1

23-Mar-22
 Ministry of Energy and Water
General Directorate of Engineering Services
Directorate of Survey and Design
Review and Design Department
Technical Board

Introduction to Hydrology and

Hydrologic Studies of Dams
2 Prepared by: Faridoon Danesh – Hydrology Specialist
March 23, 2022

23-Mar-22
3
Contents of The Presentation
1. Hydrology
2. Scope of hydrology
3. Application of hydrology in Civil engineering
4. Hydrological hazards
5. Dam hydrology
6. Estimation of missing rainfall data
7. Checking the Consistency of Data of a Rain Gauge Station
8. Design of Rain Gauge Network
9. Optimum Number of Rain Gauges
10. The Mean Rainfall Depth Over a Catchment Area
11. Probable Max. Precipitation (PMP)
12. Intensity of Rainfall (i)
13. Snow fall and its Measurement
14. Runoff Calculation for a Catchment Area 23-Mar-22
4 1. Hydrology
 Hydro – Water
 Logy – Science
 Hydrology means the science of
water,
 It is the science of occurrence,
movement, and distribution of
water above / below the land
surface (1km), and in the
atmosphere (15km).
 A. Surface water hydrology
 B. Subsurface water hydrology

23-Mar-22
5 2. Scope of Hydrology
1. For knowing the sources of the water in an area.
2. For knowing quality and quantity of the water in an area.
3. For distribution of river water for full filling of different area’s
forming needs.
4. Tremendous important is given to the hydrology all over
the world in the development and management of water
resources for irrigation, water supply, flood control, water
logging, salinity control, hydropower and navigation.
5. The probable maximum flood (PMF) that may occur at a
given site and its frequency, this is required for the safe
design of drains, culverts, dams, reservoir channels and
other flood control.
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6 3. Application of Hydrology in Civil Engineering

 Hydrology is used find out the maximum probable flood (PMF)

at the proposed sites, e.g. dam, bridge
 The variation of water production from catchments can be
calculated and described by hydrology
 Engineering hydrology enables us to find out the relationship
between catchment’s surface water and groundwater
resources.
 Hydrological investigation helps us to know the required
reservoir capacity to assure adequate water for irrigation or
municipal water supply in drought condition.

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7
 Hydrology is an essential tool in planning and building hydraulic
structures.
 Hydrology is used for city water supply design which is based on
catchment area, amount of rainfall, storage capacity…
 Dam construction, reservoir capacity, spillway capacity, sizes of
the water supply pipe lines all are designed on basis of
hydrological equation.
 Determining the water balance of a region.
 Predicating of floods, landslides, and drought risk, flood warning

22-Mar-2022
8

 Designing of dams for water supply or hydropower generation.

 Design of bridge.
 Designing of urban drainage system.
 Predicting geomorphologic changes such as erosion or
sediments.
 It tell us what hydrologic hardware (e.g. rain gages, stream
gages) and software (Computer models) are needed for real
time flood forecasting.

23-Mar-22
9 4. Hydrological Hazards

i. Flood
ii. Heavy rain
iii. Acidity rain
iv. Snow fall on hilly area
v. Drought and poor quality of water
vi. Heavy run off
vii. Cyclones

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10 i. Flood
An overflow of a large amount water beyond its normal
limits.
For example: the flood in Pakistan which occurred late July 2010, resulting
from a heavy monsoon rains.
 Effects:
• At its worst the flood waters covered roughly one-fifth of
the Pakistan lands area.
• 18 millions people were affected.
• 2,000 people were killed
• 12 millions of people’s homes were damaged or
destroyed
• 2.2 millions of hectares of crops were destroyed
• 10,000 schools were damaged or destroyed
• Economic impact, health issues
• Damage to infrastructures (Bridges, roads,…) 23-Mar-22
11 ii. Heavy Rain
Heavy rainfall is one of the most frequent and widespread severe
weather hazards to affect human life. It is defined as the rainfall is
greater than 100mm in 24 hrs.
Effects:
 Heavy rainfall can increase the water levels which may affect the
human life.
 Heavy rainfall can also result to form floods which can destroy
buildings, roads, and livestock.
 Soil erosion
 Land sliding from mountains could fall and block roads.
 Stagnant water for many days could be cause many water born
disease.
 Electricity supplies could get hampered.
 Collapse of slums.
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12 iii. Acidic Rain
 Acidic rain is caused by a chemical reaction that begins when compounds
like sulfur dioxide and nitrogen dioxide are realized in to the air.
 These substance can rise very high into the atmosphere, where they mix
and react with water, oxygen, and other chemicals to form more acidic
pollutants, known as acidic rain.
Effects:
 Surface water and aquatic animals.
 Forest.
 Building materials.
 Visibility.
 Human health.

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13 iv. Snow Fall on Hilly Area
A fall of snow specifically, the amount of snow that falls in a single storm
or in a specific period.

Effects.
 Rock’s decay due to freezing and thawing action.
 Suddenly increase the rivers water level.
 Collapse of structures by different effects of snow and ice.
 Roads blocking in a hilly area.

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14 v. Drought and Poor Quality of Water

Water is available in an area from different sources, surface or

subsurface. If the quality is not satisfied and quantity is less.
Effects.
 Human life is impossible.
 Construction activities are not possible.
 Development of town for residential area are impossible.
 Agriculture activities are not possible.

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15 vi. Heavy Run off
When water meet at a point which was driven from
different sources like rain fall, snow melting on hilly
areas, and after meeting at a point it starts running
in the form of river and having many
disadvantages.
Causes:
 Heave rain fall.
 Snow melting.
Disadvantages:
• Causes of floods.
• Land sliding
• Having negative effects for residential,
commercial area, and forming lands

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16 vii. Cyclones
An extremely large, powerful, and destructive
storm with very high winds that turn around an
area of low pressure.

Effects:
One cyclone can destroy a town or more.

Solution:
The area where the formation of cyclone is
possible, like many area in the USA the can
people can protect their live by permanently
leave the places.

23-Mar-22
17 5. Dam Hydrology

 Among the most important factors of the dam site

selection, is the hydrological studies of the dam site.
 The hydrological studies of a dam involve amount of run
off, snow melting, sediment transport, temperature,
evaporation.
 The hydrological studies of a dam is determining dam
effective life, dam budget, economy or not economy of
a dam.

23-Mar-22
18 Forms of Precipitation
Rain is the principal form of precipitation of in Afghanistan. The rainfall is that
form of precipitation which occurs in the form of water drops of size are 0.5 – 6.0
mm. on the basis of its intensity, a rainfall may be classified as light, moderate,
and heavy, and violent as differentiated in table.

Table: Types of Rain Intensity

S. No Type of Rain Intensity in mm / h
1 Light Rain 1.0 to 2.5
2 Moderate Rain 2.5 to 7.5
3 Heavy Rain 7.5 to 50
4 Violent > 50

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19
Snow is the next important form of precipitation and consist of ice
crystals, usually combining to form flakes. The snow density is varying from
0.04 – 0.6 g/cm3, and the usually assumed value of 0.1 g/cm3

Hail is another form of precipitation, which occurs only at a few

occasions. It consists of a showery precipitation in the form of irregular
pellets of ice of size more than 8 mm.

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20 Measuring Precipitation and Hydrological Analysis
of Precipitation Data
Measuring of Rainfall by Rain Gauge in order to estimate the
effect of precipitation, it is necessary to measuring the
precipitation, and to fine out its distribution at various places on
the Earth.
All forms of precipitation are measured as the vertical depth of
water that would accumulate on a level if the entire precipitation
remained where it fell.
The rainfall is measured by rain gauges, and different types of rain
gauge.
A) Non-recording rain gauges, B) recording type of rain gauges,

23-Mar-22
21 6. Estimating Missing Rainfall Data
Sometimes, the rainfall amount at a certain rain gauge stations for a certain
day(s), maybe missing due to the absence of some observation or instrumental
failure. In such causes it might be needed to estimate the missing rainfall
amount by approximating the value data from the nearby rain gauge stations.
The following methods are generally adopted for computing the missing data.
The three rain gauge stations as close to as evenly spaced around the station
with the missing record (i.e. Station X) as possible, are first of all chosen. The
rainfall data for these three stations (i.e. 1, 2 and 3) on the day for which the
data at the station X is missing are now collecting.
The average annual rainfall values for all the four stations should also be
known. If 𝑵𝟏 , 𝑵𝟐 and 𝑵𝟑 represent the annual rainfall rainfalls at stations 1, 2, 3
and X respectively; and 𝑷𝟏, 𝑷𝟐 and 𝑷𝟑 and 𝑷𝒙 represent their respective
precipitation data of the day for which the data is missing at the station X; then
we have

23-Mar-22
22 𝑷𝟏 +𝑷𝟐 +𝑷𝟐
𝑷𝒙 =
𝟑
{Provide N1, N2 and N3 differ within 10% of Nx} arithmetic average method
However, when the average annual precipitation at any of the three stations differs
from that at the station in question by more then 10%, the normal ratio method is
used.
The missing precipitation data Px in such a case will be given by.
𝟏 𝑵𝒙 𝑵𝒙 𝑵𝒙
𝑷𝒙 = 𝑷𝟏 + 𝑷𝟐 + 𝑷𝟑
𝟑 𝑵𝟏 𝑵𝟐 𝑵𝟑
{Provide any of N1, N2, and N3 differs from Nx by more than 10% }
Example 1: precipitation station X was inoperative for part of a month during which a
storm occurred. The respective storm totals at three surrounding stations A, B, and C
were 107, 89 and 122 mm. the normal annual precipitation amounts of stations X, A,
B, and C are respectively, 978, 1120, 935 and 1200 mm. estimate the storm
precipitation at station X.

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23
Solution: Nx = average annual precipitation at X = 978 mm
10% of Nx = 0.1 X 978 = 97.8 mm
978 + 97.8 = 1075.8 mm < 1120 and 1200 mm
Hence, the annual ppt. at two of the three stations differ by 10% of Nx, hence,
the Normal Ratio method is used.
𝟏 𝑵 𝑵 𝑵
𝑷𝒙 = 𝟑 𝑷𝟏 𝑵𝒙 + 𝑷𝟐 𝑵𝒙 + 𝑷𝟑 𝑵𝒙
𝟏 𝟐 𝟑

Putting various given values, we get

𝟏 𝟗𝟕𝟖 𝟗𝟕𝟖 𝟗𝟕𝟖
𝑷𝒙 = 𝟑 𝟏𝟎𝟕(𝟏𝟐𝟎𝟎) + 𝟖𝟗(𝟗𝟑𝟓) + 𝟏𝟐𝟐(𝟏𝟐𝟎𝟎) = 95.3 mm

Hence, the missing precipitation data is = 95.3 mm

23-Mar-22
 7. Checking the Consistency of Data of a
24
Rain Gauge Station
Sometimes a significant change may occur in and around a particular rain
gauge station. Such a change occurring in a particular year, will start
affecting the rain gauge data, being reported from that particular station.
After a number years, it may be felt that the data of that station is not giving
consistent rainfall values. In order to detect any such inconsistency, and to
correct and adjust the reported rainfall values, a technique called Double
Mass Curved Method is generally adopted.
In this method, a group of 5 to 10 neighbouring stations are chosen, in the
vicinity of the doubtful station. The yearly rainfall values, reported from this
group of stations are serialled, and their mean yearly values are worked out
for each consecutive year of available record.
This method will become more clear on solving a example.

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 Year Yearly ppt. at 6 Stations Yearly ppt. in
the station A in cm
cm Example 2: the annual rainfall
25 1969 177 143 data, being reported from a
1970 144 132 station A, for 22 years are
1971 178 146
available, since 1969. in order to
1972 162 147
check the consistency of this
1973 194 161
1974 168 155
data, 6 neighbouring stations
1975 196 152 have been chosen and the
1976 144 117 annual values of these stations
1977 160 128 are have been averaged for all
1978 196 193
the years on the recorded since
1979 141 156
1980 158 164
1969.these values are given in
1981 145 155 the table. (a) find out any
1982 132 143 inconsistency in ppt. recorded
1983 95 115 station A is indicated? And If
1984 148 135 yes, since when a change in the
1985 142 163
ppt. regime is indicated? (b)
1986 140 135
1987 130 143
adjust the record data at station
1988 137 130 A and determine its mean
1989 130 146 annual precipitation.
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1990 163 161
 Yearly ppt. at station Cumulative yearly
6 station Av. Cumulative 6 A graph is now plotted
Year yearly ppt. in stations yearly ppt.
(1)
A, Pa in cm ppt. at A in cm
cm in cm between col. (3)and col.
26 (2) (3)
(4) (5)
(5) as shown.
1990 163 163 161 161
1989 130 293 146 307 Corresponding years from
1988 137 430 130 437 col. (1) are also marked on
1987 130 560 143 580 the corresponding plotted
1986 140 700 135 715
points as shown in figure.
1985 142 842 163 878
1984 148 990 135 1013 A perusal of this figure
1983 95 1085 115 1128
shows that inconsistency
1982 132 1217 143 1271
1981 145 1362 155 1426
has occurred from 1978.
1980 158 1520 164 1590
Hence, the present data,
1979 141 1661 156 1746
1978 196 1857 193 1939
since 1978 to 1990 will be
1977 160 2017 128 2067 treated as correct. And the
1976 144 2161 117 2184 previous data prior to the
1975 196 2357 152 2336
year of 1978 will be
1974 168 2525 155 2491
1973 194 2719 161 2652
corrected.
1972 162 2881 147 2799
1971 178 3059 146 2945
1970 144 3203 132 3077 23-Mar-22

1969 177 3380 143 3220

27

23-Mar-22
28 The correction ratio is =
𝑐𝑜𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑠𝑙𝑜𝑝𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑑𝑜𝑢𝑏𝑙𝑒 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑣𝑒
=
1040
= 0.825
𝑂𝑟𝑖𝑔𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑠𝑙𝑜𝑝𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑑𝑜𝑢𝑏𝑙𝑒 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑣𝑒 1260

The yearly ppt. values of station A (Pa) between the years 1977 to 1969 are
thus, corrected by multiplying the original values by 0.825 as shown in table
Year Given Values Pa Corrected ppt. values Pa’s (cm)
(1) in cm =0.825 x col. (2)
(2) (3)
1977 160  m 132
1976 144 119

1975 196 162

1974 168 139

1973 194 160

1972 162 134

1971 178 147

1970 144 119

1969 177 146

23-Mar-22
 Year Corrected/adjusted annual ppt. values at
station A
1969 146
Average = 3115/22 =
29 1970 119
141.6 mm
1971 147
1972 134
1973 160
1974 139
1975 162
1976 119
1977 132
1978 196
1979 141
1980 158
1981 145
1982 132
1983 95
1984 148
1985 142
1986 140
1987 130
1988 137
1989 130
1990 163 23-Mar-22

Total 3115
30 8. Design of Rain Gauge Network
Rainfall records constitutes the most important and fundamentals data
required for hydrological investigation. They are required for : analyzing
storms, fixing design flood, forecasting flood in river, reservoir regulation,
etc. for all such studies and investigations, a well distributed network of
rain gauge stations within the catchment is essential.
To obtain reliable results, the various rain gauges should be evenly and
uniformly distributed within a given catchment. Moreover, the total
number of rain gauges installed within a given catchment area are
should neither be to many as to be costly, nor should be too less as to
give unreliable result.
However, this Areal Density of Rain Gauge may vary considerably from a
region to region in any country.

23-Mar-22
31 The Minimum rain gauge density required for different types of
catchments, as per the guidelines of World Meteorology Organization
(WMO) are given below.
(1)For flat regions of temperate Mediterranean and tropical zones –
one station per 600 – 900 sq. Km. for the country with the limited
funds, population or other factors such as lack of communication,
the density may be reduced to one station per 600 – 3,000 sq. Km.
(2)For mountainous regions of temperate Mediterranean and tropical
zones, one station per 100 – 250 sq. Km. for countries with problems
mentioned above, the density may reduced to one station per 100
– 1,000 sq. km.
(3) for arid zones, the minimum density may be one station per 1500 –
10,000 sq. Km.

23-Mar-22
 Rain Gauge Density as Adopted in Different Countries.
32

23-Mar-22
 9. Optimum Number of Rain Gauges
33
Statistics has been used in determining the optimum number of rain
gauges required to be installed in a given catchment. The basis behind
such statistical calculations is that a certain number of rain gauge station
are necessary to give average rainfall with a certain percentage of error.
Based upon this statistical principle, the optimum number of rain gauge
(N) can be obtained by the following equation.
𝟐
𝑪𝒗
𝑵=
𝑬
Where, Cv = Coefficient of variation rainfall based on the existing rain
gauge stations.
E = allowable percentage error in the estimate of basic mean rainfall.

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34 𝑷
𝑷𝒂𝒗𝒆 = mean average annual rainfall
𝒏
𝑷𝟐
𝑷𝟐 = calculation of mean square
𝒏

𝒏
𝝈= 𝑷𝟐 − 𝑷𝟐𝒂𝒗𝒆 standard deviation
𝒏−𝟏

𝟏𝟎𝟎𝝈
𝑪𝒗 = coefficient of variation
𝑷𝒂𝒗𝒆

Example 3: there are four rain gauge stations existing in the catchment of river. The
average annual rainfall values at these stations are 800, 620, 400, and 540 mm,
respectively. (a) determine the optimum number of rain gauges in the catchment,
if it is desired to limit the error in the mean value of rainfall in the catchment to 10%
(b) How many more gauges will then be required to be installed?

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35
Solution: (i) mean rainfall = (800 + 620 + 400 + 540)/4 = 590 mm
(ii) Square of annual rainfall = [(800)^2 + (620)^2 + (400)^2 + (540)^2]/4 = 369,000
𝟒
(iii) Standard Deviation σ is given by 𝝈 = 𝟑𝟔𝟗𝟎𝟎𝟎 − 𝟓𝟗𝟎^𝟐 = 166.93
𝟒−𝟏

𝟏𝟎𝟎 𝒙 𝟏𝟔𝟔.𝟗𝟑
(iv) The coefficient of variation Cv is given by 𝑪𝒗 = = 28.29
𝟓𝟗𝟎
(v) Now the optimum number of rain gauges (N) is given by
𝟐𝟖.𝟐𝟗 𝟐
𝑵= = 8.003
𝟏𝟎
(b) Additional gauges required to be installed = 8 – Existing 4 Gauges = 4 Nos.

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 Minimum Number of Needed Rain Gauge Station in a
36
catchment Area

Catchment Area in KM2 Min. Number of Needed Rain

Gauge stations
To 75 1

75 to 150 2

150 to 300 3

300 to 550 4

550 to 800 5

800 to 1200 6

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37 10. The Mean Rainfall Depth Over a Catchment Area

The rainfall record by a rain gauge represents the rain fall at that stations.
It is also called Point Rainfall. In many hydrological studies, the average
depth of rainfall over a specific area due to a storm or due to a number
of storms, is required. For determination of the average precipitation over
an area, a large number rain gauges are installed. The average rainfall
over the area is found from the rainfall data of these rain gauges by one
of the following methods.

1. Arithmetic Mean Method

2. Thiessen Polygon Method
3. Isohyetal Map Method

23-Mar-22
38 1. Arithmetic Mean Method: If the country is flat and the rain gauges are
distributed uniformly over the area, the rainfall of the individual does not show
much variation from them mean precipitation of the area. In this method, the
average depth of rain fall 𝐏 over an area is taken as the arithmetic mean of the
rainfall depths of all stations
𝑷𝟏 + 𝑷𝟐 + 𝑷𝟑 … . +𝑷𝒏
𝑷=
𝒏
Where, P1, P2, …Pn are the mean rainfall recorded depths at the gauges 1, 2, ..n

2. Thiessen Polygon Method: in this method the rainfall recorded at each rain
gauge station is given a weightage on the basis of the area which it represent.
This method is better than arithmetic mean method which gives equal
weightage to all the stations.
𝑷𝟏 𝑨𝟏 + 𝑷𝟐 𝑨𝟐 … + 𝑷𝒏 𝑨𝒏
𝑷=
𝑨𝟏 + 𝑨𝟐 + 𝑨𝟑 … +𝑨𝒏
Where, A1, A2,…An are the areas of the Thiessen polygon representing the
stations 1, 2, …n and P1, P2…Pn are the corresponding Precipitations
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39
3. Isohytal Map Method: isohyets are the contours of equal rainfall depth. For
plotting of an isohytal maps, gauge stations are marked on the plan of the
catchment. The area between the adjacent isohyets is either estimated on the
graph paper or measured planimeter.
𝑷𝟏 𝑨𝟏 + 𝑷𝟐 𝑨𝟐 … + 𝑷𝒏 𝑨𝒏
𝑷=
𝑨𝟏 + 𝑨𝟐 + 𝑨𝟑 … +𝑨𝒏
Where, P1, P2, ….Pn Are the average precipitation for these areas

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40 11. Probable Max. Precipitation (PMP)
The PMP may be defined as the Max. depth of precipitation for a given
duration that may be possible occur on a given catchment at any time of a
year. Hence, such a precipitation would from a possible severest storm, that
may result from the worst possible combinations of hydrological conditions in
the area.
The PMP is required for the estimation of PMF for design of hydraulic structures
like spillways of large dams.
𝑷𝑴𝑷 = 𝑷 + 𝑲𝝈
Where, 𝑷 is the average annual precipitation, and σ is standard deviation and
K is the frequency factors which derived from graph.
For estimation of the PMP, the below methods are used.
1. Hershfield Method.
2. Gumbel Method
3. Log-Pearson type 3

23-Mar-22
 1. Hershfield Method:
41 𝐏𝐌𝐏 = 𝐏 + 𝐊𝛔

𝟏
𝛔= (𝐗 − 𝐗 𝐚𝐯𝐞 )𝟐
𝐍−𝟏

23-Mar-22
 Order
Year
Max. Precipitation
𝑿 − 𝑿𝒂𝒗𝒆
𝟐 Example 4: the annual rainfall
Number (X)
data from 1959 to 1983 is
mm
42 1 1959 122 5063.75
scheduled and find the PMP, use
2 1960 88 1380.87 Hershfield method.
3 1961 84 1099.59
4 1962 82 970.95 Solution:
5 1963 78 737.67
6 1964 66 229.83 P = 1271/25 = 50.84 mm
7 1965 63 147.87
8 1966 51 0.03 Standard deviation
9 1967 50 0.71 𝟏
𝛔= (𝐗 − 𝐗 𝐚𝐯𝐞 )𝟐
10 1968 49 3.39 𝐍−𝟏
11 1969 44 46.79
12 1970 43 61.47 1
13 1971 43 61.47 𝛔=
25−1
(13733.6) = 23.92
14 1972 43 61.47
15 1973 41 96.83 K = 17, (from graph 5-12)
16 1974 40 117.51
17 1975 40 117.51 PMP = P + Kσ = 50.84 + 17*23.92 =
18 1976 37 191.55
19 1977 36 220.23
457.48 mm
20 1978 34 283.59
21 1979 34 283.59
PMP(24hr) = 457.48 mm
22 1980 29 476.99
23 1981 28 521.67
24 1982 25 667.71
25 1983 21 890.43

∑ = 1271 ∑= 13733.66 23-Mar-22

 12. Intensity Rainfall Estimation (i)
43
Intensity of rainfall is the important factor for finding the maximum discharge.
The different formulas are used to estimate the rainfall intensity.
1. For two years return period
𝟐𝟕𝟐.𝟔
𝒊= , (mm/hr)
𝒕+𝟓.𝟏 𝟎.𝟕𝟓
Where, i = rainfall intensity in (mm/hr), t = rainfall duration in minute
2. Bell, 1969 method USA, and other parts of the world and for T years of return
period.
𝑷𝒕𝑻 = 𝟎. 𝟐𝟏 𝐥𝐧 𝑻 + 𝟎. 𝟓𝟐 𝟎. 𝟓𝟒 𝒕𝟎.𝟐𝟓 − 𝟎. 𝟓 𝑷𝟔𝟎
𝟏𝟎 (mm/t minute)

Where, t = rainfall duration in minute, T = return period in year, P10

60
one hour
rainfall duration in 10 years return period, and 𝑷𝑻 rainfall amount in T years
𝒕

return period and in t minute rainfall.

𝑷𝒕𝑻 = 𝟎. 𝟓𝟒 + 𝟎. 𝟐𝟒𝟕𝟏 𝐥𝐧(𝑻 − 𝟎. 𝟔) 𝟎. 𝟑𝟕𝟏𝟎 + 𝟎. 𝟔𝟏𝟖𝟒 𝒕𝟎.𝟒𝟒𝟖𝟒 𝑷𝟔𝟎

𝟏𝟎

Where, t = in hour, other are the same.

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 For calculation of the 𝑷𝒕𝑻, first P10
60
should be calculated.
44
𝑷𝟔𝟎
𝟏𝟎 = 𝟐. 𝟐𝟔(𝑷𝟐𝟒𝒉𝒓 )
𝟏.𝟏𝟑𝟕𝟒 (𝑷
𝒚𝒆𝒂𝒓 )
−𝟎.𝟑𝟎𝟕𝟐

Where, P(24hr) = 24 hrs. average rainfall in mm, P(year) = average rainfall in one year in
mm.
Example 5: in a rain gauge station, the average annual rainfall is 250 mm, and
average rainfall in 24 hrs. is 15 mm, find the 15 min rainfall intensity with 25 years return
period.
Solution:
P(24hrs) = 15 min
P(year) = 250 mm
60
P10 = 2.26(15)1.1374 (250)−0.3072 = 8.9 mm
t = 15 min, T = 25 years
𝟎.𝟐𝟓 −𝟎. 𝟓 ∗ 𝟖. 𝟗 = 6 mm
𝑷𝟏𝟓
𝟐𝟓 = 𝟎. 𝟐𝟏 ∗ 𝐥𝐧 𝟐𝟓 + 𝟎. 𝟓𝟐 𝟎. 𝟓𝟒 ∗ 𝟏𝟓

This 6 mm rainfall is in 15 minutes and one hour intensity is 4*6 = 24 mm/hr

i= 24 mm/hr

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45
If the second equation is used, the result is,
t = 15 min = 0.25 hr
15
P25 = 0.4524 + 0.2471 ln(25 − 0.6) 0.3710 + 0.6184 ∗ 0.250.4484 ∗ 8.9 = 7.77 mm
This 7.77 mm is intensity is in 15 min. and in one hour intensity is 4*7.77 = 31 mm/hr
i = 31 mm/hr

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46 13. Snow fall and its Measurement
Snow is the second important part of the precipitation, after rainfall. It
usually occur in high altitude, and particular during the winter season.
It may or may not be accompanied by rainfall, depending upon
coldness of area.
Snowfalls are generally responsible for giving continues delayed
supplies in the rivers, rather than giving immediate flood flows. As a
matter of fact, snow generally goes on falling and accumulating the
over the river valley and the basin, during the winter months, without
giving any immediate stream flow, but latter, with the onset of spring
season in late March or April, when the temperature of region starts
increasing, the snow starts melting, leading to runoff in the river.
Depending upon the available snow depth, runoff continues during
the summer season.

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47

Snow usually fall in the form of very light snow flakes, having density as
low as 0.004 gr/cm3. when such snow flakes fall and get deposited
over the ground, one over other, they get compressed and leading to
increase in its density. As the depth of accumulated snow increase
with the passage of time, it gets consolidated more and more, with
increase in its density.
the density of the snow is different 400 – 600 Kgr/m3 and in glaciers it
reach to 900 Kgr/m3 and average density of snow is recommended
about 100 Kgr/m3.

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48
Empirical Formulae for Estimation of Snow Melting.
(1) U.S. Army Corps of Engineers Equation.

(a) For open sites

𝐌𝟐𝟒 = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟑 𝟗𝐓𝐦 + 𝟒𝟎
𝐌𝟐𝟒 = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟐(𝐓𝐦𝐚𝐱 + 𝟐𝟓)
Where, 𝑴𝟐𝟒 = daily (24hrs) spring time snowmelt in cm/day
𝑻𝒎 = mean daily temperature in ℃
𝑻𝒎𝒂𝒙 = max. daily temperature in ℃

(b) For forested sites

𝐌𝟐𝟒 = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟐𝟓 𝟗𝐓𝐦
𝐌𝟐𝟒 = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟐 𝟗𝐓𝐦𝐚𝐱 − 𝟓𝟎

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49 (c) When both Snow melt and rainfall occur at the same time.
𝐌 = 𝟎. 𝟑 + 𝟎. 𝟎𝟏𝟐𝐑 𝐓𝐦 + 𝟏. 𝟎
Where, M = water depth in (mm/day)
R = rainfall depth in (mm)

(d) Snow melt by convection

𝐌𝟔 = 𝐊𝐌𝐓
Where, M6 = depth of water from snowmelt in 6 hrs. period, due to
heat convection.
V = wind velocity in km/h
T = air temperature ℃
K = constant (0.003 – 0.006)

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 Example 6: a catchment which has 90 km2 area and the average daily
50 temperature is 6.5 C and rainfall depth is 9 mm, find the average discharge in
a day.

𝐌 = 𝟎. 𝟑 + 𝟎. 𝟎𝟏𝟐𝐑 𝐓𝐦 + 𝟏. 𝟎
M = (0.3+0.012 x 9)6.5 + 1.0 = 3.652 mm/day
3.652x10^-3 x 90x10^6/(86400) = 3.8 m3/s

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 14. Runoff Calculation for a Catchment Area
51
For calculation of a catchment area discharge different methods are recommend
by scientist which are:
1. SCS (Soil Conservation Service)
2. Rational Method
3. Decking’s Formula
4. Creager Formula
5. Fanning Formula
6. Inglies Formula
7. Courtange Formula
8. Mayer Formula
9. USGS Formula
10. Fuller Formula
11. Horton Formula…

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52
Among all the recommended equations, the SCS method is better. This method is
usable for calculation of maximum discharge in hydrology catchment area,
drainages, urban run off…
The main equations for this method are
𝑷 − 𝟎.𝟐 𝑺 𝟐 𝟎.𝟎𝟐𝟎𝟖 𝒙 𝑨 𝒙 𝑹 𝟐𝟓𝟒𝟎
𝑹=
𝑷 + 𝟎.𝟖 𝑺
, 𝑸𝒑 = , 𝑪𝑵 =
𝟐𝟓.𝟒+𝑺
𝟎.𝟔𝑻𝒄 + 𝑻𝒄
Where, Qp = Peak discharge in a catchment area (m3/sec), R = run off
elevation in (cm), P = rainfall depth (cm), A = catchment area in (ha), Tc = Time
of Concentration, time that the discharge reach to max. point (hr.), CN = Curve
Number, the basin characteristic index in terms of permeability, and S = the
max. maintenance of rainfall in soil in (cm).

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53 CN Calculation: for calculation of the Curve Number in SCS method, the
below procedures should be following up.
1. The site soil is divided in four categories, A, B, C, D.

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54 2. Find the CN for the table 12-4.

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55 3. In this stage, calculate the
corrected CN in dry and wet
lands.
For more information about CN,
please open the below link.
https://www.hec.usace.army.mil/
confluence/hmsdocs/hmstrm/cn-
tables

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 Example 7: estimate the Peak discharge in a basin which has 600 ha
56
catchment area, and CN number is 83 for 400 ha and 70 for 200 ha
and the precipitation is 120 mm, and the concentration time is 50 min.

Solution:
P = 120 mm = 12 cm
83 𝑥 400+70 𝑥 200
𝐶𝑁 = = 78.67
600
S = 2540/CN – 25.4 = 2540/78.67 – 25.4 = 6.88 cm
𝑷 − 𝟎.𝟐 𝑺 𝟐 (12−0.2𝑥 6.88)^2 112.86
𝑹= 𝑷 + 𝟎.𝟖 𝑺
= (12+0.8 𝑥 6.88)
= 17.504 = 𝟔. 𝟒𝟒 𝐜𝐦

Tc = 50 min = 0.83 hr.

𝟎.0𝟐𝟎𝟖 𝒙 𝑨 𝒙 𝑹 0.0208 𝑥 600 𝑥 6.44 80.47 𝒎𝟑
𝑸𝒑 = = = = 𝟓𝟕. 𝟏𝟐
𝟎.𝟔𝑻𝒄 + 𝑻𝒄 0.6 𝑥 0.83+ 0.83 1.409 𝒔𝒆𝒄

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57

Thanks for Your Attention

23-Mar-22