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Accepted Manuscript

Geological Society, London, Special Publications

Broadband seismic imaging around the Banda Arc: changes

in the anatomy of offshore fold-and-thrust belts
Peter Baillie, Myra Keep, Pedro Martinez Duran, Eduardo Carrillo & Gregor
Duval
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1144/SP490-2018-141

Received 30 July 2018

Revised 24 May 2019
Accepted 22 August 2019

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Broadband seismic imaging around the Banda Arc: changes in the

anatomy of offshore fold-and-thrust belts
PETER BAILLIE1, MYRA KEEP2, PEDRO MARTINEZ DURAN3, EDUARDO CARRILLO4, &
GREGOR DUVAL5
1
CGG Multi-Client & New Ventures, Perth, Australia; also University of Western Australia, Perth, Australia
2
School of Earth Sciences, The University of Western Australia, Perth, Australia
3
CGG Robertson, Crawley, UK
4

PT
ECP Geoscience Consulting, Houston, TX, USA
5
CGG Multi-Client & New Ventures, Crawley, UK

Contact email : peter.baillie@cgg.com

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Abstract: The complex geology of the Banda region results from complex collision between
the Eurasia, Australia, and Pacific plates, ongoing in the region since the Late Oligocene but

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particularly in the study area since the Middle Miocene (from 15 Ma). Regional 2D
broadband seismic data has provided improved imaging of Mesozoic and Cenozoic
sedimentary successions in the region.

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The region comprises the deep and ultra-deep Banda Sea enclosed by a magmatic inner arc
and an outer deformed zone, comprising a series of orogens. This outer orogenic zone
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comprises islands with extended and sometimes hyperextended continental crust, a series of
marginal foredeeps and intervening fold-and thrust belts.
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This paper illustrates how the offshore fold-and-thrust belts that bound the fore-deeps change
in size, shape and degree of basement reactivation in a clockwise sense around the Banda Arc.
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The horseshoe-shaped Banda Arc comprises the Banda Sea enclosed by a magmatic inner arc
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(the “Inner Banda Arc” of many previous workers, e.g. Baillie et al., 2004; Breen et al., 1989;
Hall et al., 2002; Hamilton, 1979; Pownal, 2015), outer islands (the “Outer Banda Arc”, the
largest islands are Timor in the south and Seram in the north) and a series of “troughs” (the
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Seram, Tanimbar and Timor troughs) marginal to the edge of the Australian continental crust
and more-or-less parallel with the outer arc (Fig. 1). As noted by previous authors (e.g.
Baillie et al., 2004; Hall et al., 2017; Patria & Hall, 2017), the troughs are no longer
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subduction troughs (for example there is no subduction between the present locations of
Timor and Australia) regarding and are more correctly referred to as fore-deeps.
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The outer arc islands and associated fore-deeps comprise a large, complex structural zone of
interest to petroleum explorers because of abundant onshore and offshore oil and gas seeps
and similarities with geologically contiguous Mesozoic and Cenozoic successions in
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Australia, where numerous petroleum systems exist and have been exploited (e.g. Bradshaw
et al., 1994; Longley et al., 2002). Exploration of the fore-deeps and adjacent areas has
previously been limited because of water depths, remoteness and seismic imaging problems
associated with the fold-and-thrust belts discussed in this paper.
The characteristic horseshoe shape of the Banda Arc results from complex collision between
the Eurasia, Australia, and the Pacific (Caroline and Philippine Sea) plates, ongoing since the
Late Oligocene (e.g. Hamilton, 1979; Hall, 2002, 2012; Hinschberger et al., 2005),
sometimes re-using and reactivating inherited Jurassic and Palaeozoic structures, especially
on the northern continental margin (e.g. Longley et al., 2002). The current horseshoe
morphology has been associated with Late Jurassic rifting and breakup of East Gondwana,
which resulted in the formation of salients and embayments along the continental shelf
inboard of newly-formed Jurassic oceanic crust (Longley et al., 2002; Keep et al., 2003; Keep
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et al., 2007; Hall, 2012). The shape of the Banda embayment and age of the oceanic
lithosphere within the Australian Plate were major influences on the way the collision
subsequently developed (Hall, 2011).
Since approximately 45 Ma, oceanic and transitional crust of the Australia–India Plate has
been obliquely subducted towards the NNE at ~6.3–7.5 cm/yr (Hall, 2012). Initial arrival of
continental crust (a crustal salient) at the subduction zone from 25 Ma occurred in the region
of present-day New Guinea (Hall, 2012, fig. 31), with subsequent arrival of continental crust
occurring in the region of present-day East Timor from after 9.8 Ma (Keep and Haig, 2010).
The primary database for the present study comprises 16,408 line km of 2D broadband multi-
client seismic data acquired offshore Indonesia and Timor Leste collectively known as
BandaSeis acquired using CGG broadband technologies (including 8 or 10 km streamer

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having a maximum depth of 50 metres) and processed through pre-stack depth migration
(PSDM). Stratigraphic control was provided from all relevant offshore wells in Indonesia,
Timor-Leste and Australia (approximately twenty) and interpretation of five principal seismic

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horizons: sea floor, top Eocene (top Prion Formation or equivalent), top Aptian (Darwin
Radiolarite, near Top Plover Formation or equivalent), Late Triassic, and Late Permian

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(Hyland Bay limestone).
The seismic imagery from the BandaSeis survey vividly captures the changing nature of the
offshore parts of the collisional orogens. Here we present a series of cross-sections clockwise

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around the Banda Arc, from offshore Seram to the Timor region (Fig. 1) that illustrate
complexities at shallow structural levels, and for the first time include detailed imagery from
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beneath the shallow fold and thrust belts to the older and deeper stratigraphic levels. The
purpose of this paper is to illustrate how the offshore fold and thrust belts that bound the fore-
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deeps of the Seram, Tanimbar and Timor troughs change in size, shape and degree of
basement reactivation in a clockwise sense around the Banda Arc.
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Clockwise from Seram

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The offshore fold-and-thrust belt NE of Seram (Figs 1, 2) extends from the eastern margin of
Buru (Patria & Hall, 2017) to the area offshore of the Kumawa Mountains, West Papua (Fig.
1). The landward margin of the deformed wedge has not been imaged, hence the exact
relationship between onshore successions of Seram and the offshore fold and thrust belt is not
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known. Longitudinally, the offshore fold and thrust belt bends through an arc of about 90°
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and varies in width from 30–40 km offshore of Seram, to over 100 km wide offshore south of
the Kumawa Mountains (Fig. 2). Seafloor bathymetry (Patria & Hall, 2017; Decker et al.,
2009) clearly shows the characteristic fold and thrust belt geometries, as well as a number of
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rhomboidal basins interpreted to be pull-apart basins from strike-slip deformation (e.g. Patria
& Hall, 2017; Hall & Patria, 2017).
Transect 1 starts offshore of western Seram, with Line A (Figs 1, 3) extending from offshore
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off the northern Seram margin, striking NNE for approximately 200 km. From south to north
the line traverses the fold and thrust belt, extends past the eastern end of Obi Island, and at its
northern end images the basins to the north of the Bird’s Head area. The fold and thrust belt
at this locality has a relatively short toe section (compared to other lines in this analysis), with
the main basal décollement lying above the base Pliocene unconformity. The wedge itself
thrusts onto an Eocene to Pliocene sub-wedge section, that abuts a ridge cored by pre-Triassic
strata (Fig. 4a). The up-dip termination of the wedge results in a characteristic notch in the
seafloor at this location.
Clockwise around the arc, Line B (Figs 1, 3) shows the offshore deformation belt at this
location has a maximum vertical thickness in excess of 6 km, tapering away from Seram and
developed above a post early Pliocene décollement that dips towards Seram (Fig. 3). The
wedge itself displays a long tapered section that ends as it thins towards the early Pliocene
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unconformity, both of which then abut on to a folded anticline cored by Triassic to Oligocene
sediments. Beneath the orogenic wedge the Triassic to Pliocene stratigraphy
displays minor deformation – it is gently folded (~ 5 km wavelength) with minor faulting
beneath the main part of the fold-and-thrust portion of the wedge, and largely flat-lying
beneath the long toe of the wedge (Fig. 4b). This attests to a significant degree of strain
partitioning whereby the décollement has clearly accommodated the bulk of the shortening,
whilst the underlying packages record little strain during deformation. Faults beneath the
fold-and-thrust section do not appear to be hard- or soft-linked to the wedge above,
emphasizing the partitioning (Fig. 4).

Towards the NNE part of the line, the pre-wedge strata form a regional fold, the Kumawa-

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Onin-Misool Anticline (or Anticlinorium, KOMA of Fraser et al., 1993). The KOMA itself
appears to be a narrow (~ 2 km wide) isolated feature, and not part of regional fold sequence.
To both the SSW and NNE strata either side of the feature dip gently away for up to 10 km,

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but with no other sharp folds of this nature. The sharp fold nose and steep interpreted fault
(Fig. 3d) are interpreted to indicate that this feature may be transpressive in nature.

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Clockwise from Line B, the orogenic wedge loses its long “nose,” and displays classic
shortening geometries including duplexes and imbricate zones, as seen on Line C (Figs 1, 5).

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The wedge terminates up-dip against an anticline, resulting in the characteristic seafloor
notch. Interestingly the location of the wedge termination coincides with the location of steep
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faults in the sub-wedge strata (Figs 5b, 6a). The termination of the wedge on this line
coincides with a fault-controlled monocline in the sub-wedge. In general, the sub-wedge
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layers display only mild deformation, with a few steep faults, and a number of smaller faults
at or above the Kimmeridgian reflector (Figs 5b, 6a). This pre-collisional architecture, with
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relatively mild deformation, also indicates a strong strain partitioning between the wedge and
the sub-wedge strata, indicating that the bulk of the shortening occurred on or above the
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décollement.

Towards the apex of curvature of the Banda Arc Line D (Figs 1, 5c,d) shows that the
orogenic wedge terminates (Fig. 5), causing a topographic break at the seafloor. The wedge at
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this location is approximately 30 km long and 3 km thick at its hinterland edge. Deformation
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in the pre-wedge strata reflects relatively low strain, with gentle folds and minor normal
faults. However, a steep fault with notable drag (Line D, Figs 5d, 6b) interpreted to indicate
highly oblique (strike-slip) movement, occurs immediately below the toe of the wedge and
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reflects similar deformation to that on Line C (Fig. 5b).

Further around the apex of curvature, between the Kumawa Mountains and Aru Island (Fig.
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1), the offshore fold and thrust belt widens, and flat-floored rhomboidal basins occur ahead of
the thrust fronts (Fig. 2). The orogenic wedge narrows at this point (Line E, Figs 1, 7a, b) and
tapers against the Kai Arch (Adhitama et al., 2017; Patria & Hall, 2017) which comprises
pre-collisional wedge strata. Beneath the wedge older normal faults within the Cretaceous to
Oligocene package offset relatively flat-lying strata, again attesting to strong and effective
strain partitioning on the décollement (Figs 7b, 8a). On the NE side of the Kai Arch, the
asymmetric, fault-bounded West Aru Basin contains a thick succession of post-Oligocene
strata, indicating rapid subsidence. Controlled by steep faults, one with significant upwards
drag (a teepee-like geometry) to the NE and SW (Figs 7b, 8a), the asymmetry, steep dip and
drag are interpreted to indicate a strong component of strike-slip motion, meaning the basin is
one of the many rhomboidal “pull-apart” basins seen on Figure 2.
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Near Jamdena Island (Fig. 1) the arc has curved more than 90°, with the orogenic wedge now
abutting extensive basins along the northern Australian margin. At this point the orogenic
wedge has changed shaped, with the toe section considerably shorter than near Seram (Line
F, Figs 1, 7c, d). The wedge nose terminates abruptly down dip, in an area of complex
basement fault control. The décollement is also far more complex, with a considerably
thicker thick-skinned portion of the wedge compared to previous lines. Beneath the orogenic
wedge the pre-wedge strata preserve extensional faults and mild folding (Line F, Figs 7d, 8b),
reflecting the simpler morphologies of the Australian Shelf.

Lines G and H (Fig. 9), both to the east of Timor Island (Fig. 1) also show a shortened wedge
nose and increased thick-skinned orogenic wedge. The main points of difference at this part

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of the arc are the pre-wedge geometries of the Australian shelf. Line G (Fig. 9a, b) shows the
wedge terminating above gently-dipping pre-wedge strata, cut by generally S-dipping listric
faults (Fig. 10a). On Line H (Fig. 9c, d) this extensional nature of the pre-wedge strata

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manifests as faults with significant normal motion (Fig. 10b). However, differential offset
along the faults, as well as drag and thickening, are interpreted to indicate that these bounding

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faults, originally extensional, have been re-used during shortening at a later date.

Discussion
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In the examples presented here, all of the décollements dip towards the hinterland, toward the
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“centre” of the Banda Arc, and have dips of 1–5°, similar to other accretionary prisms around
the world (Mariotto & Doglioni, 2000). Davis et al. (1983) first presented theoretical critical
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taper profiles above dipping décollements and found that the angle of internal friction of the
wedge strongly controlled the taper. Subsequent application of the critical taper model in
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nature and in analogue models (e.g. Davis & Engelder, 1985; Cotton & Koyi, 2000; Dahlen,
1990; Mulugeta & Koyi, 1992) found that higher basal friction leads to a wedge that has a
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higher surface slope (taper), whereas gentler tapers are related to low basal friction. Wedges
overlying horizontal décollements tend to have higher length to height ratios than wedges
overlying a low-angle, hinterland-dipping décollement (Koyi & Vendeville, 2003). The dip
angle of a décollement in an accretionary wedge can affect the geometry and mode of
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deformation of the wedge, with an increasing basal slope causing the wedge to grow taller
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and increasing the critical taper (Koyi & Vendeville, 2003). Changes in the taper angle can be
forced by surficial processes, including high erosion rates, and whether or not the wedge
moves across a change in stratigraphic thickness as it propagates (Konstantinovskaia &
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Malavielle, 2005).
For the lines presented, the longest wedge “noses” (Fig. 11) occur on Lines B, C and D (Figs
3 and 5). In all three cases strain partitioning along the décollement has been efficient, with
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the underlying sections barely affected by the shortening, indicating very low basal friction.
All three lines occur in the relatively narrow strait between the Seram part of the Inner Banda
Arc and the Bird’s Head region (Fig. 1). Strong basement control, especially on Lines C and
D (Fig. 5), likely inherited from earlier Bird’s Head deformation, seems to control the
location of the wedge nose. Interestingly, the Lines A, E, F, G and H (Figs 3, 5 and 7) do not
have the narrow confines of the strait, instead propagating across more open areas of older
basement, and on these lines the wedge geometries have smaller length-to-height ratios and
are all characterised by strong basement control beneath the wedge noses. The co-location of
large basement faults, many with strike-slip associations, beneath the noses of the orogenic
wedge around the arc, indicate a degree of control by underlying “basement” or older
structures that the wedges override (Fig. 11). The surface manifestations of the wedges
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included both up-dip and down-dip terminations, and in all cases seafloor topographic
expressions of the wedge termination exist.
The fold-and-thrust belt off Seram represents part of a left-lateral transform margin,
expressed as sinistral wrench faults and a complex array of east- and west-verging oblique
thrusts becoming steeper with depth (Teas et al., 2009). Initiated after the Late Pliocene, the
orogenic wedge resulted in subsidence and tilting caused by loading (Patria & Hall, 2017;
Hall et al., 2017). Sapin et al. (2009) observed that the frontal part of the offshore Seram fold
and thrust belt had been active since the Pleistocene, as also evidenced by earthquake activity
(Teas et al., 2009; Hall et al., 2009). Focal mechanism solutions vary from NE-striking along
the eastern offshore of part of Seram, whereas to the south focal mechanisms show a sinistral
solution for shallow faults (Hall et al., 2009).

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In the Seram region Palaeozoic NW-SE normal faults of the Australian extended margin can
be mapped for the first time beneath the accretionary wedge. Inherited Palaeozoic faults act
as pre-established lateral ramps in restricted step-over which controls the shape and evolution

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of the fold and thrust belt. These long-lived fault zones originated in the NE-SW Devonian to
early Permian extension (present day orientation) and bounding the eastern margin of the

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Bird’s Head High which form part of several Paleozoic inherited structural highs. In the
Tanimbar region, near the maximum curvature of the arc, the orogenic wedge comprises Late
Miocene and Late Pliocene accretionary complexes abutting against an earlier unit
interpreted as imbricated fore-arc (Fig. 9).
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Within the orogenic wedge offshore of Timor Island, a distinct thin-skinned shallow fold and
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thrust belt in the passive-margin successions of the Australia Plate overlies, deeper structures
developed within the Gondwana successions including structural inversion of inherited late
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Carboniferous–Permian grabens and thick fold and thrusts sheets detached on Late Permian–
Early Triassic shales. Poynter et al. (2013, fig. 4) interpret the orogenic wedge offshore of
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Timor as the inboard extensional and outboard contractional zones typical of a gravity-driven
fold and thrust belt (e.g. Morley et al., 2011). The whole system is draped by relatively
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undeformed Holocene sediments, indicating that shortening is no longer active.

The offshore fold-and-thrust belts around the Banda region form part of a complex Neogene
tectonic system which can only be fully understood in the context of inherited rift architecture
from the separation of east Gondwana, including ENE-WSW-trending horst and graben that
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originated in the Late Carboniferous–Permian, themselves controlled by earlier Palaeozoic

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and Proterozoic features (e.g. Pryer et al., 2002).

Acknowledgements
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We thank the governments of Indonesia and Timor Leste for their continued support and
CGG for permission to publish this paper. Thanks also to David Haig (University of Western
Australia) and Robert Hall (Royal Holloway, University of London) for useful and
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stimulating discussions about the structural evolution of the Banda region.

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Figure Captions
Fig. 1. Banda region locality map with location of seismic lines used here-in indicated;
numbered clockwise from A to H. Red box indicates location of Figure 2.
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Fig. 2. Seafloor bathymetry offshore of Seram, modified from Patria & Hall (2017) and
Decker et al. (2009). Note the location of rhomboidal basins in the offshore fold and thrust
belt.
Fig. 3. Seismic sections, vertical scale is depth in kilometers below sea level. a) and b) are
uninterpreted and interpreted sections of Line A. c) and d) are uninterpreted and interpreted
sections of Line B.
Fig. 4. a). blow up section of orogenic wedge from line A, see Fig. 3 for location. b). blow-up
sections from Line B, see Fig. 3 for locations.
Fig. 5. Seismic sections, vertical scale is depth in kilometers below sea level. a) and b) are
uninterpreted and interpreted sections of Line C. c) and d) are uninterpreted and interpreted
sections of Line D..

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Fig. 6. blow up section of orogenic wedge from line C, see Fig. 5 for location. b). blow-up
section from Line D, see Fig. 5 for location.

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Fig. 7. Seismic sections, vertical scale is depth in kilometers below sea level. a) and b) are
uninterpreted and interpreted sections of Line E. c) and d) are uninterpreted and interpreted

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sections of Line F.
Line 8. blow up section of orogenic wedge from line E, see Fig. 7 for location. b). blow-up
section from Line F, see Fig. 7 for location.

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Fig. 9. Seismic sections, vertical scale is depth in kilometers below sea level. a) uninterpreted
and interpreted section of Line G. b) and c) uninterpreted and interpreted sections of Line H.
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Fig. 10. blow up section of orogenic wedge from line G, see Fig. 9 for location. b). blow-up
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section from Line H, see Fig. 9 for location.
Fig. 8. Compilation of Lines A-H at same scale, centred on the toe of the wedge on each line.
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The varying geometries of the orogenic wedges around the arc becomes clear. Lines A to D,
which extend across to the Bird’s Head region, have the longest wedges (lowest basal
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friction), whereas Lines E to H, which extend on to Australian basement, have the shortest
wedges (higher basal friction).
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