral issues involved, security is of higher importance to many

people than substantive safety. For example, a death due to murder is considered

worse than a death in a car crash, even though in many countries, traffic deaths are

more common than homicides.

FALLING PROTECTION FROM HEIGHT

Falls are among the most common causes of serious work related injuries and

deaths. Employers must set up the work place to prevent employees from falling

off of overhead platforms, elevated work stations or into holes in the floor and

walls.

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 HOW TO REDUCE FALLING

Employers must set up the work place to prevent employees from falling off of

overhead platforms, elevated work stations or into holes in the floor and walls.

Safety requires that fall protection be provided at elevations of four feet in general

industry workplaces, five feet in shipyards, six feet in the construction industry and

eight feet in long shoring operations. In addition, Safety requires that fall

protection be provided when working over dangerous equipment and machinery,

regardless of the fall distance.

To prevent employees from being injured from falls, employers must:

 Guard every floor hole into which a worker can accidentally walk (using a railing

and toe-board or a floor hole cover).

 Provide a guard rail and toe-board around every elevated open sided platform,

floor or runway.

 Regardless of height, if a worker can fall into or onto dangerous machines or

equipment (such as a vat or acid or a conveyor belt) employers must provide

guardrails and toe-boards to prevent workers from falling and getting injured.

 Other means of fall protection that may be required on certain jobs include safety

and harness and line, safety nets, stair railings and hand rails.

Safety requires employers to:

 Provide working conditions that are free of known dangers.

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 Keep floors in work areas in a clean and, so far as possible, a dry condition.

 Select and provide required personal protective equipment at no cost to workers.

 Train workers about job hazards in a language that they can understand.

CHAPTER THREE

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 3.0 BUILDING CONSTRUCTION

Building construction is the process of preparing for and forming buildings and

building systems. Construction starts with planning, design, financing and

continues until the structure is ready for occupancy. Building construction is also

the addition structures to a real property or construction of buildings.

The vast majority of building construction jobs is small renovations such as the

addition of rooms or renovation of an existing building. Often, the owner of the

property acts as a pay master and designer for the entire project. However all

building construction project include some element in common-design, financial

estimation and legal consideration. Normally the job is managed by a project

manager and supervised by a construction manager, construction engineer or

architect. For the successful execution of a project, effective planning is essential.

Those involve with the design and execution of the infrastructure in question must

consider the zoning requirements, the environmental impacts of the job, the

successful scheduling, budgeting, construction site, safety availability and

transportation of the building materials.

3.1 TYPES OF CONSTRUCTION PROJECTS

Types of construction projects include:

 Residential construction

 Institutional construction

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 Industrial construction

 Health-care construction

 Commercial construction e.t.c

Each type of construction project requires a unique team to plan, design, construct

and maintain the project.

3.2 THE BASIC STEPS IN BUILDING

The basic steps in building construction give the details on how works is to be

done and in carrying out the construction as required by the schedule while

adhering to the specification.

The steps include:

1. Environmental impacts assessment and baseline study.

2. Sub-structure.

3. Super-structure.

Environmental impacts assessment and baseline study

The environmental impacts assessment (EIA) is the analysis of the predicted

environmental consequences of a proposed project. It is the different between the

qualities of the environment as it exists without the project and as it would exist

with the project. It is usually prepared along with the feasibility study of the

project.

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 The EIA study will enable the environmental baseline data to be established for the

site and also provide a reference point for assessing future discharge. It also

includes information gathered for the specific requirement of a given project.

The objectives of EIA in building construction are:

i. To identify sensitive components of the environment within the project and

environs.

ii. To assist project designers and planners by identifying those aspects of projects

activities.

iii. It provides a framework for considering the location and architectural design of a

project.

The EIA processes involve the following:

Sub-structure
This is a structure forming the foundation of a building or other construction; it
serves as a basic framework or foundation that supports a superstructure. Examples
of a substructure are foundation and basements.
Foundation
Foundations are horizontal or vertical members supporting the entire structure and
transmitting the loads to the soil below. They are substructure of column, beams,
walls, slabs and roofs. Generally foundation can be broadly classified as either
shallow or deep.

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 Types of Foundation
Types of foundation are:
a. Strip foundation
b. Pad foundation
c. Strap foundation
d. Raft foundation
e. Pile foundation
f. Combined footing foundation e.t.c.
The choice of foundation type used depended primarily on the magnitude of load
to be transmitted from the superstructure and the permissible bearing capacity of
the soil.
Super Structure
The part of the building that was constructed above the ground is called super
structure. Examples are walls, root, floor, veranda, doors, and windows.

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Wall
The structure constructed to enclose an area of a building and is built for privacy

purposes, for safety purpose and to support doors and roof of building.

Roof

Is the covering on the uppermost part of a building. It protect the building and its

contents from the effects of weather.

Slab

A slab is a reinforced concrete member that is often subjected to shear force.

Because slabs are generally a horizontal, its design was centred more on flexure

rather than direct shear force.

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Electrical work

27
 CHAPTER FOUR

4.0 BUILDING / CONSTRUCTION MATERIALS EQUIPMENT AND

MATERIAL

Building materials played a very important role during building construction

because they were used in the construction activities. Building materials also

governed the both the rate and quality of building construction. The choice of

building materials was depended on the climate of the place of the building and the

type of building that was constructed.

Building materials and their uses are given below

 Reinforcement bars

Rebar (short for reinforcing bar) is collectively known as reinforcing steel and

reinforcement steel, it is a steel bar or mesh of steel wires used as a tension device

in reinforced concrete and reinforced masonry structures to strengthen and hold the

concrete in compression. Concrete is strong under compression, but has weak

tensile strength. Rebar significantly increases the tensile strength of the structure.

Rebar's surface is often patterned to form a better bond with the concrete.

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European sizes

Metric bar designations represent the nominal bar diameter in millimetres.

Preferred bar sizes in Europe are specified to comply with Table 6 of the standard

EN 10080 although various national standards still remain in force (e.g. BS 4449 in

the United Kingdom). In Switzerland some sizes are different from European

standard.

Steel reinforcement in storage

Metric Linear mass Nominal Cross-sectional

bar size density (kg/m) diameter (mm) area (mm²)

6,0 0.222 6 28.3

8,0 0.395 8 50.3
10,0 0.617 10 78.5
12,0 0.888 12 113
14,0 1.21 14 154
16,0 1.58 16 201
20,0 2.47 20 314
25,0 3.85 25 491
28,0 4.83 28 616
32,0 6.31 32 804
40,0 9.86 40 1257
50,0 15.4 50 1963

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 Head pan was used for carrying aggregate for mixing.

 Steel rope or binding wire was used for binding or tying reinforcement.

 Blocks were used for raising walls.

 Shovel/spade was used for packing aggregages into the and other places.

 Bambo sticks/wood was used for constructing formworks and for braising the

formwork for slab, beam and column.

 Nails were used for holding two or more pieces of wood together by using a

hammer to drive it inside the woods.

 Lines were used for the confirmation of alignment from column to column and for

setting blocks.

 Plum was used for the checking of alignments.

 Damp proof case/membrane (DPC/DPM) were used covering the ground floor

of the building, it prevent water from the foundation from getting in and water

from matrix from going out.

 Plum bob was used for confirmation of accurate alignment from floor to floor.

 Pincers was used for binding two pieces of metals together.

 Compacting machine was used for the compaction of soils after filling.

 Poker vibrator was used for vibrating the concrete for it settle and produced a

smooth surface after the formwork was removed.

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 Wheelbarrows were used for the transporting aggregate and concretes to a need

place in site.

 Concrete mixer was used for mixing aggregates, cement, and sand e.t.c. to a

matrix.

4.1 MIXTURE RATIOS FOR BUILDIING MATERIALS

The mixture ratio used depends on the type of material to produced and what the

material is to be used for. The common materials and their ratios are shown in the

table below.

Concrete mixing ratio

The mixing raio use in construction varies. The mixing ratio for strip blinding,

trench fill fundation, non reinforced foundation is 1:3:6. The mixing ratio for

foundation walls, structural concrete, reinforced floor slab,lintel, columns and

beams is 1:2:4.

The Materials Used

Fine Aggregates

Sand is commonly used as fine aggregate in preparing the cement as well as

morters. It consists of small angular or round grains of silica (SiO 2) eg river sand,

pit sand, e.t.c.

Coarse Aggregates

These generally refers to granite/gravel from broken stones, it act as the main filler

31
and forms the main bulk of concrete around the surface. It make a solid and hard

mass of concrete with cement and sand.

Cement

Cement is used as a binding material for the preparation of morters and concrete

for different building applications where strength and durabilityare required. It

binds the aggregates into a solid mass by virtue of its setting and hardening

properties when mixed with water.

Water

Water play an important role in mixing, laying, compacting, setting and hardening

of concrete and proper layering of morter. The strength of the morter depend on the

quality and quantity of water used in the mix, it influences the strength,

development and durability of concrete.

Concrete

Concrete is a mixture of cement, sand, granite/gravel/stone and water, which when

placed in forms and allowed to cure becomes hard like stone, the hardening is

caused by the chemical reaction between the cement and water.

Morter

Morter is a mechanical mixture in varying proportions of a binding material.

Morter are usually named accordingto the binding material used in its preparation

eg cement morter. Morter is used as a binding material in stone or block or

32
concrete as covering material to walls in the form of plaster to provide a smooth

hard and decorative surface.

Compressive Strength of Concrete [cube]

The compressive strength of concrete is meansuerd by crushing the cubes having

15cm per side.The cube is demoulded after setting for 24hours and is being cured

for 21-28days before taking to laboratory crushing. The concrete quality is base on

the testing of concrete cuibes which are higher strength facilitated to the

consruction.

Construction Material

Soil Cement

Soil cement is a construction material, a mix of pulverized natural soil with small

amount of Portland cement and water, usually processed in a tumble, compacted to

high density. Hard, semi-rigid durable material is formed by hydration of the

cement particles.

Soil cement is frequently used as a construction material for pipe bedding, slope

protection, and road construction as a sub base layer reinforcing and protecting the

subgrade. It has good compressive and shear strength, but is brittle and has low

tensile strength, so it is prone to forming cracks.

Soil cement mixtures differ from Portland cement concrete in the amount of paste

33
(cement-water mixture). While in Portland cement concretes the paste coats all

aggregate particles and binds them together, in soil cements the amount of cement

is lower and therefore there are voids left, and the result is a cement matrix with

nodules of un-cemented material.

Types of soil cement

Cement-modified soils (CMS)

A cement-modified soil contains relatively small proportion of Portland cement,

less than in ordinary soil-cement. The result is caked or slightly hardened material,

similar to a soil, but with improved mechanical properties such as lower plasticity,

increased bearing ratio and shear strength, and decreased volume change. The

purpose of modifying soil with Portland cement is to improve a substandard soil's

engineering qualities.

Soil-cement base (SCB)

A soil-cement base contains higher proportion of cement than cement-modified

soil. It is commonly used as a cheap pavement base for roads, streets, parking lots,

airports, and material handling areas. Specialized equipment, such as a soil

stabilizer and a mechanical cement spreader is usually required. A seal coat is

required in order to keep moisture out. For uses as a road construction material, a

suitable surface coating, usually a thin layer of asphalt concrete, is needed to

34
reduce wear.

In comparison with granular bases, soil cement bases can be thinner for the same

road load, owing to their slab-like behavior that distributes load over broader areas.

In-place or nearby located materials can be used for construction - locally found

soil, stone, or reclaimed granular base from a road being reconstructed. This

conserves both material and energy.

The strength of soil-cement bases actually increases with age, providing good

long-term performance.

Cement-treated base (CTB)

A cement-treated base is a mix of granular soil aggregates or aggregate material

with Portland cement and water. It is similar in use and performance to soil-cement

base.

Acrylic copolymer (Rhino Snot)

Developed for the U.S. Military in desert conditions and commercially

trademarked, "Rhino Snot" is a water-soluble acrylic copolymer applied to soil or

sand which penetrates and coats the surface. When dry, it forms a waterproof, UV-

resistant, solid bond which binds the soil together, reducing dust. In higher

concentration it creates a durable surface that can withstand heavy traffic, allowing

existing soil to be used for roads, parking lots, trails and other heavy traffic areas.

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Sandcrete

Sandcrete is a yellow-white building material made from a binder (typically

Portland cement), sand in a ratio of circa 1:8, and water. Sometimes other

ingredients may be added to reduce the amount of expensive Portland cement such

as pozzolanas and rice husk ash. Sandcrete is similar but weaker than mortar, for

which the ratio is circa 1:5. Soil cement and landcrete are similar materials but use

other types of soil and hydraform blocks which are compressed, stabilized, earth

blocks.

Sandcrete is usually used as hollow rectangular blocks similar to concrete masonry

units, often 45 centimetres (18 in) wide, 15 centimetres (5.9 in) thick, and 30

centimetres (12 in) with hollows that run from top to bottom and occupy around

one third of the volume of the block. The blocks are joined together with mortar.

Strength and usage

The final compressive strength of sandcrete can be as high as 4.6 N/mm2, which is

much less than concrete's 40 N/mm2. Sandcrete is unsuitable for load-bearing

columns, and is mainly used for walls, or for foundations if no suitable alternative

is available. As material for walls, its strength is less than that of fired clay bricks,

but sandcrete is considerably cheaper.

Sandcrete is the main building material for walls of single-storey buildings (such

as houses and schools) in countries such as Ghana[2] and Nigeria. Measured

36
strengths of commercially available sandcrete blocks in Nigeria was found to be

between 0.5 and 1 N/mm2, which is well below the 3.5 N/mm2 that is legally

required there. This may be due to the need of the manufacturers to keep the price

low, and since the main cost-factor is the Portland cement, they reduce that, which

results in a block that starts behaving more like loose sand.

Research has shown using organic ash to replace Portland cement, which is better

than simply using less Portland cement.[citation needed]

Coarse aggregate

Addition of coarse aggregates has been tried, since this is a cheap way to increase

compressive strength, but since the cement content of sandcrete is small, so is the

amount of water that is added to the sand/cement mix to cure it. Adding more solid

materials makes the mix much less fluid, making it difficult to cast into blocks.

Concrete Block

A concrete block is primarily used as a building material in the construction of

walls. It is sometimes called a concrete masonry unit (CMU). A concrete block is

one of several precast concrete products used in construction. The term precast

refers to the fact that the blocks are formed and hardened before they are brought

to the job site. Most concrete blocks have one or more hollow cavities, and their

sides may be cast smooth or with a design. In use, concrete blocks are stacked one

at a time and held together with fresh concrete mortar to form the desired length

37
and height of the wall.

Concrete mortar was used by the Romans as early as 200 B.C. to bind shaped

stones together in the construction of buildings. During the reign of the Roman

emperor Caligula, in 37-41 A.D. , small blocks of precast concrete were used as a

construction material in the region around present-day Naples, Italy. Much of the

concrete technology developed by the Romans was lost after the fall of the Roman

Empire in the fifth century. It was not until 1824 that the English stonemason

Joseph Aspdin developed portland cement, which became one of the key

components of modern concrete.

The first hollow concrete block was designed in 1890 by Harmon S. Palmer in the

United States. After 10 years of experimenting, Palmer patented the design in

1900. Palmer's blocks were 8 in (20.3 cm) by 10 in (25.4 cm) by 30 in (76.2 cm),

and they were so heavy they had to be lifted into place with a small crane. By

1905, an estimated 1,500 companies were manufacturing concrete blocks in the

United States.

These early blocks were usually cast by hand, and the average output was about 10

blocks per person per hour. Today, concrete block manufacturing is a highly

automated process that can produce up to 2,000 blocks per hour.

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Raw Materials

The concrete commonly used to make concrete blocks is a mixture of powdered

portland cement, water, sand, and gravel. This produces a light gray block with a

fine surface texture and a high compressive strength. A typical concrete block

weighs 38-43 lb (17.2-19.5 kg). In general, the concrete mixture used for blocks

has a higher percentage of sand and a lower percentage of gravel and water than

the concrete mixtures used for general construction purposes. This produces a very

dry, stiff mixture that holds its shape when it is removed from the block mold.

If granulated coal or volcanic cinders are used instead of sand and gravel, the

resulting block is commonly called a cinder block. This produces a dark gray block

with a medium-to-coarse surface texture, good strength, good sound-deadening

39
properties, and a higher thermal insulating value than a concrete block. A typical

cinder block weighs 26-33 lb (11.8-15.0 kg).

Lightweight concrete blocks are made by replacing the sand and gravel with

expanded clay, shale, or slate. Expanded clay, shale, and slate are produced by

crushing the raw materials and heating them to about 2000°F (1093°C). At this

temperature the material bloats, or puffs up, because of the rapid generation of

gases caused by the combustion of small quantities of organic material trapped

inside. A typical light-weight block weighs 22-28 lb (10.0-12.7 kg) and is used to

build non-load-bearing walls and partitions. Expanded blast furnace slag, as well as

natural volcanic materials such as pumice and scoria, are also used to make

lightweight blocks.

In addition to the basic components, the concrete mixture used to make blocks may

also contain various chemicals, called admixtures, to alter curing time, increase

compressive strength, or improve workability. The mixture may have pigments

added to give the blocks a uniform color throughout, or the surface of the blocks

may be coated with a baked-on glaze to give a decorative effect or to provide

protection against chemical attack. The glazes are usually made with a

thermosetting resinous binder, silica sand, and color pigments.

40
Design

The shapes and sizes of most common concrete blocks have been standardized to

ensure uniform building construction. The most common block size in the United

States is referred to as an 8-by-8-by-16 block, with the nominal measurements of 8

in (20.3 cm) high by 8 in (20.3 cm) deep by 16 in (40.6 cm) wide. This nominal

measurement includes room for a bead of mortar, and the block itself actually

measures 7.63 in (19.4 cm) high by 7.63 in (19.4 cm) deep by 15.63 in (38.8 cm)

wide.

Many progressive block manufacturers offer variations on the basic block to

achieve unique visual effects or to provide desirable structural features for

specialized applications. For example, one manufacturer offers a block specifically

designed to resist water leakage through exterior walls. The block incorporates a

water repellent admixture to reduce the concrete's absorption and permeability, a

beveled upper edge to shed water away from the horizontal mortar joint, and a

series of internal grooves and channels to direct the flow of any crack-induced

leakage away from the interior surface.

Another block design, called a split-faced block, includes a rough, stone-like

texture on one face of the block instead of a smooth face. This gives the block the

architectural appearance of a cut and dressed stone.

41
A Foursquare-style house design, appearing in the Radford Architectural

Company's 1908 catalog Cement Houses and How to Build Them. It was one of

hundreds of cancrete block house designs offered by the Radford company. They

estimated that this design could be built for about $2,250.00, much less than

traditional stone masonry houses of the time.

(From the collections of Henry Ford Museum & Greenfield Village.)

Concrete blocks were first used in the United States as a substitute for stone or

wood in the building of homes. The earliest known example of a house built in this

country entirely of concrete block was in 1837 on Staten Island, New York. The

homes built of concrete blocks showed a creative use of common inexpensive

materials made to look like the more expensive and traditional wood-framed stone

masonry building. This new type of construction became a popular form of house

building in the early 1900s through the 1920s. House styles, often referred to as

"modern" at the time, ranged from Tudor to Foursquare, Colonial Revival to

Bungalow. While many houses used the concrete blocks as the structure as well as

the outer wall surface, other houses used stucco or other coatings over the block

structure. Hundreds of thousands of these houses were built especially in the

midwestern states, probably because the raw materials needed to make concrete

blocks were in abundant supply in sand banks and gravel pits throughout this

42
region. The concrete blocks were made with face designs to simulate stone

textures: rock-faced, granite-faced, or rusticated. At first considered an

experimental material, houses built of concrete blocks were advertised in many

portland cement manufacturers' catalogs as "fireproof, vermin proof, and

weatherproof" and as an inexpensive replacement for the ever-scarcer supply of

wood. Many other types of buildings such as garages, silos, and post offices were

built and continue to be built today using this construction method because of these

qualities.

EGG LAYING MACHINE TYPE

When manufacturers design a new block, they must consider not only the desired

shape, but also the manufacturing process required to make that shape. Shapes that

require complex molds or additional steps in the molding process may slow

production and result in increased costs. In some cases, these increased costs may

offset the benefits of the new design and make the block too expensive.

43
The Manufacturing Process

The production of concrete blocks consists of four basic processes: mixing,

molding, curing, and cubing. Some manufacturing plants produce only concrete

blocks, while others may produce a wide variety of precast concrete products

including blocks, flat paver stones,

Why cure concrete.

Curing serves two main purposes.

 It retains moisture in the slab so that the concrete continues to gain strength

 It delays drying shrinkage until the concrete is strong enough to resist

shrinkage cracking.

4.2 SAFETY PRECAUTIONS

Safety precautions are very neccessary in building construction to prevent sun burn

and to protect against burns.

From ordinary portland cement (OPC) and to protect against built scafford.

Sometime there are many incident which they cannot predict ahead of time, and

prevention is a must to avoid serious conditions among the workers. A helmet

should be wear always to protect the head in the construction site to prevent some

falling object.

They should wear their safety harness.

Safety lanyards and roof fall protection to prevent sudden fall accidents.

44
The must also protect their eyes with the use of eye gagles. Specifically those who

are electrician and welders are prone to eye irritation and hand gloves to protect

from shipping their hands off while they are holding the metals.

Safety first and kit and medicines should be al over the site and there should also

be danger signs to warn each of the workers.

45
 CHAPTER FIVE

5.0 PROBLEMS ENCOUNTERED DURING SIWES PROGRAM

The basic problem I encountered was lack of fund regarding feeding,

Accommodation and transportation fair.

 There was no provision of any kind; feeding, transport and welfare packages

for industrial trainees, either from the company or from the SIWES,

 Difficulties in maintaining punctuality and attendance to work as a result

cost of transportation owing to the distance of the company from my place

of residence.

5.1 RECOMMENDATION

In this industrial attachment training I had the opportunity to be exposed to so

many building facilities. Actually it was very difficult for me to find a suitable

industry to enroll for my industrial attachment training which is the main reason

why I was assigned to the engineering section. So I humbly use this medium to

urge the institution to try and assist we the student to secure a place related to our

field of study so that we can learn more to improve our skill thanks.

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