Arthropod-borne diseases

Vector Control
B L O K T RO P I C A L M E D I C I N E
PA R AS I TO L O GY D E P T.
2021

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What is known about this subject
1. General morphology of mosquitoes (Anopheline VS Culicine)
2. Mosquito life cycle and nature

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Objectives
1. Arthropod-borne diseases
2. Burdens of dengue and malaria infections
3. Vector control

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Arthropod-borne Diseases
Parasites
Diseases Pathogens Vectors
Tapeworm infection Diphylidium caninum Ctenophalides canis
Hymenolepis nana
Hymenolepis diminuta Xenopsylla cheopis
Diphyllobothrium latum Cyclops

Paragonimiasis Paragonimus wetermani Crustacea (crabs and

crayfish)

Filariasis Brugia malayi Mansonia spp.

Wuchereria bancrofti Culex spp.
Anopheles spp.
Aedes spp.
Armigeres sp.

Loa-loa Chrysops spp.

Onchocerca volvulus Simulium spp.

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Arthropod-borne Diseases
Parasites
Diseases Pathogens Vectors
Malaria Plasmodium sp. Anopheles sp.

African sleeping sickness Trypanosoma gambiense Glosina spp

Trypanosoma rhodesiense
Chagas disease Trypanosoma cruzi Triatoma

Kala Azar Leishmania donovani Phlebotomus

Espundia Leishmania braziliense Phlebotomus

Oriental sore Leishmania tropica Phlebotomus

Dysenteri amoebiasis Entamoeba histolytica Musca domestica

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Arthropod-borne Diseases
Bacteriae

Diseases Pathogens Vectors

Pest (bubonic plague) Pasteurella pestis Xenopsylla cheopis

Tularemia Pasteurella tularensis Chrysops, tick, Pediculus

humanus
Anthrax Bacillus anthracis Tabanus spp

Thypoid fever Salmonella thypi Musca domestica

Bacillary dysenteriy Shigella sp. Musca domestica

Cholera Vibrio cholera Musca domestica

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Arthropode-borne Diseases
Viruses

Diseases Pathogens Vectors

Dengue DEN-1,2,3,4 flaviviruses Aedes sp.

Chikungunya Chikungunya virus Aedes sp

Yellow fever Yellow fever flavivirus Aedes sp.

Encephalitis Flavi-,alpha- and Aedes sp. & Culex sp.
(West Nile, Lyme, etc.) bunyaviruses

Zika disease Zika- flavivirus Aedes sp.

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Dengue & Vectors

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Dengue is Menacing?
1. Most important arboviral disease (WHO, 2011)
2. Incidence rate is increasing over the years
3. More regions involved; 128 countries worldwide (Brady et al, 2012)
4. An estimated 2.5-3 billion people (approximately 40%-50% of the
world’s population) are at risk
5. Self limiting disease, but …
6. CFR of dengue fever is <1%; treated DHF 2-5%; untreated DHF up to
20%. (Smith, 2019)
7. Four serotypes → effective vaccination?
8. Substantial economic burden. In Indonesia US$381.15 million in
2015 (Nadjib et al, 2019)
A child with dengue shock syndrome

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Annual aggregate cost of dengue (in USD thousand) (Caballero-Anthony et al., 2015)

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DF and DHF cases over the years

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Epidemiological Triad
Host

Vector

Agent Environment

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Dengue Vectors
1. Aedes aegypti is the most prevalent
2. Other species include Ae. albopictus, Ae. polynesiensis, Ae. scutellaris
complex
3. Ae. albopictus is primarily a forest species → adapted to rural, suburban
and urban human environments
4. International trade of used tires → helps spreading Ae. albopictus from
Asia to Africa, America, and Europe

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 • Distinguished lyre
shape in scutum
• Distinctive white
• Non feeding stage patches
• Emerges into throughout black
adults in 1-2 days body and legs
• Female lays 3k-5k
eggs in a lifetime
1-2 days

• Feeding stage 2 days to • Laid singly above

• 4 stages of the water surface
6-8 days months
instar larvae • No float
• Stick to container’s
• “Wigglers”
wall
• Clean, non • Resistant to
polluted water desiccation (up to 1
• Rest at an angle year)
to water surface

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Aedes sp.
• Short flight range, about 100-500m (McDonald 1977, Trpis & Hausermann 1986, Muir & Kay 1998)
• Prefers to bite legs
• Attracted to CO2
• Adult females feed on blood to produce eggs
• After feeding, females will find water to breed
• Small amount of water is enough for mosquitoes to deposit eggs
• Bite mostly during the day when people are active
• Ae. albopictus bite people and animals; they can live near dwellings or in surrounding forests
• Live indoor or outdoor
• Vertical/transovarial transmission of virus to offsprings (Joshi et al, 2001; Castro et al, 2004; Thenmozi et al, 2007;
Sanchez-Vargaz et al, 2018)

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Malaria & Vectors

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Malaria
1. Life threatening
2. 92 countries are at risk
3. Estimated 229 million cases of malaria with 409k deaths worldwide in 2019
4. Children aged under 5 years are the most vulnerable group, accounted for 67% (274k) of
all malaria deaths worldwide in 2019
5. Total funding for malaria control and elimination reached an estimated US$ 3 billion in
2019

WHO, 2021
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Goldberg, 2014 (UN Dispatch)

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 The ring of fire to distribution
of Anopheles complex in
Indonesia

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Anopheles sp. in Indonesia
1. An. sundaicus, An. epiroticus, An. subpictus
◦ confirmed as malaria vectors in Jawa
◦ water salinity >18-40%

2. An. barbirostris complex

◦ confirmed as vectors in Sulawesi, Nusa Tenggara

3. An. maculatus group

◦ confirmed as vectors in Central Jawa and East Kalimantan

4. An. farauti complex → in Papua

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Surveillance and Control

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Factors in disease transmission and
control
1. Preference to human (anthropophyli) or animal (zoophyli)
2. Life span
3. Feeding and resting habits: endophagic, exophagic, endophilic, exophilic
4. Susceptibility towards pathogens
5. Insecticide resistance

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Vector Control
NATURAL CONTROL ARTIFICIAL CONTROL

▪ Geographic and topographic factors ▪ Environmental :

◦ Modification
▪ Climate changes
◦ Manipulation
▪ Predators
▪ Mechanical
▪ Insect diseases
▪ Physical
▪ Biological
▪ Genetic
▪ Legislative
▪ Chemical

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Vector Surveillance and Control
1. Container Index (CI): percentage of
containers infested with larvae and/or
pupae
2. House Index (HI): percentage of house
infested with larvae and/or pupae
3. Breteu Index (BI): number of positive
containers per 100 houses inspected

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Wolbachia inoculation
▪ Gram negative, natural, bacteria
▪ Interaction between Wolbachia and dengue virus
in aedes mosquitoes:
o Aedes aegypti → Wolbachia inhibits viral
replication, interfere mosquitoes’
reproductive system, dissemination and
transmission of the virus in these mosquitoes
o A. albopictus → Wolbachia reduces viral
infection of mosquito salivary glands and
limit transmission
▪ When Aedes aegypti mosquitoes
carry Wolbachia, they reduce the mosquitoes'
ability to transmit viruses like dengue, Zika,
chikungunya and yellow fever.

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Wolbachia inoculation

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