Idebe Physics - 4 New 2024-Protected

CLASSICAL NOTES FOR CSEE – 2024
TOPICS:
1. Waves
2. Electromagnetism
3. Radioactivity
4. Thermionic emission
5. Electronics
6. Elementary Astronomy
7. Geophysics
MWL GEOFREY M IDEBE (+255688 082 089 – MWANZA,TANZANIA) Page 1

Author: Geofrey M Idebe
Title of the Book: Physics Classical Note for CSEE – Form Four
ISBN: 978 – 9912 – 9834 – 3 – 4
Second Edition: 2024
Contacts info:
Phone: +255 688 082 089
Email: idebegeofrey@gmail.com
Mwanza – Tanzania
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retrieval system or transmitted in any form or by any means, recording,
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Preface
 Physics Classical Note for CSEE has undergone a great deal of improvement since
its first publication (2020). It has become so popular among the CSEE students in
such a way that most of the candidates go through this book before appearing for
the CSEE Physics Examination.
 You must have already gone through first edition of Physics Classical Note for
CSEE (2020). We hope that you liked the book. We are happy to release the
revised edition of Physics Classical Note (2024). This new edition is competency
based on the latest revised syllabus prescribed by the ministry of education,
science and technology
 Several new diagrams have been incorporated in this edition in order to facilitate
the understanding of the subject matter. Many examples from daily life are given to
make the topics relevant and interesting.
 In each chapter of this book, sufficient exercises (class Activities and Self
Assessment) are given at the end of each sub – topic and at the end of each topic
respectively.
 Finally I must express my thanks to teachers and students who have kindly read
parts of the manuscript and sending their valuable suggestions. Further
suggestions for more improvements to come of this book will be gratefully
acknowledged.

Chapter–1 WAVES
 Wave – Is a progressive disturbance propagated from a point in a medium (matter) on space
without the movement of the points themselves
 OR – Wave Is a periodic disturbance that transfers energy from one point to another. Light,
sound and waves in the ocean are common examples of waves
 Waves have energy and can transfer it from one place to another.
This means waves can carry information by changing the energy of the wave in a sequential
way to transfer 'data' from one place to another, but waves cannot transfer the matter of the
medium they are moving though - the medium can be gas, liquid or solid.
 For example; when your TV receives the signal, it’s just coded data in the electromagnetic
wave, energy is transferred, but no material substance arrives. However, if energy itself was
not transmitted, no effect could be produced on the TV screen without something from the
receiver.
 Similarly, when ripples on water cause floating objects to bob up and down, energy is needed
to do this, but neither the floating object or the water itself actually move in the direction of the
transverse waves - but energy is transferred from one location to another.
Terms Used
Below is a list of key definitions related to waves along with diagrams (sketches of graphs). These
diagrams all have displacement on the y-axis but the x-axis can vary from either distance or time.

1. Rest Position (equilibrium position) – is the undisturbed position of the particles if they do not
vibrate.
2. Amplitude: Is the maximum displacement of the wave from the equilibrium
position, ie.. (the rest position to a crest or the rest position to a trough) It is represented by letter
A. Its SI unit is meter (m).
3. Displacement (x) – the distance a point of a wave has moved from its rest position. The
displacement can be positive (above the rest position) or negative (below the rest position). The
SI unit for displacement is the metre (m).
4. Crest (Peak): Is the point of maximum positive displacement of the wave from the equilibrium
position
5. Trough: Is the point of maximum negative displacement of the wave from the equilibrium position
6. Wavelength:
 The distance from a point to another point where the wave begins to repeat itself is called
Wavelength. This could be the distance from peak to peak or trough to trough. Wavelength is
measured in metres (m) and is represented by Greek letter Lambda (λ
 OR- Wavelength Is the distance travelled by the wave to complete one cycle
7. Period:
 The period of a wave is the time taken for one complete wave to be produced. (this could be
measured peak to peak or trough to trough).
 It is also the time taken for one whole wave to pass a point.
 Period is measured in seconds (s) and has the symbol T.
8. Frequency:
 Frequency – Is the number of crests or troughs that pass a given point per unit time.
 OR – Frequency – is the number of oscillations (number of waves passing a fixed point) per
unit time
 It is represented by letter f. Its SI unit is hertz (Hz).
𝟏
 1hertz (Hz) = 1per second (s-1), Then 𝒇 = , where T is a periodic time
𝑻
9. Wave Speed:
 Wave speed is a measure of how quickly the wave travels from its source.
 Its value is the same as the distance covered by a wave in one second. Speed is measured in
metres per second ms−1 and has the symbol 𝒗
Mathematically
𝒘𝒂𝒗𝒆𝒍𝒆𝒏𝒈𝒕𝒉 𝝀 𝟏
𝒔𝒑𝒆𝒆𝒅 (𝒗) = = = 𝝀 × = 𝝀 × 𝒇, Therefore: 𝒗 = 𝝀 𝒇
𝒕𝒊𝒎𝒆 𝑻 𝑻
Worked Examples:
1. Sound waves have a frequency of 16 kHz. What is the periodic time for the waves?
Soln:
Given: 𝒇 = 𝟏𝟔𝒌𝑯𝒛 = 𝟏𝟔 𝟎𝟎𝟎𝑯𝒛
𝟏 𝑰 𝟏
From: 𝒇 = →𝑻= = = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟔𝟐𝟓 𝒔
𝑻 𝒇 𝟏𝟔𝟎𝟎𝟎
2. A radio station transmits waves at a frequency of 95.6 MHz. What is the wavelength of the waves
transmitted? (c = 3.0 x 108 m/s)
Soln:
Given: 𝒇 = 𝟗𝟓. 𝟔𝑴𝑯𝒛 = 𝟗𝟓. 𝟔 𝒙 𝟏𝟎𝟔 𝑯𝒛, c = 3.0 x 108 m/s
𝒗 𝟑.𝟎 ×𝟏𝟎𝟖
From: 𝒗 = 𝝀 𝒇 → 𝝀= = = 𝟑. 𝟏𝟒 𝒎
𝒇 𝟗𝟓.𝟔 × 𝟏𝟎𝟔

3. The average range of frequencies at which human beings can hear sound waves varies from 20
Hz to 20 kHz. Calculate the wavelength of the sound wave in these limits. (Assume the speed of
sound to be 340 m s-1.
ANSW: Given; 𝑓1 = 20𝐻𝑧, 𝑓2 = 20𝑘𝐻𝑧, 𝑣 =340m/s
𝒗 𝒗 340 𝒗 340
From:  = → 𝟏 = = = 17m, 𝟐 = = =0.017m
𝒇 𝒇𝟏 20 𝒇𝟐 20000
Therefore, the audible wavelength region is from 0.017 m to 17 m when the velocity of sound in
that region is 340 m s-1.
4. The sketches below show the same wave, the top one against distance and the bottom one
against time. From these graphs find the amplitude, wavelength and period and also calculate the
frequency.
ANSW:
 If we look at the first crest we can see that the displacement from the rest position is 2m.
Therefore, the amplitude is 2m.
 We can find the wavelength by finding the distance between two crests. The first peak is at
5m and the second peak is at 25m.The difference (25 – 5) gives us the wavelength.
Therefore, the wavelength is 20m.
 The period can be calculated in the same way but we need to look at the sketch that shows
the wave against time. The first peak is at 2.5s and the second peak is at 12.5s. The
difference (12.5 – 2.5) gives us the period. Therefore, the period is 10s.
𝟏 𝟏
 Frequency, 𝒇 = = = 𝟎. 𝟏Hz
𝑻 𝟏𝟎
5. A man saw a toy duck on a wave in an ocean. He noticed that the duck moved up and down 15
times per minute. He roughly measured the wavelength of the ocean wave as 1.2 m. Calculate the
time taken by the toy duck for going one time up and down and also the velocity of the ocean
wave.

ANSW: Given; n = 15, t = 1 minute = 60s,  = 1.2𝑚
𝑛 15
From; 𝑓 = = = 0.25𝐻𝑧
𝑡 60
 The time taken by the toy duck for going one time up and down is period,
1 1
ie,.. T = = = 4s
𝑓 0.25
 The velocity of ocean wave is v, 𝒗 = 𝒇 = 𝟎. 𝟐𝟓 × 𝟏. 𝟐=0.3m/s
Class Activity – 1:1
1. From the diagram below, determine the amplitude, period and frequency of the wave
ANS: Amplitude, A = 0.5m Period, T = 0.2 Frequency = 5Hz

2. The diagram below represents a wave. The time covered by the picture is 10 seconds.
Using this information and the information on the diagram find

𝒕 𝟏𝟎
(a) the period of the wave; [T = = = 𝟒s]
𝒏 𝟐.𝟓
𝟏 𝟏
(b) the frequency of the wave; [𝒇 = = = 𝟎. 𝟐𝟓Hz]
𝑻 𝟒
(c) the wavelength; [ = 50 cm = 0.5m]
(d) the amplitude; and [A = 10cm = 0.1m]
(e) the speed of the wave [ 𝒗 = 𝒇 = 𝟎. 𝟓 × 𝟎. 𝟐𝟓 = 𝟎. 𝟏𝟐𝟓m/s]
3. A cork on the surface of a swimming pool bobs up and down once every second on some ripples.
The ripples have a wavelength of 20cm. If the cork is 2 m from the edge of the pool, how long does
it take a ripple passing the cork to reach the edge?

𝟏 𝟏
ANS:  = 20 cm = 0.2m, T = 1s, then, 𝒇 = = = 𝟏Hz, s = 2m
𝑻 𝟏
𝒔 𝟐
𝒗 = 𝒇 = 𝟎. 𝟐 × 𝟏 = 𝟎. 𝟐m/s, ∴ t = = = 𝟏𝟎seconds
𝒗 𝟎.𝟐
4. From the diagram below, determine the wavelength and velocity of the wave, frequency of the
wave is 5Hz (ANS:  = 2m, V = 10m/s)
5. What is the amplitude and wave length of the wave in the diagram below?
ANS: A = 0.03m, Wavelength = 0.08 m

6. A periodic and repeating disturbance in a lake creates waves which emanate outward from its
source to produce circular wave patterns. If the frequency of the source is 2.00 Hz and the wave
speed is 5.00m/s then the distance between adjacent wave crests is ___ meter.(ANS:
Wavelength = 10 m)
7. Sketch the appropriate graph of transverse wave. On it mark the crest, trough, amplitude
and wave length
8. Calculate the wavelength of red light in air if the frequency of red light is 4.3 x 10 14 Hz, C = 3.0 X
108 (ANS: 6.98 x 10-7m)
9. A pendulum makes exactly 40 vibrations in 20.0 s. Its period is (ANS: 0.5 s)
10. If the frequency of a wave is doubled and if the speed remains constant, its wavelength is ___
(ANS: halved.)
11. A wave whose speed in a snake is 4.4 m/s enters a second snakey. The wavelength changes from
2.0 m to 3.0 m. The wave in the second snakey travels at approximately ____. (ANS: 6.6 m/s.)
12. A 2.0-meter long rope is hanging vertically from the ceiling and attached to a vibrator. A single
pulse is observed to travel to the end of the rope in 0.50 s. What frequency should be used by the
vibrator to maintain three whole waves in the rope? (ANS: 6.0 Hz)
13. The distance between successive crests of water ripples in a ripple tank experiment is 3.2 cm and
their wave speed is 26 cm/s. Determine the wavelength ,Frequency and period of the ripples
ANS: f = 8.125 Hz, λ=3.2cm T=0.123 Hz
14. A personal with deep voice singing a note of frequency 200Hz is producing sound waves whose
velocity is 330m/s. find the sound's wave length. (ANS: λ = 1.65m)
15. A hospital uses an ultrasonic scanner to locate tumours in a tissue. What is the wavelength of
sound in a tissue in which the speed of sound is 1.7 kms-1? The operating frequency of the scanner
is 4.2 MHz. (ANS: 𝝀 = 𝟎. 𝟒𝟎𝟓 𝒎)
16. Calculate the velocity of the wave whose wavelength is 1. 7 x10 -2m and frequency 2x1014Hz
(ANS: 3.4 1x1012m/s)
17. The sound wave has a frequency of 240 Hz. Explain, in terms of the movement of an
individual particle, what this means.
18. Find the wavelength of sound wave whose frequency is 550Hz and speed is 330m/s
(ANS: The wavelength is 0. 6m) NB: The higher the frequency of a wave, the shorter the
wavelength and the lower is the frequency on the wave, the longer is the wavelength.
19. A wave transports energy and not matter. Justify this statement
20. The radio waves have a velocity of about 3.0 x10 8m/s and the wavelength of 1500m. Calculate the
frequency of these waves? (ANS: f = 2. 0 x 105 Hz)
21. Consider the figure below illustrates part of a wave traveling across the water at a particular place
with a velocity of 2m/s, Calculate;
(a) The frequency of the wave (ANS: f = 10 Hz)
(b) The amplitude of the wave (ANS: A = 0.3 cm)
(c) The wavelength of the wave (ANS:  = 0.2m)
22. If the frequency of radio waves is 600 kHz, find the wavelength of the waves. The speed of radio
waves = 3 x 108 m/s. (ANS: 𝝀 = 𝟓𝟎𝟎 𝒎)
23. Minute after minute, hour after hour, day after day, ocean waves continue to splash onto the
shore. Explain why the beach is not completely submerged and why the middle of the ocean
has not yet been depleted of its water supply.
24. The wavelength of signals from a radio transmitter is 1500m and the frequency is the 200 KHz. To
what speed does the radio wave travel?.What is the wavelength of a transmitter operating at 1000
KHz? (ANS: V = 3 x 108 m/s, 𝝀= 3. 0 x 102m)
25. A certain wave has a periodic time of 0.04 second and travels at 30 x 107 m/s Find its wavelength.
(ANS:  = 1.2 x 107 m)
26. A leaf on a pond oscillates up and down two complete cycles each second as a water wave
passes. What is the wave's frequency? [ANSW: 2Hz]
Types of waves
There are two types of waves according to the media of propagation.
 Electromagnetic wave
 Mechanical wave
Electromagnetic Wave:
 Is the type of wave which does not require a medium to transfer energy.
Mechanical Wave:
 Is the type of waves in which a medium is required to transfer energy.

Difference between Mechanical and Electromagnetic Waves
Mechanical waves Electromagnetic waves
 Are disturbances which are transported through a  Are disturbances made up of electric and
medium due to particle to particle interaction magnetic fields
 Requires a material medium to transfer energy  Do not requires materials medium to
transfer energy
 Cannot travel through vacuum  Can travel through vacuum
 Mechanical waves have low speed  Electromagnetic waves have high speed
 Have long wave lengths  Have short wave lengths
 Can be transverse or longitudinal waves  Are only transverse in nature
 Examples are water waves, sound waves etc  Examples are X – rays, Visible light etc
Types of Wave motion

There are two types of waves according to movement of the particles
 Transverse wave
 Longitudinal wave
Transverse Wave
 For transverse waves, the displacement of the particles is perpendicular to the direction of wave
travel. In other words is one in which vibrations of the particles in the wave are at right angles to
the direction in which the energy of the wave is travelling.(See the figure below)
 Examples of transverse waves; include all electromagnetic waves, ripples on the surface of
water and vibrations along a string.
 The particles do not move along a transverse wave. They just move up and down about the rest
position.
 This wave enables a duck in a lake floating in the same position as the wave passes (This is
due to the vertical displacement of water waves ie transversely)
 This vibration of medium cause a boat on the ocean moves up and down while the waves
themselves move toward the shore
EXPERIMENT
To visualize this, take a piece of string and fix one end to a table. Hold the other end in line with
the fixed point. The horizontal line is rest position. Now if you move the end you are holding up
and down you will create a transverse wave along the string. The wave disturbance will move
horizontally towards the other end of the string, but each point along the string moves up and
down perpendicular to the rest position. (see the fig. below)
Longitudinal Wave
 For longitudinal waves the displacement of the particles is parallel to the direction of wave travel.
In other words, is one in which the direction of the vibrations of the particles in the wave is along
the direction in which the energy of the wave is travelling.
 For example, sound wave
 When longitudinal waves travel through any given medium, they also include compressions and
rarefactions. Compression occurs when particles move close together creating regions of high
pressure. In contrast, rarefactions occur in low-pressure areas when particles are spread apart
from each other. (see the figure below)
NB:
 The particles do not move along a longitudinal wave. They just move backwards and forwards
between compressions. This means that a particle at the start of a longitudinal waves moves back
and forth near the start position and does not travel to the waves end position
 For example, a vibrating tuning fork creates compressions and rarefactions as the tines move
back and forth
EXPERIMENT
 To visualize a longitudinal wave get a slinky and ask someone to hold one end in a fixed position
 Hold the other end of the slinky and you can create a longitudinal wave by pushing and pulling the
slinky horizontally.
 As the wave moves along the slinky you will see the distance between the coils decrease and
increase. When the coils are closer together this is a compression and when they are further apart
is a rarefaction. Each compression will move along to the end of the slinky, transferring the energy
from start to finish.

Differences between Transverse wave and Longitudinal waves
Transverse wave Longitudinal wave
Particles of the medium vibrate perpendicular to The particles of the medium vibrate in the same
the direction in which the wave advances direction in which the wave advance
It is formed of crests and troughs It is formed of a series of compressions and
rarefactions
It can propagate only in solids and at the surface It can propagate in all types of media (solid,
of liquids liquid and gas)
There is no pressure variations The pressure and density are maximum at
compressions and minimum at rarefactions
Examples are: Examples are:
 Ripples produced on the surface of water  Sound waves travel through air
when stone is dropped into it  Waves in a coil (helical) spring
 Waves produced in a rope fixed at one end  Vibrations of air column in organ pipes
when the free end is moved up and down  Earthquake P waves
rapidly
 Waves in the stretched strings
 Earthquake S waves

1. A periodic longitudinal wave that has a frequency of 20 Hz travels along a slinky. An overzealous
physics student notes that the distance between successive compressions is 0.4 m. What is the
speed of the wave? [A: 8Hz]
2. As waves pass by a duck floating on a lake, the duck bobs up and down but remains in essentially
one place. Explain why the duck is not carried along by the wave motion.
3. Sketch the appropriate graph of transverse wave. On it mark the crest, trough, amplitude
and wave length
4. An unsuccessful fisherman fishing from a pier observes that four wave crests pass by in 7.0s and
estimates the distance between two successive crests would be 4.0 m. The timing starts with the
first crest and ends with the fourth. What is the speed of the wave? [ANS: 2.29 m/s]
Behaviors of Waves
 Reflection of waves
 Refraction of waves
 Interference of waves
 Diffraction of waves
Reflection of Waves
 Reflection of waves – Is the abrupt change in the direction of propagation of a wave that strikes
the boundary between two different medium.
 Some examples of reflection of waves are.
(i) An echo is a sound that is reflected off a surface and heard again. For instance, if you
shout in a large empty room or in a mountain range, you might hear your own voice
coming back to you as an echo.
(ii) A mirror is another classic example of light wave reflection. The light waves from an object
hit the smooth surface of the mirror and are reflected back, forming an image.
 The incident and the refracted waves obey Snell’s Law of refraction while the incident and the
reflected waves obey the laws of reflection. The reflection of wave or a pulse can happen from
two types of surfaces, (See the figure below)
Reflection of Mechanical Waves
Laws of reflection of waves
1. The angle of incidence (i0) is equal to the angle of reflection (r0 ”
2. The incident wave, the reflected wave and the Normal all lie in the same plane which is
perpendicular to the reflecting surface at the point of incident.
Applications of Reflection of Waves

 It is used in the designing of plane mirrors
 Reflection of waves (sound waves) used in measuring distances
 Sonar systems rely on the reflection of sound waves to assist ships in navigating,
communicating and detecting underwater objects (corals/fishes) or to determine the depth of
the water by means of an echo. Sonar equipment emits a high frequency sound signal which is
reflected by the object in the water. The reflected sound wave is received by the sonar
receiver. The time taken for the echo to return is used to determine the distance of the object
𝒅𝒊𝒔𝒂𝒏𝒄𝒆
below the water surface 𝒊𝒆, . 𝒔𝒑𝒆𝒆𝒅 𝒐𝒇 𝒔𝒐𝒖𝒏𝒅, 𝒗 = .
𝒕𝒊𝒎𝒆
(SONAR = Sound Navigation and Ranging)
 In geology, it is important in the study of seismic waves
Refraction of Waves
 Refraction – Is the change in direction of waves as they pass from one media to another due to
change in speed and wave length
 Refraction occurs because waves travel at different speeds in different mediums and this
change in speed is caused by differences in density between the mediums. The angle of
refraction is larger or smaller than the angle of incidence depending on how the speed changes:
 one example of refraction is a prism. When white light enters the prism, the different wavelengths
of light are refracted. The different wavelengths of light are each refracted differently and the light
is split into a spectrum of colors.
 The diagrams below show a wave being diffracted.

 The speed of waves depends on the medium i.e Changes in wavelength are proportional to
changes in wave speed. The frequency doesn’t change. (ie,… v ∝ )
𝒗 𝒗 𝒗 𝝀
Thus: 𝒗 = 𝒌𝝀 → = 𝟏 → 𝟏= 𝟏
𝝀 𝝀𝟏 𝒗𝟐 𝝀𝟐
𝒗𝟏
But the ratio , is the refractive index of the second medium
𝒗𝟐
relative to the first medium
N.B
 Water waves travel fastest when the medium is the deepest. If water waves are passing from
deep water into shallow water, they will slow down.
 As water waves are transmitted from deep water into shallow water, the speed decreases, the
wavelength decreases, and the direction changes but frequency remains the same.
 From deep water to shallow water waves will slow down and bend towards normal.
Therefore we can conclude that since waves bend toward normal, angle of refraction is
smaller.
 If a wave enters a medium at 90º to the surface (parallel to the normal) it is not refracted.
Applications of Refraction of Waves

 It is used in optical instruments which focus or spread light. For Example, microscopes and
telescopes
 It is used in dispersion of light waves
 It is used to determine the eye’s refractive error
Interference of Waves
 Is a phenomenon in which two waves superpose to form a resultant wave of greater, lower, or the
same amplitude
Types of Interference
 Constructive Interference
 Destructive Interference
Principle of Superposition
 It states that; “The resultant displacement at any points is equal to the sum of the
displacements of different waves at the point”
 This principle describes how waves which meet at a point in space interact
 When two waves with the same frequency and amplitude arrive at a point, they superpose either
in phase, causing constructive interference or in anti-phase, causing destructive interference.
 Constructive interference occurs when two different crests meet at the same point in the same
direction results a greater amplitude than individual, (fig. below)
 Destructive interference occurs when crest and trough meet at the same point in the opposite
direction results smaller amplitude than individual,

N.B
 Soft sound occurs in regions where sound waves interfere destructively while Loud sound
occurs where sound waves interfere constructively
 For instance, if two loudspeakers connected to the same signal generator and amplifier emit a
note of the same frequency sound waves’ constructive interference creates louder sound in
certain areas around the speakers. Conversely, in regions where the waves interfere
destructively, the note is much quieter than in other areas of the pattern.
Applications of Interference of wave
 Creation of hologram. holograph is a photograph of an interference pattern which is able to
produce a three dimensional image when suitably illuminated
 The destructive interference of sound waves can also be used advantageously in noise
reduction systems. Earphones have been produced that can be used by factory and
construction workers to reduce the noise levels on their jobs. Such earphones capture sound
from the environment and use computer technology to produce a second sound wave that one-
half cycle out of phase. The combination of these two sound waves within the headset will
result in destructive interference and thus reduce a worker's exposure to loud noise.
 Concert halls and auditoriums designed to reduce the amount of destructive
interference by introducing sound absorber
Interference can occur as the result of sound from two speakers meeting at the same location
as well as the result of sound from a speaker meeting with sound reflected off the walls and
ceilings. If the sound arrives at a given location such that compressions meet rarefactions, then
destructive interference will occur resulting in a reduction in the loudness of the sound at that
location. One means of reducing the severity of destructive interference is by the design of
walls, ceilings, and baffles that serve to absorb sound rather than reflect it
Diffraction of Waves
 Did you ever notice that you can hear sounds around the corners of buildings even though you
can’t see around them? Why this happens. This is because sound waves spread out and travel
around obstacles. This is called diffraction. It also occurs when waves pass through an opening in
an obstacle. All waves may be diffracted, but it is more pronounced in some types of waves than
others. For example, sound waves bend around corners much more than light does.
 That’s why you can hear but not see around corners, This is because sound waves have longer
wavelengths therefore are more readily diffracted unlike light waves , which have very short
wavelengths therefore not readily diffracted.
 Therefore; Diffraction – Is the bending or spreading out of a wave when it passes through an
aperture (gap/hole) or around an object. (See figure below)

 The Figure above shows how the amount of diffraction is affected by the size of the opening in
a barrier. There is more diffraction when the width of the opening is roughly the same size
as the wavelength and less diffraction when the opening is larger than the wavelength.
 Whereby, the wavelength of the wave is the distance between the vertical
 Another example of diffraction is when a water wave hits a boat and bends around the boat
 Diffraction does not change the wavelength of the wave.
Factors affecting diffraction
For a given type of waves, such as sound waves, how much the waves diffract depends on two factors:
the size of the opening gap and the wavelength.
(i) Diffraction is minor if the length of the opening is greater than the wavelength.
If the wavelength of the waves is shorter the spreading diffraction effect is much smaller as
well. This explains why television waves are much more difficult to receive in hilly areas
than radio waves which have a longer wavelength and why the diffraction of light is so
difficult to observe.
(ii) Diffraction is major if the length of the opening is less than the wavelength.
Applications of diffraction of Waves
 It is used in determining the crystal structure of materials
 It is used in measuring the coefficient of thermal expansion, crystalline size and thick of
thickness of thin films
 It is used in determining the types and phases present in a specimen where the spacing of
obstacles (atoms) is between 1 and 3nm
Ripple Tank
 Ripple tank Is a shallow glass tank of water used in schools and colleges to
demonstrate the basic properties of waves.
Construction and working of ripple tank

 It consists of a (usually) plastic tray with a transparent bottom which is usually lit from above
using a desk lamp. Some small types can be placed over an overhead projector so that the waves
can be projected onto a screen for all to see.
 Ripples are usually created by a small electric motor attached to a strip of wood suspended by
springs or elastic bands. The motor has an off-centre weight (eccentric) attached so when turned
on, makes the strip vibrate and thus create ripples on the surface of the water.
 By lighting the waveforms being created, clear peaks and troughs can be seen. To begin you
need to be able to make consistent plane waves. Lower the motor assembly until it just touches
the surface of the water and turn on the motor. You should be able to see straight waves being
created which travel across the surface of the tank. These are often known as plane waves.

 Straight waves can be set up by using a straight dipper, while circular waves can be formed by
using a spherical dipper. Both dipper are vibrated up and down by a motor. The waves will be
seen in bright and dark patches on the screen below the tray. These patches show the position of
the crests and troughs of the waves. The dark patches will correspond to the crests and bright
patches will be the troughs.
Part Function
Shallow tank of Is the source of waves in which an oscillating paddle generates parallel water
water waves
Motor The rotating armature (axle) of an electric motor makes the wooden (metal bar) to
vibrate on water surface and generating ripples
Oscillating Is the one in which transform mechanical energy generated by motor by off centre
Paddle mass to wave energy in a Shallow tank of water
Lamp Is used to illuminate the water surface to see the water waves onto the white
(bulb/filament) board or white sheet below the ripple tank
Paper sheet Is used to display shadow of the wave pattern placed under the tank
Various Is paced in the tray to observe properties of waves e.g. reflection, refraction,
obstacles interference and diffraction. Example, laying glass, rectangular barrier, curved
barrier (concave and convex barrier) etc
Stroboscope It enables the observer to see the waves as stationary
Laying glass Laying glass used to vary the depth (tray thickness) of the water. This allows
observing waves travelling from one to another medium
A metal bar Is screwed to the electric motor and suspended above the ripple tank with rubber
(wooden bar) (elastic) bands and touching the water surface
Power supply Power supply for electric motor
Ripple tanks can be used to show all the basic properties of waves including reflection, diffraction,
refraction and interference as discussed below

Reflection
 Waves can be reflected using pieces of straight or bent metal strips. Place a straight strip in the
water and send a few waves towards it. You should clearly see the waves reflect off the strip
obeying the 'law of reflection'
 If you insert a concave strip and send a few waves towards it, the waves that are reflected should
converge at a specific focal point in the same way as light behaves in a solar furnace.
 Similarly, when you insert a convex strip and send a few waves towards it, the waves that are
reflected should diverge at a specific focal point
Refraction
Diffraction

Interference
Experiment:
To determine wavelength, frequency and wave speed, using a ripple tank
 Set up the apparatus as shown in the fig. above, and fill the ripple tank with water to a depth of no
more than 1 cm
 Turn on the power supply and the light source to produce a wave pattern on the screen
 The wavelength of the waves can be determined by using a ruler to measure the length of the
screen and dividing this distance by the number of wavefronts
 The frequency can be determined by timing how long it takes for a given number of waves to
pass a particular point and dividing the number of wavefronts by the time taken
 Record the frequency and wavelength in a table and repeat the measurements
 Then, use the relationship, v = f, to find velocity

1. During the day sound from distant sources are not very clear unlike during the night
2. Two signal generators feed signals with slightly different frequencies to two separate loudspeakers.
Suggest why a sound of continuously rising and falling loudness is heard.
3. Why does the dark patches correspond to the crests and bright patches correspond to the
troughs?
ANSW:
Light is absorbed (scattered) as it passes through a body of water. At a crest, the light has to travel
a longer distance through the water, which will cause more light to be absorbed. This will cause
crests to appear as dark patches. While at a trough, the light travels a shorter distance through
the water, which causes less light to be absorbed (scattered). This causes troughs to appear as
bright patches.
4. The figure below shows a transmitter producing both TV and radio waves. Briefly explain why radio
reception will be better than TV beyond the hill.

5. Give reason why the amplitude of the wave does not change as it crosses the boundary
6. Briefly explain why diffraction is common in sound but not common in light
ANSW: This is because, sound waves have much larger wavelengths and the objects can be
further apart to create the diffraction for sound. This is not in the case of light waves, since its
wavelength is very small as compared to the size of the obstacle around us.
7. The figure below shows water waves in a ripple tank mixing within two regions. The two
regions have different depths.
(a) State what happens to the frequency of the waves as moves from region A to B
(b) In which region are the waves moving faster? Explain
(c) Explain which region of the ripple tank is deeper.
8. Is it possible for light to be diffracted on passing through the window?
ANS: No, light does not diffract when it passes through the window. This is because the
wavelength of light is very small and the "slits" like doors and windows are quite large
9. What properties of sound suggest it is a wave motion?
10. Describe the principle features in a ripple tank experiment. What role does a stroboscope play in
this experiment?
11. It is possible to hear sound round obstacles but not possible to see light. Give reason
12. Two sets of transverse waves arrive at the same time. Under what conditions do they:
(i) Cancel out (ANS: trough from one arrive at the same time as crest from the other)
(ii) Produce a larger wave (ANS: A crest from one arrive at the same time as a crest from
the other (constructive interference))
13. From the figure below, give reason why, an observer moving along the line AB hears loud sound at
some points and soft sound at other points. How is the sound along the line OC?(when he moves
along line OC hears loud sound only)
14. Given that the refractive index of glass is 1.52. The wavelength of the radio waves in vacuum is 1.5
x 103m .Calculate the wavelength of the radio waves in glass.(λ =986.8 m)

Sound Waves
 Sound wave is a longitudinal wave that produced by vibrating object. For example, turning
fork
 Sound waves can only travel through a solid, liquid or gas. They can be reflected, refracted and
diffracted.
 Sound can't pass through a vacuum, as it requires atoms to pass on the energy.
 The speed of sound is dependent on the material that the sound is going through. It moves faster
in a solid than a liquid or a gas because the molecules are closer together, and therefore can
pass on the energy quicker.
Propagation of Sound Wave
 Sound travels by vibration of particles to transfer energy to the next particles until the sound
reaches another point
Sources of Sound Wave
 Almost everything ranging from people, animals, plants and machines
Factors affecting speed of sound in air
Effect of temperature:
 In a gas medium, the velocity of sound is proportional to the square root of the temperature
(ie,.. 𝒗 ∝ √𝑻). The velocity of sound in a gas increases as the temperature increases.
 The following equation gives the velocity at temperature T: 𝒗𝑻 = 𝒗𝒂 + 𝟎. 𝟔𝑻
 Here, 𝒗𝒂 is the velocity of sound in the gas medium at 0°C. For air, 𝒗𝒂 = 331 m/s
 Hence, the velocity of sound changes by 0.6 m/s when the temperature changes by one degree
Celsius.
Effect of Direction of Wind

 The speed of sound increases when the sound wave is moving in the direction of wind. (ie,.. In the
same direction : V ∝ W)
 The speed of sound decreases when the sound wave is moving in the direction opposite to the
𝟏
direction of wind. (In opposite direction: 𝑽 ∝ )
𝑾
Effect of Moist or Relative Humidity

 The speed of sound increases as humidity rises. (ie,,. 𝑽 ∝ 𝑯)
 The presence of moisture decreases the density of air, because density of water vapour is less
than that of dry air. Since velocity of sound is inversely proportional to the square root of density,
hence should travels faster in moist air than in the dry air.
 Greater the humidity in the air, higher will be the velocity of sound. That is why, during rainy
seasons, you can clearly hear sounds from a long distance (ie,. sound travels faster on a rainy
day than on a dry day).
Effect of Density of Air

 In a gas medium, the velocity of sound is inversely proportional to the square root of the
density. As a result, as the density of the gas increases, the velocity decreases.
𝟏
(𝒊𝒆, . . 𝑽 ∝ √ )
𝝆
 Hence, speed of sound decreases with increase in the density of the medium.

Audibility Range
 The human ear responds to sounds with frequencies in the range from 20 Hz to 20,000 Hz. This is
called the audible range of the human ear. Drums, guitar strings, tuning fork, human vocal cords and
diaphragms of loudspeakers are examples of audible range of sound. The audible range is the set
of sound frequencies that can be heard by humans.
 Human ear can distinguish two simultaneous sound if their frequencies differ by at least 7Hz
 Sound below 20Hz is called infrasonic Sound while Sound above 20000Hz is called ultrasonic
sound
 Although we cannot hear ultrasound, it is very useful to humans and some other animals. Uses of
ultrasound include echolocation, sonar, and ultrasonography.
(i) Echolocation. Animals such as bats and dolphins send out ultrasound waves and use
their echoes, or reflected waves, to identify the locations of objects they cannot see. This
is called echolocation. Animals use echolocation to find prey and avoid running into
objects in the dark. Many insects are also able to detect ultrasonic waves and use this
ability to escape from their predators when they hear them emitting sounds
(ii) SONAR uses ultrasound in a way that is similar to echolocation. SONAR stands
for Sound Navigation and Ranging. It is used to locate underwater objects such as
submarines. A sonar device is both a sender and a receiver. It sends out ultrasound
waves and detects the waves after they reflect from underwater objects.
(iii) Ultrasonography. Another use of ultrasound is to “see” inside the human body. This use
of ultrasound is called ultrasonography. Harmless ultrasound waves are sent inside the
body, and the reflected waves are used to create an image on a screen. This technology
is used to examine internal organs and unborn babies without risk to the patient.
 Other animals that can detect ultrasound waves include dogs, bats, cats, dolphins, owls, horse etc
 Examples of animals that can detect infrasound waves are Rhinos, hippos, elephants, whales,
pigeons, etc
 Bats can fly in the dark without hitting anything because they are guided by ultrasonic waves
produced by them
The Human Ear

 Human ear is the human organ responsible for conversion of sound energy to mechanical energy
to nerve impulse that transfers to the brain for interpretation. It can distinguish frequency,
amplitude and direction.

Parts of human Ear
It consists of three basic parts include
 Outer ear – it collects sound from surrounding
 Middle ear – it amplifies the vibrations
 Inner ear – it converts sound into electrical signals
The Outer Ear

 The part of the outer ear that we see is called the pinna, or auricle. The pinna, with its grooves
and ridges, provides a natural volume boost for sounds in the 2000 to 3000 Hz frequency range,
where we perceive many consonant sounds of speech.
 The ear canal, also called the external auditory meatus, is the other important outer ear landmark.
This part of the ear is lined with only a few layers of skin and fine hair, with many veins traveling
all around it. This means that there is an abundant flow of blood to the ear canal.
 Earwax (cerumen) accumulates in the ear canal and serves as a protective barrier to the skin from
bacteria and moisture. Earwax is normal, unless it completely blocks the ear canal.
The Middle Ear
 The eardrum, or tympanic membrane, is the dividing structure between the outer and middle ear.
Although it is an extremely thin membrane, the eardrum is made up of three layers to increase its
strength.
 The ossicles are the three tiny bones of the middle ear located directly behind the tympanic
membrane. These are the three tiny bones (smallest in the human body) in the middle ear:
malleus (hammer), incus (anvil), and stapes (stirrup) and their job is to further amplify the sound.
These three bones form a connected chain in the middle ear. The malleus is embedded in the
innermost layer of the tympanic membrane, and the stapes is connected to a membranous
window of the inner ear, called the oval window. The ossicles translate mechanical vibrations
received at the eardrum into the inner ear.
 The Eustachian tube is the middle ear’s air pressure equalizing system. The middle ear is
encased in bone and does not associate with outside air except through the Eustachian tube. This
tubular structure is normally closed, but it can be involuntarily opened by swallowing, yawning, or
chewing. It can also be intentionally opened to equalize pressure in the ears, such as when flying
in an airplane. When this happens, you might hear a soft popping sound.
The Inner Ear

 The inner ear is an organ located deep within the temporal bone, which is the bone of the skull on
both sides of the head above the outer ear. The inner ear has two main structures: the semicircular
canals and the cochlea.
 The semicircular canals do not contribute to hearing, but assist in maintaining balance as we move.
The cochlea is the hearing organ of the inner ear, which is a fluid-filled structure that looks like a
snail’s shell. The cochlea changes the mechanical vibrations from the eardrum and the ossicles
into a sequence of electrical impulses.
 Sensory cells, called hair cells, bend in the cochlea as the fluid is disrupted by the mechanical
vibrations. This bending of the hair cells causes electrical signals to be sent to the brain by way of
the auditory nerve. The cochlea is arranged by frequency, much like a piano, and encodes sounds
from 20Hz (low pitch) to 20,000Hz (high pitch) in humans
Summary of Mechanism of Hearing
 This occurs when the outer ear called pinna collects sound from the surroundings. The collected
sound passes through auditory canal. At the end of the auditory canal, there is a thin membrane
called the eardrum

 When sound reaches the ear drum, it vibrates due to rapid compressions and rarefactions. The
vibrations are amplified by three interconnected bones present in the middle ear. Then this sound
is transmitted to the inner ear.
 The inner ear converts sound into electric signals. These electric signals are sent to the brain and
the brain interprets these signals as sound.
N.B: Hearing –Is the process by which the ear transforms sound vibrations in the external
environment into nerve impulses that are conveyed to the brain where they are interpreted as sounds
The accoustics of buildings

 The science of how sound behaves, especially when it travels through our everyday world, is
called acoustics.
 Accoustics of building – Is the science of controlling the quality and amount of sound inside a
building
 It is used to allow for pleasant sound in a concert hall and to reduce echoes and noise within an
office building. This is because when a sound wave hits a hard object, the sound reflects back
towards the source in the form of an Echo. When soft objects get in the way, they can absorb the
sound and stop it from travelling any further.
 For example; when a hall has many people, echoes do not occur because most of the sound
(including echoes) is absorbed by clothes and skins of the audience
 It also concerns suppressing sound coming from outside the building such as apartments
 Scientists use sound reflection and absorption to investigate places that they cannot visit, such as
the depths of oceans and the interior of the Earth.
Echo
 If you clap your hands at a distant wall, you can hear sound of your clapped hands return as a
reflected sound wave, or Echo. When the reflected sound wave has to travel some distance, it
takes time to return and you hear it separately from the original sound.
 Sound waves that reflect off nearer objects return almost instantly. Our brains blend these waves
with the original sound and we hear no echo.
 Therefore; Echo is a reflected sound which is heard distinctly from the original sound.
 Since sound waves go and bounce back its distance becomes 2d.
(ie,.. sound waves distance = Echoe distance = d)
𝟐𝒅
 Hence speed (v) of sound associated with echo is calculated by, v =
𝒕
NB:
 Always echo reaches the ear more than 0.1s
𝟐𝒅 𝟑𝟒
From: 𝒗 = then: 𝟐𝒅 = 𝒗𝒕 = 𝟎. 𝟏 × 𝟑𝟒𝟎 → 𝒅 = = 𝟏𝟕𝒎
𝒕 𝟐

 Therefore: For hearing an echo, the minimum distance between the source of sound and
reflecting body should be 17 m.
Conditions for Hearing Echo Distinctly

 The minimum distance in air between the source of sound and the reflector must be 17 m.
 The size of the reflector must be large enough as compared to the wavelength of the sound
wave.
 The intensity of sound should be sufficient so that the reflected sound reaching the ear is
audible.
Uses of Echo
 Used to find depth of ocean (lakes)
 Looking at babies in the womb ( pre – natal scanning ) by Ultrasound
 To detect the submarines
 To detect large groups of fish
 To detect the wrecked ships
 To detect the dangerous rocks
Reverberation
 Is the existence or persistence of sound after it has been stopped as a result of multiple
reflections from surfaces such as room walls, furniture, air, etc. within a closed surface
 These reflections are created with each reflection and vanishes gradually as they are absorbed by
the surfaces of objects in the space enclosed (see fig below)
 OR: Reverberation - Are the multiple reflections of sound produced when it travels in an
enclosed room
Reverberation time
 Is the time required for the sound to decay in a closed space or cavity
Ways to reduce reverberations:
 Sound absorbent materials such as fiberboard, rough plaster and draperies, and compressed
materials are used to seal roofs of auditoriums.
 Porous materials like miner wool and fiberglass are also used as absorbents.
 Heavy curtains to doors and windows can absorb the sound.
 Panels and cardboard materials are also used for the ceiling of auditoriums.
Worked Examples
1. Suppose a man stands at a distance from a cliff and claps his hands. He receives an echo from the
cliff after 4 second. Calculate the distance between the man and the cliff. Assume the speed of
sound to be 343 ms-1.

4
ANS: V = 343 m/s, 2t = 4 → 𝑡 = = 2 s
2
4
The time taken by the sound to come back as echo is 2t = 4→ 𝑡 = = 2 s
2
∴ Distance, d between man and cliff = vt = 343 x 2 = 686 m
2. During a Friday Prayer gathering, the Muezzin gives the Adhan, “Allaahu Akbar” “Allaahu
Akbar”. The sound amplified by a loudspeaker comes back after reflection from a building at a
distance of 90 m from the gathering. What maximum time interval can be kept between one
“Allaahu Akbar” and the next “Allaahu Akbar”. So that the echo does not disturb a listener
sitting in the gathering. Given the Speed of sound in air is 330 m s-1
SOLN:
Given, v =330m/s, the distance of the building from the gathering = 90,
Total distance travelled by the sound after echo s= 90× 2 =180 m
Maximum time, t =?
𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑑 𝑠 180
From; 𝑣 = →𝑡= =
𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑣 330
Therefore, the maximum interval of time will be 0.55 sec.
3. An echo sounder produces a pulse and an echo is received from the sea – bed after 0.4 seconds.
If the speed of sound in water is 1500 m/s, calculate the depth of the sea –bed
Soln:
Given: v = 1500 m/s, total time = 0.4 s
2𝑠 𝒗𝒕 𝟏𝟓𝟎𝟎 × 𝟎.𝟒
From: 𝑣 = → 𝒔= = = 𝟑𝟎𝟎 𝒎
𝑡 𝟐 𝟐
4. An observer stands between two cliffs and claps hands. An echo is received after 2 s and
2.5s respectively. If the speed of sound in air is 330 m/s, find the distance between the cliffs.
From the figure above;

d1 and d2 are distances of cliffs from the boy;
𝒕 𝟐
for first echo; 𝒕𝟏 = 𝟐𝒕 → 𝒕 = 𝟏 = = 𝟏𝒔, (time for sound to only go)
𝟐 𝟐
𝟐𝒅𝟏 𝒕𝟏
𝒃𝒖𝒕 𝒗 = → 𝒅𝟏 = 𝒗 × = 𝟑𝟑𝟎 × 𝟏 = 𝟑𝟑𝟎m
𝟐𝒕 𝟐
𝒕𝟐 𝟐.𝟓
for second echo; 𝒕𝟐 = 𝟐𝒕 → 𝒕 = = = 𝟏. 𝟐𝟓𝒔, (time for sound to only go)
𝟐 𝟐
𝟐𝒅𝟐 𝒕𝟐
𝒃𝒖𝒕 𝒗 = → 𝒅𝟐 = 𝒗 × = 𝟑𝟑𝟎 × 𝟏. 𝟐𝟓 = 𝟒𝟏𝟐. 𝟓m
𝟐𝒕 𝟐
Therefore; distance between two cliffs, d = d1 + d2 = 742.5 m
5. A boy standing in front of a cliff blows a whistle and
hears the echo after 0.5s. He then moves 17metres further away from the cliff and blows the
whistle again. He now hears the echo after 0.6s. Determine the speed of the sound.
ANS: consider the figure below

𝑠 𝑥 17+𝑥
From; 𝑣 = →𝑣= − − − (𝑖), 𝑎𝑙𝑠𝑜 𝑣 = − − − −(𝑖𝑖)
𝑡 𝑡1 𝑡
Compare equation (i) and (ii)
𝑥 17+𝑥 𝑥 17+𝑥
= → = → 0.3𝑥 = 4.25 + 0.25𝑥
𝑡1 𝑡 0.25 0.3
𝟒.𝟐𝟓 𝒙 𝟖𝟓
𝟎. 𝟎𝟓𝒙 = 𝟒. 𝟐𝟓 → 𝒙 = = 𝟖𝟓𝒎 ∴𝒗= = = 𝟑𝟒𝟎m/s
𝟎.𝟎𝟓 𝒕𝟏 𝟎.𝟐𝟓
6. A man stands before a large wall at a distance of 50 m and claps his hands at regular
intervals. Initially, the interval is large. He gradually reduces the interval and fixes it at a
value when the echo of a clap merges with the next clap. If he has to clap 10 times during
every 3 seconds, find the velocity of sound in air.
SOLN:
Given;
Distance of large wall from the man s= 50 m
3
So, the time interval between two claps will be, 𝑡 =
10
𝟑
Therefore, time taken by the sound to reach the wall, 𝒕 =
𝟐𝟎
𝑠 50 1000
As; We know that; 𝑣 = = 3 = = 333 m/s
𝑡 3
20
Therefore, the velocity of sound v= 333m/sec
7. Why do we hear more clearly in a room with curtains than in a room without curtains?
ANS:
This is because sound is absorbed by the curtains. A sound created in a room without curtains will
persist by repeated reflection from the walls until it is reduced to a value where it is no longer audible.
The repeated reflection that results in this persistence of sound is called reverberation. To reduce
reverberation, the curtains will act as a sound-absorbent material.
8. In determining the depth of an ocean an echo sounder produces ultrasonic sound. Give reasons
why ultra sound is preferred for this purpose
ANS: (a) Ultra sound penetrates deepest (b) Ultra sound is reflected easily by tiny grains of sand

1. A gun was fired and the echo from a cliff was heard 8s later. How far was the gun from the cliff?
(ANS: d= 1400m)
2. How does sound produced by a vibrating object reach your Ear?
3. (a) With the aid of a diagram explain how echo takes place
(b) Explain any two factors that affect the speed of sound in air
(c) Explain briefly why sound produced in hall with many people is heard more clearly than when
the hall has few people?
(d) A person standing 99m from the foot of mountains claps his hands and hears an echo 0.6
second later. Calculate the speed of the sound in the air (AN: V = 330m/s)

4. A fathometer produces sound in a ship and receives two echoes where there is a raised sea bed
one after 2.5 seconds and the other after 3.0 seconds. Find the height of the raised sea bed (Take
V in water = 1460 m/s) (ANS: h1-h2 = 365 m)
5. A policeman standing between two high walls fires a gun. He hears the first echo after 3 seconds
and the next after 5 seconds, what is the distance between the walls?
6. A girl standing 200 m from the foot of a high wall claps her hands and the echo reaches her 1.16
seconds later. Calculate the velocity of sound in air using this observation (ANS: V = 344.8 m/s)
7. A person stands 100 m from the foot of a tall building claps his hands and hears an echo 0.588
seconds later .Calculate the velocity of sound in air (ANS: 340 m/s)
8. A bat emits ultrasonic sound of frequency 100 kHz in air. If this sound meets a water surface, what
is the wavelength of (i) the reflected sound (ii) the transmitted sound? If the speed of sound in air
= 340m m/s and in water = 1486 m/s (ANS: (i) 𝝀 = 𝟑. 𝟒 x 10-3 m (ii) 𝝀 = 1.486 x 10-3 m)
9. A helicopter is hovering at an altitude of 200 m above the surface of a lake. A speaker on the
helicopter is sending out sound waves ,which are reflected from both the surface of the water and
the bottom of the lake .If the difference in arrival times of the two echoes is measured to be 0.24 s,
what is the depth of the lake ?(The atmospheric temperature is 20 0 C) (ANS: h ≈ 𝟏𝟖𝟎 𝒎)
10. A stone is dropped into a well 19.6 m deep and the impact of sound is heard after 2.056 seconds.
Find the velocity of sound in air (ANS: v = 350 m/s)
11. A signal is sent to the seabed from the bottom of a ship. The signal comes back in one – fifth of a
second .How deep is the water?
12. Sound travels 1.7 Km in 5 seconds .The time between a flash of lightning and the thunder is 10 s.
How far away is the storm?
13. Explain how bats can fly in the dark without hitting anything
14. Why solid materials transfer sound faster than liquid/gas
15. Why does a tone sound louder in an empty room than in a room with furniture and other objects?
16. Explain how animals use echolocation to find things in the dark.
17. If sound cannot travel in space, explain how do Astronauts communicate with each other in
Space?
18. Sound of explosions taking place on other planets is not heard by a person on the earth. Explain
Musical sounds and noise

 All sounds which produce sensation of hearing may be roughly divided into two classes namely (i)
musical sounds (ii) noise
(i) Musical sound
 Is a pleasant, continuous and uniform sound produced by regular and periodic vibrations
 Example sound produced by turning fork, flute and piano
(ii) Noise
 Noise Is an unpleasant ,discontinuous and non–uniform sound produced by irregular succession
of disturbances
 Example is sound produced by a falling brick, the clapping of two wooden blocks
NB: Tone (Musical note) is a sound of regular frequency
Properties of Musical Sounds
 These are loudness, pitch and timbre (quality)
Loudness
 Loudness is the intensity of the sound as perceived by the human ear.
 Amplitude determines the loudness of a sound. Amplitude refers to a sound wave’s size, or
height. Volume is directly related to amplitude. Volume refers to a sound wave’s intensity.
 The larger the amplitude the more energy the sound wave contains therefore the louder the
sound.
 For example, the harder you pluck a guitar string, the louder the sound it will make. That’s
because you’re transferring more energy to the string and producing larger sound waves.
When you pluck a string very lightly, you are transferring much less energy. As a result, you
produce much smaller sound waves. The effect is similar to dropping a large rock or a small
pebble into the water. The louder sound is like the larger splash!
 Quiet sounds have small amplitudes as shown in fig. (i) above and loud sounds have small
amplitudes as shown in fig.(ii)
Pitch
 Pitch – Is the degree of highness or lowness of a tone. The pitch of a note depends on the
frequency of the source of the sound, ie,.. A high frequency produces a high pitched note
and a low frequency produces a low pitched note. (see figure below)
 Low – pitched sounds have long wavelengths as shown in fig. (i) while high – pitched sounds
have shorter wavelengths as shown in fig. (ii)
 For example, imagine a very deep note - one that would come from a bass guitar or a key
at the lower end of a piano. This note has low frequency. That means it’s low-pitched.
 Now, imagine you hear a very bright note. One that might come from a violin or the higher
end of a piano. This high note has a higher frequency. That means it’s high-pitched.
Timbre (Quality)
 The quality or timbre is the characteristic of sound that enables us to distinguish between two
sounds that have the same pitch and amplitude. For example in an orchestra, the sounds
produced by some musical instruments may have the same pitch and loudness. Yet, you can
distinctly identify the sound produced by each instrument.

 This is used to describe the quality of the waveform as it appears to the listener.
Therefore the quality of a note depends upon the waveform.
 Two notes of the same pitch and loudness, played from different instruments do not sound
the same because the waveforms are different and therefore differ in quality or tone.
N.B:
 The difference between sounds are caused by intensity, pitch and tone
 For example a violin sounds different than a flute playing the same pitch. This is because they
have a different tone or sound quality
Musical Instruments
 Musical instrument is a device constructed or modified for the purpose of making music
 All musical instruments create sound by causing matter to vibrate. Most musical instruments use
resonance to amplify sound waves and make sounds louder. Most musical instruments also have
a way of changing the frequency of sound waves, which changes the pitch of the sounds.
Categories of musical instruments

 There are three basic categories of musical instruments: Percussion instruments such as
xylophones, Wind instruments such as clarinets, and Stringed instruments such as violins.
String Instrument
 Is the instrument which produces sound from stretched strings that are plunked, bowed or struck
 Example, guitar is plunked, violin is bowed and piano is struck
Percussion Instrument
 Is the instrument which produces sound by struck with an implement, shaken, rubbed, scrapped
or by any other action which sets the object into vibrations
 Example drum, cymbals, tambourine, marimba and xylophone.
Wind Instrument
 Is the instrument which produces sound by blowing.
 Example recorders, flutes, vuvuzela and trumpets
Class Activity 1: 5
1. A musician recognizes the musical instrument by hearing the sound produced by it, even without
seeing the instrument. Which characteristic of sound makes this possible
2. State the factors that determine
(i) The pitch of a note
(ii) The loudness of the sound heard
(iii) The quality of the note
3. Why can low – amplitude sounds like whispers be heard only over short distances?
ANS; The sound waves already have so little energy that spreading them out over a wider area
quickly reduces their intensity below the level of hearing.
4. How do the two sounds of same loudness and same pitch produced by different instruments differ?
Draw diagrams to illustrate your answer
5. Identify the three basic categories of musical instruments.
6. List three properties of most musical instruments.
7. How is it possible to recognize a person by his voice without seeing him?
8. (a) Draw the waveform of (i) A loud, low-pitched note, (ii) a soft, high-pitched note.
(b) If the speed of sound is 340 m/s what is the wavelength of a note of frequency
(i) 340 Hz, (ii) 170 Hz? (ANS: (a) 1.0 m (b) 2.0 m)

Stationary Waves (Standing waves)
 A stationary wave is the wave which occurs when two waves are travelling in opposite direction
with the same speed and frequency are superposed
 When the waves are in antiphase with each other they destructively interfere and the resultant
wave has a displacement of zero.
 As the two waves move they become in phase with each other. This
causes constructive interference and the crests of the resultant wave have twice the amplitude
of the individual waves.
 The alternation between destructive and constructive interference forms a standing wave, with
fixed, vertical, oscillations.
NB:
 When adding together producing maximum displacement (amplitude) called antinodes and when
cancel out producing zero displacement called nodes
 Nodes (N) – points on a standing wave with minimum displacement (this is a displacement of
zero)
 Nodes are the result of destructive interference between the two waves and are located at fixed
points within the medium.
 Antinodes (AN) – points on a standing wave with maximum displacement.
 Antinodes are the result of constructive interference between the two waves and form at
particular places. They occur in-between two nodes and oscillate up and down between positive
and negative displacement from the rest position, (See the figure below)

 The distance between two nodes or two antinodes is half a wavelength (𝒊𝒆, . 𝒍 = ). This
𝟐
means that the distance between a node and an antinode is a quarter of a wavelength.

(𝒊𝒆, . 𝒍 = ).
𝟒
Examples of standing waves
 When plucking the string of a guitar is a good example of standing waves beings produced.
 Another good example is when two people shaking ends of a jump rope. If they shake the rope in
sync, it can form a pattern of waves oscillating up and down, with points along the rope where the
rope’s arc is at a maximum (antinode) and points where the rope is almost still (node).

Fundamental note, harmonics and Overtones
 The lowest or base frequency produced by any instrument producing sound is known as the
fundamental frequency. Typically, it is the lowest resonant frequency of any vibrating object that
displays a periodic waveform.
 Fundamental note: Is the primary note of the harmonic series
 A harmonic is a waveform whose frequency is an integral multiple of the fundamental frequency.
For example; if the fundamental frequency is 100 Hz, the higher harmonics will be 200 Hz, 300
Hz, 400 Hz, 500 Hz, and so on
 An overtone is a sound that has a higher frequency than fundamental frequency of a certain
sound. For example, when you pluck a guitar string, the lowest pitched sound generated from the
vibration of the strings is the fundamental frequency, all sounds pitched above that are overtones.
NB:
 The fundamental frequency is also called the first harmonic of the instrument.
 The second harmonic is equal to first overtone
 Stationary wave in a string have certain fixed wavelength
Consider the diagrams below

For fundamental note (1st harmonics)
𝝀
From: 𝒍 = → λ=2𝒍
𝟐
𝒗
From: 𝒗 = 𝒇 → 𝒗 = 2 𝒍𝒇 Then: 𝒇 =
𝟐𝒍
𝒗
∴ 𝒇𝒖𝒏𝒅𝒂𝒎𝒆𝒏𝒕𝒂𝒍 𝒇𝒓𝒆𝒒𝒖𝒆𝒏𝒄𝒚 , 𝒇𝟎 =
𝟐𝒍
For 1st overtone (2nd harmonic)
𝜆 𝑳
From: L = 2 × ( ) → λ =2 ( ), but, 𝒗 = 𝒇
2 𝟐
𝒗 𝒗 𝟐 𝒗 𝒗
Then: f1 = = = × = 𝟐× = 𝟐𝒇𝟎
𝝀 𝒍 𝟐 𝒍 𝟐𝒍
∴ 𝟏𝒔𝒕 𝒐𝒗𝒆𝒓𝒕𝒐𝒏𝒆 ( 𝟐𝒏𝒅 𝒉𝒂𝒓𝒎𝒐𝒏𝒊𝒄), 𝒇𝟏 = 𝟐𝒇𝟎

For 2nd overtone (3rd harmonic)
𝝀 𝟐𝒍
From: 𝒍 = 𝟑 × ( ) → 𝝀=
𝟐 𝟑
𝑣 𝟑𝒗 𝒗
From: 𝒗 = 𝒇𝝀 Then: 𝒇𝟐 = = =𝟑 × = 𝟑𝒇𝟎
𝝀 𝟐𝒍 𝟐𝒍
∴ 𝟐𝒏𝒅 𝒐𝒗𝒆𝒓𝒕𝒐𝒏𝒆 (𝟑𝒓𝒅 𝒉𝒂𝒓𝒎𝒐𝒏𝒊𝒄), 𝒇𝟐 = 𝟑𝒇𝟎
Generally the 𝒏𝒕𝒉 overtone of a stationary wave is given by
𝒇𝒏 = (𝒏 + 𝟏)𝒇𝟎 … … … … (𝒘𝒉𝒆𝒓𝒆 𝒏 = 𝟏, 𝟐, 𝟑 … . . )

1. A guitar string with a length of 80.0 cm is plucked. The speed of a wave in the string is 400 m/sec.
Calculate the frequency of the first, second, and third harmonics. ANS: 250Hz, 500 Hz, 750Hz
2. A frequency of the first harmonic is 587 Hz is sounded out by a vibrating guitar string. The speed
of the wave is 600 m/sec. Find the length of the string. ANS: 0.51 m = 51 cm
3. When the string player puts a finger down tightly on the string, explain
(a) How has the part of the string that vibrates changed?
(b) How does this change the sound waves that the string makes?
(c) How does this change the sound that is heard?
ANS;
(a) By pressing the string against the fingerboard, the vibrating length of the string is reduced.
(b) This change in the vibrating length of the string affects the frequency of the vibrations. The
shorter vibrating length increases the frequency of the vibrations, resulting in a higher pitch.
The shorter length also increases the tension in the string, which can affect the amplitude of
the vibrations and the overall sound quality.
(c) The change in the vibrating length and frequency of the string affects the sound waves
produced. The higher frequency vibrations create higher-pitched sound waves.
Sonometer
 Sonometer is an instrument used to study the properties of stationary wave
 It consists of a hollow rectangular wooden box to which a uniform wire is attached at one end. The
other end of the wire is passed over two horizontal knife edges or bridges and then over a pulley
(as shown in the figure below).
 A weight hanger is suspended from the free end of the wire. By placing different weights in the
weight hanger, the tension in the wire can be suitably adjusted.
 The points at which the wire rests on the knife edges cannot vibrate at all. Hence, the wire is set
up into vibrations, and these two points (P and Q) become nodes and the wire vibrates in the
fundamental mode.
 The frequency of vibration of the wire can be varied by either changing the positions of the knife
edges by changing the vibrating length or by placing different weights in the pan by changing the
tension.

 It is used to study the relationship between the frequency of the sound produced by a plucked
string, and the tension, length and mass per unit length of the string.
N.B: Stringed musical instruments are provided with a hollow box in order to amplify the sound
made by the vibrations of the strings of the instrument.
Factors affecting the frequency of a vibrating string

 Length of wire, L
 Tension of the wire, T
 Mass per unit length, μ (diameter and density)
Length (L) of stretched string (Wire)

 When the length of the string is changed, it will vibrate with a different frequency. The shorter
strings have higher frequency and therefore higher pitch
 Example when a musician presses her finger on a string, she shortens its length .The more
fingers she adds to the string ,the shorter she makes it and the higher the pitch will be
 Therefore: The frequency of a stretched string is inversely proportional to its length
𝟏
𝒊. 𝒆, . 𝒇 ∝ …………..(i)
𝑳
𝟏 𝒌
If 𝒇 ∝ → 𝒕𝒉𝒆𝒏 𝒇= → 𝒇𝒍 = 𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒕
𝒍 𝒍
𝒇𝟏 𝒍𝟐
∴ 𝒇𝟏 𝒍𝟏 = 𝒇𝟐 𝒍𝟐 𝒐𝒓 =
𝒇𝟐 𝒍𝟏
Tension (T) of the stretched string

 Tension refers to how tightly the string is stretched
 Tightening the string gives it a higher frequency while loosening it lowers the frequency
 Example when string players tighten or loosen their strings , they are altering the pitches
(frequencies) to make them in tune
 Therefore: The frequency of a vibrating string is directly proportional to the square root of
the tension T (𝒇 ∝ √𝑇………….. ii)
𝒇
If 𝒇 ∝ √𝑻 → 𝒕𝒉𝒆𝒏 𝒇 = 𝒌√𝑻 → = 𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒕
√𝑻
𝒇𝟏 𝒇𝟐 𝒇𝟏 𝑻𝟏
∴ = 𝑶𝑹 = √
√𝑻𝟏 √𝑻𝟐 𝒇𝟐 𝑻𝟐

Mass per Unit Length (𝝁) of a vibrating string
 This includes the thickness (diameter) and heaviness (density) of a string

 Thus the thicker and heavier a string is, the lower is its frequency for a given length and tension
and vice versa
 Example a thin string with a 10 mm diameter will have a frequency twice as high as one with a
larger, 20 mm diameter
 Also the instruments often have strings made of different materials. The strings used for low
pitches will be made of a more dense material than the strings used for high pitches
 Therefore: The frequency is inversely proportional to the square root of the mass per unit length, μ
𝟏
(𝒇 ∝ √ … … … … … 𝒊𝒊𝒊)
𝝁
𝟏
If 𝒇 ∝ √ → 𝒕𝒉𝒆𝒏 𝒇√𝝁 = 𝒌 → 𝒇√𝝁 = 𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒕
𝝁
𝒇𝟏 𝝁𝟐
∴ 𝒇𝟏 √𝝁𝟏 = 𝒇𝟐 √𝝁𝟐 𝒐𝒓 =√
𝒇𝟐 𝝁𝟏
𝟏 𝟏
 Also for a diameter and density (𝒇 ∝ 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝒇 ∝ √ )
𝑫 𝝆
Now combine the three equations
𝟏 𝑻 𝟏 𝑻
𝒇 ∝ √  𝒇=𝒌 √
𝑳 𝝁 𝑳 𝝁
𝟏 𝑻
Where: k = 1/2, (experimentally) Then: 𝒇= √
𝟐𝒍 𝝁
𝟏 𝑻 𝟏 𝑻𝒍
∴𝒇= √ = √ , (fundamental frequency/first harmonic)
𝟐𝒍 𝝁 𝟐𝒍 𝒎
𝒎
Since 𝝁 = (mass per unit length)
𝒍
𝟏 𝑻 𝑻 𝑻𝑳
From: V = 𝝀𝒇 → 𝒗 = 𝟐𝒍 ( √ ) = √ = √
𝟐𝒍 𝝁 𝝁 𝒎
𝝀
Since 𝒍 = → 𝝀 = 𝟐𝒍 (for fundamental frequency)
𝟐
𝑻 𝑻𝑳
∴ 𝑽𝒆𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒊𝒕𝒚 𝒐𝒇 𝒔𝒐𝒖𝒏𝒅 , 𝒗 =√ = √
𝝁 𝒎
Therefore for the nth harmonic is given by
𝒏 𝑻𝑳 𝟏 𝑻𝑳
𝒇𝒏 = √ = 𝒏( √ )
𝟐𝑳 𝒎 𝟐𝒍 𝒎
(𝑊ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑏𝑦 𝒇𝒏 = frequency of nth harmonic, n = 1,2,3,4 etc)

Worked Examples
1. The vibrating length of a stretched wire is altered at constant tension until the wire oscillates in
unison with a turning fork of frequency 320 Hz. The length of the wire is again altered until it
oscillates in unison with a fork of unknown frequency. If the two lengths are 90 cm and 6o cm,
respectively, determine the unknown frequency
Solution
Given that: f1 = 320 Hz, L1 = 90 cm, L2 = 60 cm, f2 =?
𝟏 𝒇𝟏 𝒍𝟐 𝒍𝟏 𝒇𝟏 𝟑𝟐𝟎×𝟗𝟎
From: 𝒇 ∝ → = ∴ 𝒇𝟐 = = = 𝟒𝟖𝟎 𝑯𝒛
𝒍 𝒇𝟐 𝒍𝟏 𝒍𝟐 𝟔𝟎
2. A rope of length 80 cm and a mass of 10g is set into vibration. If the tension in the rope is 20N,
find the frequencies of the 1st and 3rd harmonics.
ANSW: T = 20N, l = 80cm = 0.8m, m = 10g = 0.01kg
𝟏 𝑻𝑳
From; 𝒇𝒏 = 𝒏 ( √ ), where n = 1,2,3 etc
𝟐𝒍 𝒎
𝟏 𝑻𝑳 𝟏 𝟐𝟎×𝟎.𝟖
 For 1st harmonic, 𝒇𝟏 = √ = √ = 𝟐𝟓Hz
𝟐𝒍 𝒎 𝟐×𝟎.𝟖 𝟎.𝟎𝟏
𝟏 𝑻𝑳 𝟏 𝟐𝟎×𝟎.𝟖
 For 3rd harmonic, 𝒇𝟑 = 𝒏 ( √ ) = 𝟑 ( √ ) =75Hz
𝟐𝒍 𝒎 𝟐×𝟎.𝟖 𝟎.𝟎𝟏
3. What adjustments would you make for tuning a stringed instrument for it to emit a note of
desired frequency?
ANSW:
1 𝑇 1 𝑇𝐿 1 𝑇
As we know, frequency (f) = √𝜇 = √ = √𝜋𝑟 2𝜌
2𝑙 2𝑙 𝑚 2𝑙
Hence, frequency of a desired note can be obtained by altering the following:-
(i) Length of the string — In order to increase the frequency, the length of the string should be
decreased.
(ii) Radius (thickness) of the string — In order to increase the frequency, the radius of the
string should be decreased.
(iii) Tension in the string — In order to increase the frequency, the tension in the string should
be increased.
4. Matter expands when heated and contracts when cooled. Explain why a musician must re –
tune a stringed instrument if its temperature changes.
ANS: When the temperature changes, the length of the string is affected; either it increases due
to expansion or decreases due to contraction which affects the frequency of the sound produced
by the vibrating string. This is because the frequency of sound produced by a vibrating string
1
depends on the length of the string(𝑖𝑒. , 𝑓 ∝ ).
𝑙
5. The frequency of transverse vibrations in a stretched string is 200Hz. If the tension is increased 4
times and the length is reduced to one fourth the original values, what is the new frequency of
vibrations
𝟏
√𝑻 𝒇𝟏 𝒍𝟏 𝒇𝟐 𝒍𝟐 𝟐𝟎𝟎𝒍 𝒇( 𝒍)
[ANS: 𝒇 ∝ → = , = 𝟒
→ 𝒇 =1600Hz]
𝒍 √𝑻𝟏 √𝑻𝟐 √𝑻 √𝟒𝑻
6. If the length of a stretched string is shortened by 40% and the tension is increased by 44%, find the
ratio of the final and initial fundamental
√𝑻 𝒇𝟏 𝒍𝟏 𝒇𝟐 𝒍𝟐 𝒇𝟐 𝒍𝟏 √𝑻𝟐 𝒍×√𝟏.𝟒𝟒𝑻
frequencies [A: 𝒇 ∝ → = , = = = 2:1]
𝒍 √𝑻𝟏 √𝑻𝟐 𝒇𝟏 𝒍𝟐 √𝑻𝟏 𝟎.𝟔𝒍√𝑻
7. What does a violinist do to change the note emitted by a particular string?

ANS: A violinist can change note emitted by pressing down the string with the fingertips of
the left hand on the fingerboard. This shortens the vibrating portion of the string and raises
the pitch emitted by a violin.
8. String A is 2m long and has a linear mass density of 9g/cm. String B has a linear mass density of
18g/cm. If the tension in both strings is the same, how long must string B be for it to be at
resonance with string A,
ANS; Given; 𝒍𝟏 = 𝟐𝒎, 𝑻𝟏 = 𝑻𝟐 = 𝑻, 𝒇𝟏 = 𝒇𝟐 = 𝒇, 𝝁𝟏 = 𝟗𝒈/𝒄𝒎
𝝁𝟐 = 𝟏𝟖𝒈/𝒄𝒎, 𝒍𝟐 =?
𝟏 𝑻 𝟏 𝑻 𝟏 𝑻
From; 𝒇 =
𝟐𝒍
√𝝁  𝒇𝟏 =
𝟐 𝒍𝟏
√𝝁𝟏 ------(i) 𝒇𝟐 = 𝟐 𝒍 √𝝁𝟐 -----(ii)
𝟏 𝟐 𝟐
Compare equation (i) and (ii), because it has been given that string B must resonate to the same
value as string A ie,. 𝒇𝟏 = 𝒇𝟐
𝟏 𝑻 𝟏 𝑻 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
𝟐 𝒍𝟏
√𝝁𝟏 = 𝟐 𝒍𝟐
√𝝁𝟐  (𝒍 ) =( )  ( ) =( )
𝟏 𝟐 𝟏 √𝝁𝟏 𝒍𝟐 √𝝁𝟐 𝟐𝟎√𝟗 𝒍√𝟏𝟖
𝟏 𝟏 𝟔𝟎
 = →𝒍= = 𝟏𝟒. 𝟏𝟒𝒄𝒎
𝟔𝟎 𝟑√𝟐𝒍 𝟑√𝟐
Therefore, string B must be 14.14cm for to be at resonance with string A
9. Guitars have strings of different linear mass density. If the lowest density string and the highest
density string are under the same tension, Explain which string would support waves with the
higher wave speed
ANS: Since the speed of a wave on a string is inversely proportional to the square root of the
linear mass density, the speed would be higher in the low linear mass density of the string.

Use acceleration due to gravity, g = 10 m/s2
1. A string has a length of 75cm and a mass of 8.2g, the tension in the string is 18N.Calculate the 1st
harmonic and 3rd harmonic (AN: f1 = 27Hz, f3 = 81Hz)
2. A string of length 1 m and mass 5 x 10 -4 kg fixed at both ends is under a tension of 20 N. It is
plucked at a point situated 25 cm from one end. What would be the frequency of vibrations of the
string? (ANS: f = 200 Hz)
3. A wire of length 140 cm and mass 0.52 x 10-3 kg is stretched by means of a load of 16 kg.
Calculate the frequency of the fundamental note.(A: f = 234 Hz)
4. The vibration length of a stretched wire is altered at constant tension until the wire oscillates in
unison with a turning fork of frequency 320 Hz. The length of a wire is again altered until it
oscillates in unison with a fork of unknown frequency. If the two lengths are 90 cm and 65.5 cm,
respectively, determine the unknown frequency (ANS: ƒ2 = 440 Hz)
5. The length of a sonometer wire between two fixed ends is 110 cm. Where should the two bridges
be placed so as to divide the wire into three segments whose fundamental frequencies are in the
𝟏
ratio 1:2:3? (from: 𝒇 ∝ , f1L1 = f2L2 = f3L3, Thus L1=60 cm,L2 =30 cm and L3 = 20 cm)
𝒍
6. A 90 cm long wire of a sitar has a fundamental frequency of 256Hz. At what distance from the
upper end should the wire be compressed so that a note of frequency 384 Hz is produced?
(ANS: L = 60 cm)
7. Transverse stationary waves are set up in a long string using a suitable vibrator of frequency 60
Hz. The average distance between successive nodal points is measured to be 50 cm .Calculate
the velocity of transverse waves in the string ANS: V = 60 m/s
8. A nylon string is stretched between supports 1.2 m apart. Given that the speed of sound in the
string is 800 ms-1,find the frequency of the fundamental vibration and the first two overtones

(ANS: f0 =333 Hz, f1 = 666 Hz and f3 = 1000 Hz)
9. A Sonometer wire of length 40cm between two bridges produces a note of 512Hz when plucked at
the midpoint. Calculate the length of the wire that would produce a note of 256Hz with the same
tension (ANS: L2 = 0.8m)
10. A sonometer wire of length 40 cm between two bridges produces a note of 512 Hz when plucked at
the midpoint .Calculate the length of the wire that would produce a note of 256 Hz with the same
tension
11. The frequency obtained in a plucked string is 500Hz when the tension is 3 N .calculate
(i)The frequency when the tension is increased to 10 N (ANS: 912.8 Hz)
(ii)The tension needed to produce a note of frequency 800 Hz (ANS: T =7.7 N)
12. A plucked string of length 30 cm has a mass per unit length of 0.5 kg/m .If the tension in the string
is equal to 40 N ,Find :
(a)The fundamental frequency (ANS: f0 = 14.9 Hz)
(b)The first overtone frequency (ANS: f1 = 29.8Hz)
(c)The second overtone frequency (ANS: f2 = 44.7 Hz)
13. A plucked wire of 10 m long and radius of 7mm has a density of 500 kg/m3. Calculate
(i) The fundamental frequency (ANS: f0 = 0.5 Hz)
(ii) The first overtone frequency (ANS: f1 = 1.0 Hz) needed to produce a tension of 8 N
14. A string has a length of 75cm and a mass 0f 8.2g. The tension in the string is 18N. Calculate the
velocity of the sound wave in the string. (ANS: V = 40.5m/s.)
15. Given that the velocity of the sound wave emitted from a string is 50m/s the Length of the string is
40cm and the mass of the string is 0.0004kg calculate the tension of the string. (ANS: T = 2.5N)
16. A sonometer wire of length 50cm vibrate with frequency 384Hz. Calculate the length of the
sonometer wire so that it vibrates with frequency of 512Hz.(37.5 m)
17. A sonometer wire of length 40cm between two bridges produces a note of frequency 512Hz when
plucked at midpoint. Calculate the length of the wire that would produce a note of frequency 256Hz
with the some tension.(L = 80cm)
18. The frequency obtained from a plucked string is 400Hz when the tension is 2 Newton. Calculate;
a) The frequency when the tension is increased to 8N (ANS: f= 800Hz)
b) The tension needs to produce a note of frequency 600Hz (A: T = 4.5N)
19. Given that the frequency obtained from a plucked string is 800Hz when the tension is 8N.
Calculate;
(a) The frequency when the tension is doubled (ANS: f = 1131. 2 Hz)
(b) The tension required when the frequency is halved (T = 2 N)
20. Under constant tension the note produced by a plucked string is 300Hz when the length is 0.9m;
a) At what length is the frequency 200Hz? (ANS: L2 = 1.35m)
b) What frequency is produce at 0.3m (ANS: f = 90Hz)
21. A string fixed between two supports that are 60cm a part. The speed of a transverse wave in a
string is 420m /s. Calculate the wavelength and the frequency for Fundamental note, Second
overtone and Fifth overtone (A: fo = 350 λ = 1.2 m, f3 = 1050 λ = 0.4 m , f5 = 2100 λ = 0.2m)
22. A string with a linear mass density of 0.0060 kg/m is tied to the ceiling. A 20-kg mass is tied to the
free end of the string. The string is plucked, sending a pulse down the string. Estimate the speed of
𝑻 𝟐𝟎𝟎
the pulse as it moves down the string ANS: 𝒗 = √ = √ =180 Hz
𝝁 𝟎.𝟎𝟎𝟔
23. A string is fixed two ends 50cm a part. The velocity of a wave in a string is 600m/s. Calculate;
(a) The first five over tone (A: 1200Hz, 1800Hz, 2400Hz, 3000Hz, and 3600Hz).
(b) The tenth overtones (The tenth overtone is 6600Hz)
NOTE: In stationary wave a string does not compose up to ten overtones, though
mathematically is possible. In real practical of the sonometer by using turning, is possible for
the second and third overtone.

24. A guitar wire fixed between two supports 60cm a part produced wave of frequency 500Hz.
Calculate;
(a) The frequency of a wave when the length of the guitar wire is reduced to quarter
(b) The length of the guitar wire when the frequency of the wave produced is 2000Hz
(ANS: f = 2000Hz , L = 150m)
25. A string A is 2m long and has a linear mass density of 9 g/cm 3. String B has has a linear mass
density of 18g/cm3 .If the tension in both strings is the same ,how long must string B be for it to be
raised to hear the next peak in intensity
26. A stringed musical instruments such as the sitar, is provided with a number of wires of
different thickness. Explain the reason for this.
27. How can the pitch of sound produced in a piano be changed?
28. A wire is stretched between two fixed points such that when it is plucked, it produces sound.
Explain why the pitch of the sound produced may become lower when the temperature of the
surrounding rises
29. Guitars have strings of varying thickness .Which of the strings (thickest or thinnest) produces the
highest frequency of musical notes? Explain your answer
30. How does a musical playing on a flute change the pitch of sound produced by it?
31. Briefly explain why;
(a) There are four strings of different thickness in a violin?
(b) The fundamental frequency may alter during the day
(c) The same musical note when played on a piano and when played on a flute sounds
different.
(d) Explain why a musical tune does not sound the same when played on different
instruments.
32. How is the frequency (f) of a vibrating string is related to its length (l) when the tension is kept
constant? The results obtained by tuning a string of various lengths using different tuning forks are
as shown below.
Frequency (Hz) 256 288 320 384 512
Length (cm) 78.1 69.5 62.5 52.1 39.1
Obtain an appropriate graph and hence, determine the relationship between frequency and length
of vibrating string.
Forced Vibration and Resonance
Forced Vibration
 Forced vibration – Is the vibration in a system as a result of impulse received from another
system vibrating nearby
Resonance
 Resonance – Is the tendency of a system to oscillate at maximum amplitude at certain
frequencies from another system.
OR
 Resonance – Is the phenomena where by the response of the system that is set into forced
vibration when the driving frequency is equal to the natural frequency of the responding
system.
NB:
 Resonance occurs in sound when forced vibrations and natural vibrations both reach the
same frequency and thus a large pronounced loud sound is obtained.
 Resonance condition is used to tune string instruments and to measure velocity of sound in
a resonance tube.

Resonance in a Closed Pipe
 When a turning fork is sounded at the top of a tube with one end open and the other closed, the air
in the tube vibrate freely (resonates) at a certain length of a tube. The resonance is observed as a
loud sound produced in the tube when the proper length obtained
EXPERIMENT:
 The aim of the experiment is determine the speed of sound in air using a tuning fork and a tube of
water
Method:
 The resonance tube experiment consists of a resonance tube connected to a water reservoir by a
rubber tube as shown in Fig. (i). Fill the tube with water from the reservoir to the brim.
 By using a tuning fork of known frequency, tune it over the top open end of tube and gradually
decrease the length of the column of water by lowering the reservoir, R until the first position of
resonance is obtained.
 Measure the length of the air column, say 𝒍𝟏 , as in Fig. (ii).Then tune the fork again and decrease
further the length of the column of water until the second position of resonance is obtained.
Measure the length of the air column, 𝒍𝟐 , which is actually three times as 𝒍𝟏 , (Fig. (iii)).
 Note that the Antinode at the open end is slightly over the edge of the tube, add a length called

the end correction, c. Then you have 𝒍𝟏 + 𝒄 = ----- (i) for the first position,
𝟒
𝟑
and 𝒍𝟐 + 𝒄 = ---- (ii) for the second position of resonance. Subtracting the two equations,
𝟒

𝒍𝟏 + 𝒄 = 
𝟒
ie,.− { 𝟑 , 𝒚𝒐𝒖 𝒈𝒆𝒕 = 𝒍𝟐 − 𝒍𝟏 →  = 𝟐(𝒍𝟐 − 𝒍𝟏 )
𝟐
𝒍𝟐 + 𝒄 =
𝟒
 Therefore; from the wave equation, 𝒗 = 𝒇𝝀 = 𝟐𝒇(𝒍𝟐 − 𝒍𝟏 ) , The speed of the sound wave, 𝒗,
can be found from the product of the frequency 𝒇 of the tuning fork and the wavelength 𝝀
NB:
 Don't let the tuning fork touch the tube, since the vibrations could break or crack it (ie,.. a short
distance should be added to the actual length of a resonance pipe, This distance is known as End
correction, c)
 When resonance (loudest sound) is heard, you may mark the water level with a rubber band or
marker pen
 Also make sure the water is at room temperature, and no electrical equipment is near the water,
otherwise they could be damaged

Resonance in a closed Pipe (without end correction, c)
 Consider the figures below of closed pipes without end correction
 For fundamental Note (First harmonic) as see from figure (i)

𝒗 𝝀
From: 𝒗 = 𝝀 𝒇 →𝒇= , 𝒍= → 𝝀 = 𝟒𝒍
𝝀 𝟒
𝒗
∴ 𝒇𝒖𝒏𝒅𝒂𝒎𝒆𝒏𝒕𝒂𝒍 𝒇𝒓𝒆𝒒𝒖𝒆𝒏𝒄𝒚 , 𝒇𝟎 =
𝟒𝒍
 For the 1st overtone (2nd harmonic), see figure (ii) above
𝒗 𝟑𝝀 𝟒𝒍
From: 𝒗 = 𝝀𝒇 → 𝒇 = , But 𝒍= → 𝝀=
𝝀 𝟒 𝟑
𝒗
𝟒𝒍 𝟑𝒗 𝒗 𝒗
𝒇𝟏 = = =𝟑× , 𝒃𝒖𝒕 𝒇𝟎 =
𝟑 𝟒𝒍 𝟒𝒍 𝟒𝒍
∴ 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒇𝒊𝒓𝒔𝒕 𝒐𝒗𝒆𝒓𝒕𝒐𝒏𝒆, 𝒇𝟏 = 𝟑𝒇𝟎

 For the 2nd overtone (3rd harmonic), see figure (iii) above
𝒗 𝟓𝝀 𝟒𝒍
From: 𝒗 = 𝝀𝒇 →𝒇= , But 𝒍= → 𝝀=
𝝀 𝟒 𝟓
𝒗
𝟒𝒍 𝟓𝒗 𝒗 𝒗
𝒇𝟐 = = =𝟓× , 𝒃𝒖𝒕 𝒇𝟎 =
𝟓 𝟒𝒍 𝟒𝒍 𝟒𝒍
∴ 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒔𝒆𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒅 𝒐𝒗𝒆𝒓𝒕𝒐𝒏𝒆, 𝒇𝟐 = 𝟓𝒇𝟎

Generally the 𝒏𝒕𝒉 𝒐𝒗𝒆𝒓𝒕𝒐𝒏𝒆 𝒊𝒏 𝒂 𝒄𝒍𝒐𝒔𝒆𝒅 𝒑𝒊𝒑𝒆 𝒊𝒔 𝒈𝒊𝒗𝒆𝒏 𝒃𝒚 ;
𝒇𝒏 = (𝟐𝒏 + 𝟏)𝒇𝟎 … … … … … 𝒘𝒉𝒆𝒓𝒆 𝒏 = 𝟏, 𝟐, 𝟑, 𝟒 𝒆𝒕𝒄
Since the resonance tube (closed at one end) produces odd harmonics then the equation of the length
of tube (length of air column) is given by
𝐧𝛌
𝐋= → 𝐧 = 𝟏, 𝟑, 𝟓, 𝟕 … ..
𝟒
Worked Examples
1. A turning fork of frequency 256 Hz is sounded at the mouth of a tube closed at one end with a
movable. It is found that resonance occurs when the column of air is 15 cm long and again
when the column is 80 cm long. Determine the velocity of sound in air.
Soln:
Given: L1 = 15 cm, L2 = 80 cm, f = 256Hz, V = ?
From: 𝑽 = 𝝀𝒇 = 𝟐 (𝒍𝟐 − 𝒍𝟏 )𝒇

∴ 𝑽 = 𝝀𝒇 = 𝟐 (𝒍𝟐 − 𝒍𝟏 )𝒇 = 𝟐𝟓𝟔 × 𝟐(𝟎. 𝟖𝟎 − 𝟎. 𝟏𝟓)
= 𝟓𝟏𝟐 × 𝟎. 𝟔𝟓 = 𝟑𝟑𝟐. 𝟖 𝒎/𝒔
2. The first resonance in the tube of resonance occurs when the length of the air column is 20 cm.
What are the lengths of air column in the second resonance and third resonance respectively
(ANS: 60 cm and 100 cm respectively)
ANSW: Given; 𝒍𝟏 = 𝟐𝟎cm, 𝒍𝟐 =? , 𝒍𝟑 =?
𝜆 𝜆
For first resonance, 𝑙 = → 20 = → 𝜆 = 20 × 4 = 80 cm
4 4
3𝜆 3×80
For second resonance, 𝑙 = = = 60cm
4 40
5𝜆 5×80
For third resonance, 𝑙 = = = 100cm
4 40
3. A turning fork of frequency 512 Hz is sounded at the mouth of a tube closed at one end with a
movable piston. It is found that resonance occurs when the column of air is 18cm long and
again when the column is 51cm long. Find wave length and velocity of sound in air
(ANS: 𝝀 = 0.66m and VA = 338m/s)
SOLN: 𝑓 = 512𝐻𝑧, 𝑙1 = 18𝑐𝑚 = 0.18𝑚, 𝑙2 = 51𝑐𝑚 = 0.51𝑚
From: 𝜆 = 2 (𝑙2 − 𝑙1 ) = 2 × (0.51 − 0.18) = 0.66𝑚 = 66𝑐𝑚
Also; 𝑉 = 𝜆𝑓 = 0.66 × 512 = 338 m/s
4.A turning fork of frequency 340Hz is vibrated just above the tube of 120 cm height. Water
is poured slowly in the tube. What is the minimum height of water necessary for the
resonance? (speed of sound in air = 340m/s)
𝒗
ANS: V = 𝒇𝝀 → 𝝀 = = 𝟏𝒎 ,
𝒇
𝝀 𝟏
1st resonating length, L1 = = m =25cm
𝟒 𝟒
3𝜆 3
2nd resonating length, L2 = = 𝑚 =75cm
4 4
5𝜆 5
3rd
resonating length, L3= = 𝑚 =125cm, so the third resonance is not possible since the
4 4
length of the tube is 120 cm
∴ Minimum height of water necessary for resonance is 120-75 = 45cm
5. What is the working principle of the resonance tube?
Answer: It works on the principle of resonance of the air column with a tuning fork.
6. A student performed an experiment to determine the speed of sound in air using the resonance
column method. The length of the air column that resonates in the fundamental mode with a
tuning fork is 0.2 m. If the length is varied such that the same tuning fork resonates with the first
overtone at 0.7 m. Calculate the end correction.
ANSW: 𝑙1 = 0.2𝑚, 𝑙2 = 0.7𝑚
From:  = 2(𝑙2 − 𝑙1 ) = 2(0.7 − 0.2) = 1𝑚
  1
Also; 𝑙1 + 𝑐 = ∴ 𝑐 = − 𝑙1 = − 0.2 = 0.25 − 0.2= 0.05m
4 4 4
Resonance in Opened Pipe
 Consider the diagrams below of Open Pipes

 For Fundamental frequency (Note), see figure (i) above
𝒗 𝝀
From: 𝒗 = 𝝀𝒇 →𝒇= , But 𝒍= → 𝝀 = 𝟐𝒍
𝝀 𝟐
𝒗
∴ 𝑭𝒖𝒏𝒅𝒂𝒎𝒆𝒏𝒕𝒂𝒍 𝒇𝒓𝒆𝒒𝒖𝒆𝒏𝒄𝒚, 𝒇𝟎 =
𝟐𝒍
 For the first overtone (second harmonic/second resonance), see figure (ii) above
𝒗
From: 𝒗 = 𝝀𝒇 →𝒇= But 𝒍= 𝝀
𝝀
𝑽 𝑽 𝟐 𝒗 𝒗 𝒗
𝒇𝟏 = = = × =𝟐 × = 𝟐𝒇𝟎 , 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝒄𝒆 𝒇𝟎 =
𝝀 𝑳 𝟐 𝒍 𝟐𝒍 𝟐𝒍
∴ 𝑭𝒊𝒓𝒔𝒕 𝒐𝒗𝒆𝒓𝒕𝒐𝒏𝒆, 𝒇𝟏 = 𝟐𝒇𝟎
 For the 2nd overtone (Third harmonic/third resonance), see figure (iii)
𝒗 𝟑𝝀 𝟐𝒍
From: 𝒗 = 𝝀𝒇 →𝒇= But 𝒍= → 𝝀=
𝝀 𝟐 𝟑
𝒗 𝒗
𝒕𝒉𝒆𝒏, 𝒇𝟐 = 𝟐𝒍 =𝟑 ×
𝟐𝒍
𝟑
𝒗
∴ 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝑺𝒆𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒅 𝒐𝒗𝒆𝒓𝒕𝒐𝒏𝒆, 𝒇𝟐 = 𝟑𝒇𝟎 , 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝒄𝒆 𝒇𝟎 =
𝟐𝒍
Generally the 𝑛𝑡ℎ Overtone of an Open Pipe is expressed as
𝒇𝒏 = (𝒏 + 𝟏)𝒇𝟎 , whereby n = 1, 2, 3, 4………….
 Since the resonance tube(opened at both ends) produces integral multiples of harmonics, then
the equation of the length of tube (length of air column) at 𝒏𝒕𝒉 harmonic is given by
𝒏𝝀
𝑳= whereby; 𝒏 = 𝟏, 𝟐, 𝟑, 𝟒, … ..
𝟐
Worked Examples
1. An open organ has a length of 6m. If the speed of sound in air is 340m/s and neglecting the end
corrections, what is the frequency of its
(i) First Overtone
(ii) Fifth harmonic
(iii) Tenth Overtone
𝑣 340
ANS: v = 340m/s, l = 6m but; 𝑓0 = = = 28.3Hz,
2𝑙 2×6
(i) 𝐹𝑖𝑟𝑠𝑡 𝑜𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑜𝑛𝑒, 𝑓1 = 2𝑓0 = 2 × 28.33 = 56.7Hz
(ii) Fifth harmonic (4th Overtone,) , 𝑓4 = 5𝑓0 = 5 × 56.7 = 283.5Hz
(iii) Tenth Overtone, 𝑓10 = 11𝑓0 = 11 × 56.7 = 623.7Hz
2. The separation between a node and the next antinode in a vibrating air column is 25 cm. If
the speed of sound in air is 340 m s-1, find the frequency of vibration of the air column.
Given:
Separation between the node and anti-node = 25 cm, v = 340m/s
The distance between two nodes or anti-nodes is 

But NA = 𝑙 = →  = 4𝑙 = 4 × 25 = 100𝑐𝑚 = 1𝑚
4
𝑣 340
Also 𝑣 = 𝑓 → 𝑓 = = = 340Hz
 1
3. A closed pipe and open pipe have their first overtones identical in frequency. Find the ratio
in their lengths
ANSW: given that overtones are the same
Consider the figure below
𝟑𝝀
𝒍𝒆𝒈𝒏𝒕𝒉 𝒐𝒇 𝒄𝒍𝒐𝒔𝒆𝒅 𝒑𝒊𝒑𝒆 𝟑𝝀 𝟑𝝀 𝟏 𝟑
Ratio = = 𝟒
= ÷𝝀= × = = 𝟑: 𝟒
𝒍𝒆𝒏𝒈𝒕𝒉 𝒐𝒇 𝒐𝒑𝒆𝒏 𝒑𝒊𝒑𝒆 𝝀 𝟒 𝟒 𝝀 𝟒
Advantages of resonance
 Resonance is useful to determine an unknown frequency
 Resonance is useful to increase the intensity of sound in musical instruments
 Resonance is useful to tune a radio receiver in any desired frequency
 Resonance is useful to analyze musical note
Disadvantages of Resonance
(i) Soldiers are asked to break steps when crossing a bridge. It can be explained as follows:
 Soldiers matching the bridge take steps with definite frequency and force the bridge to
vibrate with the frequency of the steps
 If the forced frequency on the bridge is equal to the natural frequency of vibration of the
bridge, the bridge is set into resonant vibrations
 Due to the resonance, the bridge vibrates with higher amplitude and due to this, it may
collapse
(ii) Due to the rhythmic clapping of the audience, the roof of the stadium may collapse, it
can be explained as follows:
 When the audience claps rhythmically they do so with a certain frequency and force the
roof of a stadium to vibrate with the frequency of the clap
 If the forced frequency on the roof of a stadium is equal to the natural frequency of
vibration of the roof of a stadium, the roof of a stadium is set into resonant vibrations
 Due to the resonance, the roof of a stadium vibrate with higher amplitude and due to this, it
may collapse.
(iii) When the speed of an aircraft increases, different parts are forced
to vibrate, which is dangerous for the structure of the aircraft.
(iv) Resonance can cause disaster during an earthquake
 This occurs when the natural frequency of the building matches the frequency of the
periodic oscillations present in the Earth. The building begins to oscillate with large
amplitude thus leading to a collapse
(v) A singer maintaining a note at a resonant frequency of a glass can cause it to shatter
into pieces.

1. The speed of sound waves in air is found to be 340m/s. Find;

(a) The fundamental frequency
(b) The frequency of the 3rd harmonic
(c) The frequency of 9th harmonic
(d) The frequency of 51st harmonic. Given that the sound waves are probating in a closed pipe of
length 700m.
ANS: f0 = 121.5Hz, f3 = 850.5 Hz, f9 = 2308.5 Hz, f51 = 12514.5 Hz
2. Explain how a resonance-tube works. In a certain resonance-tube experiment the shortest length
of the tube for resonance was 0.22 m and the next resonance length was 0.47 m. What is the
𝒗 𝟑𝟒𝟎 𝟑𝟒𝟎
frequency of vibration? [A: 𝒇 = = = = 680H
)
𝟐(𝒍𝟐 −𝒍𝟏 𝟐(𝟎.𝟒𝟕−𝟎.𝟐𝟐) 𝟎.𝟓
3. In a closed pipe, the first resonance is at 23 cm and second at 73 cm. Determine the wavelength
of the sound and the end correction of the pipe. (ANS: 𝝀 = 𝟏 𝒎, 𝒄 = 𝟐 𝒄𝒎)
4. A pipe closed at one end has a length of 10cm. If the velocity of sound in the air of the pipe is
340m/s. Calculate the frequency of;
(a) The fundamental (b) 1st overtone (ANS: f0 = 850 Hz, f1 = 2550 Hz)
5. A pipe closed at one and has a length of 2.46m. Find the frequency of the fundamental and the
first two overtones. Take 343m/s as the speed of sound in air.
(ANS: f0 = 34.85Hz, f1 = 104.55 Hz, f2 =174.25 Hz
6. (a) Identify three characteristics of sound which distinguish one note from another. Hence state
the physical factors which correspondingly define the mentioned characteristics
(b) A resonance tube whose one end is closed and other open, resonance to a note of frequency
560Hz when the length of the air column is 15cm. determine the wave length of this sound in air.
What is the shortest length of the air column which resonates in similar conditions to a note of
frequency 1000 Hz
7. In a closed pipe, the first resonance is at 23cm and second at 73cm. determines the wave length
of the sound and the end correction of pipe (ANS: c = 0.002 m, 𝝀 = 1.0 m)
8. A resonance tube produces a loud sound for the first time when the length of the air column is 17
cm and a loud sound at the second time when the length of the air column is 51 cm .The turning
fork frequency used is 500 Hz .Determine the speed of the air in the tube (ANS: V = 340 m/s)
9. Explain why it is not advisable for soldiers to march across a bridge in rhythm.
10. A turning fork of frequency 250Hz is used to produce resonance in an opened pipe. Given that the
velocity of sound in air is 350m/s. find the length of tube which gives (a) First resonance (b) Third
resonance (A: L = 1.4m)
11. The length of a closed pipe is 160mm. calculate the wavelength and the frequency of (i) The first
overtone (ii) The third harmonic
(λ = 0.213, f2 ≈1500,Hz, f3 = 2500Hz)
12. A pipe closed at one end has a length of 100 cm. If the velocity of sound in air of the pipe is
340m/s. Calculate the frequency of;
(a) The fundamental (f0 = 85 Hz) (b) The first overtone ( f1 = 255 Hz)
13. In a resonance tube experiment ,the smallest value of L for which a peak in sound intensity
occurs is 9.0 cm .How much must the tube be raised to hear the next peak in intensity
14. When a tuning fork of 512Hz is sounded at the top of the measuring cylinder which contains
water. The first resonances are observed when the length of the air column (the distance from the
mouth to the level of the water is 50 cm) and the second resonance is observed when the length
of the air column (the distance from the mouth to the level of water) is 80 cm; using these
observations. Calculate the velocity of water in air.(A: v = 307 .2m/s)
15. A column of air 30 cm long in a closed tube resonates to a sounding tuning fork. If the
velocity of sound in air is 340 m/s. What is the fundamental frequency of the fork?
𝒗 𝟑𝟒𝟎 𝟑𝟒𝟎
ANS: 𝒇𝒐 = = = = 𝟐𝟖𝟑𝑯z
𝟒𝒍 𝟒×𝟎.𝟑 𝟏.𝟐
Beats
 Beats are the periodic and repeating fluctuations heard in the intensity of a sound when two
sound waves of very similar frequencies interfere with one another.
OR
 A beat is a rise or fall in loudness of sound when two sources of sound of nearly equal
frequencies produce sound together.
The beat frequency (Number of beats)
 It refers to the rate at which the volume is heard to be oscillating from high to low volume.
 OR – Is the difference between the two frequencies of sound
 For example, if two complete cycles of high and low volumes are heard every second, the beat
frequency is 2 Hz. The beat frequency is always equal to the difference in frequency of the two
notes that interfere to produce the beats. ie, (Bf = f1 – f2 or f2 – f1)
 So if two sound waves with frequencies of 256 Hz and 254 Hz are played simultaneously, a
beat frequency of 2 Hz will be detected.
 A common physics demonstration involves producing beats using two tuning forks with very
similar frequencies. If a tine on one of two identical tuning forks is wrapped with a rubber
band, then that tuning forks frequency will be lowered. If both tuning forks are vibrated
together, then they produce sounds with slightly different frequencies. These sounds will
interfere to produce detectable beats.
 The human ear is capable of detecting beats with frequencies of 7 Hz and below.
Worked Examples
1. What is the beat frequency when a 262 Hz and 266 Hz turning forks are sounded together?
(ANS: BF = 266 – 262 = 4 Hz)
2. Two tuning forks are sounded together and their beat frequency is 4 Hz. One of the tuning
forks has a frequency of 320 Hz. When the other tuning fork is loaded with plasticine, the
beat frequency becomes 6 Hz. What is the frequency of the other tuning fork before being
loaded with plasticine?
Solution
Let f be the frequency of the other tuning fork.
The beat frequency f1 = 320 - f = 4 if 320 > f....... (i)
or f1 = f - 320 = 4 if f > 320 ..... (ii)
If f is loaded with plasticine, its frequency lowers. But the beat frequency has now increased to
6Hz. Hence equation (i) must apply, i.e. 320 - f = 4 or f = 316 Hz.
3. A tuning fork with a frequency of 440 Hz is played simultaneously with a fork with a frequency of
437 Hz. How many beats will be heard over a period of 10 seconds?
ANS: The beat frequency will be 3 Hz; thus in 10 seconds, there should be 30 beats.
4. Why don't we hear beats when different keys on the piano are played at the same time?
ANS: Our ears can only detect beats if the two interfering sound waves have a difference in
frequency of 7 Hz or less. No two keys on the piano are that similar in frequency.
Class activity – 1:9
1. A 256Hz turning fork produces sound at the same time with a 249Hz turning fork. What is the
beat frequency? (ANS: Bf = 7Hz)
2. Two identical piano strings of length 0.750m are each tuned exactly to 440Hz. The tension in one
of the strings is then increased by 1.0%. If they are now struck, what is the beat frequency
between the fundamentals of the two strings?
ANS; 𝒇1 = 440𝐻𝑧, 𝑳1 = 𝑳2 = 0.75𝑚
Given that the tension of one string is 1% larger than the other, the ratio of their frequencies is as
follow;
𝒇𝟐 𝑻𝟐 𝟏.𝟎𝟏𝑻𝟏
From; 𝒇 ∝ √𝑻 → =√ =√ = 𝟏. 𝟎𝟎𝟓, Thus, the frequency of the tightened string
𝒇𝟏 𝑻𝟏 𝑻𝟏
𝒇𝟐
will be; = 𝟏. 𝟎𝟎𝟓 → 𝒇𝟐 = 𝟏. 𝟎𝟎𝟓 × 𝒇𝟏 = 𝟏. 𝟎𝟎𝟓 × 𝟒𝟒𝟎 = 𝟒𝟒𝟐𝑯𝒛
𝒇𝟏
Therefore; beat frequency = 𝑓2 − 𝑓1 = 442 − 440 = 2𝐻𝑧
3.
Electromagnetic Waves
 Are a self – propagating transverse wave of oscillating electric and magnetic fields
 OR: Are the waves which are propagated through space or matter by the vibration of an electric
field and magnetic field at right angles to one another
 Self propagating means a change in electric field produces a change in magnetic field and vice
versa
 Examples are Radio waves ,Microwaves, Infrared radiation, Visible light , Ultraviolet rays ,
X–rays, Gamma rays
NB:
 It is produced when electrically charged particles oscillate or change energy
 The greater the energy change, the higher the frequency of the resulting wave
 Electric field and magnetic field of an electromagnetic wave are perpendicular to each other
Properties of Electromagnetic Waves

o They do not require material medium to travel through
o They undergoes reflection, refraction, interference and diffraction
o They travel at the speed of light (i.e C = 3 x108 m/s in vacuum)
o They carry no electric charge
o They transfer energy in form of oscillating electric and magnetic fields, such that these two fields
are at right angles to each other and at a right angle with the direction of propagation of the wave.
o They obey the wave equation, C = 𝒇λ
Electromagnetic Spectrum
 Is a continuous band of all electromagnetic waves arranged in order of increasing or decreasing
frequencies or wavelength change.
 It is divided into seven regions or bands
Tables of Electromagnetic Spectrum
Wavelength (m) Region (band) Frequency (Hz)
>10 -1 Radio waves >3 x 109
10 – 10
-1 -4 Micro waves 3x109 - 3x1012
10-4 – 10-7 Infrared 3x1012 - 4.3x1014
7x10 – 4 x 10
-7 -7 Visible light 4.3x1014 - 7.5x1014
4x10 – 10
-7 -9 Ultraviolet light 7.5x1014 - 3x1017
10 – 10
-9 -11 X-rays 3x1017 - 3x1019
<10-11 Gamma rays >3x1019

Electromagnetic Spectrum Observation
 It is continuous: means each band merges into next and there is no gap between their
frequencies
 Some Wave length overlap: in some cases there is an overlap of wave length so we have to
name according to source not to the wave length, for Example, X-rays and Gamma rays
Sources, Detectors, and uses of EMW
Radiation Source (produced Detector Uses
by)
Gamma rays  Radioactive  Photographic plate  in medicine to locate
substance  Geiger muller tube internal body organs
 sterilize surgical equipment
 To detect flaws in metals
X –rays  x –rays tubes  fluorescent screens  Detect fractured bones and
 photographic film dislocations
 Used for security checks at
airport entrances and other
sensitive areas
 Used for diagnosis and
treatment of cancer
 Used to study the structural
properties of materials
Ultra violet  the sun  photographic films  Detect forgeries e.g bank
 sparks  photocells notes
 mercury vapor  paper smeared with  Source of vitamin D in the
lamp Vaseline human skin where it helps
 fluorescent materials, to prevent certain type of
which absorb cancer
ultraviolet light and  To kill bacteria in water
emit visible light as a  Used in small industries
result. Such materials such as electric welding
glow upon being  Used in the treatment of
struck by ultraviolet skin conditions such as
light. psoriasis
Visible light  The sun  The eye  Ordinary photography
 Luminous  Photocells  Enables the eye to see
objects  Photographic films  Used in Photosynthesis by
plants to make their own
food
 Used by solar panel to
generate electricity
Infra red  The sun  Thermometer with  Creating images in Infrared
 Fires blackened bulbs photography. It uses a film
 Hot bodies  Thermopile that is sensitive to infrared
 Bolometer radiation
 Photographic film  Drying substances
 locate overheating in
electric system
 Used in remote control,
night vision device, fibre-
optic telecommunication
and security system
 Are used for welding
plastics, drying prints, etc
Microwaves  Magnetrons in  Solid state diodes  For cooking in microwaves
microwave oven, ovens
RADAR,  Satellite communication
transmission  Radar communication
towers etc
 CMB radiation
left after the Big
Bang
Radio waves  Oscillating  Aerials
electric circuits  Diodes  They are used in the
 Objects in space  Earphones in electric transmission of TV signals,
e.g planets,stars circuits FM and AM signals,
etc telecommunication signals
and GPS.
 Used by astronomers to
collect and study radio
waves from distant stars
and galaxies.
 They are used in Bluetooth
connectivity, and WiFi
connectivity for providing
internet.
N.B:
 Metal surfaces reflect microwaves. Microwaves with a certain wavelength pass through the earth’s
atmosphere and can be useful in transmitting information to and from satellites in orbit. Hence, the
satellite dishes are made of metal as they reflect microwaves well.
 Microwaves of certain frequencies are absorbed by water. This property of microwaves is useful n
cooking. Water in the food absorbs microwaves, which causes the water to heat up, therefore
cooking the food.
 Microwave transmission is affected by wave effects such as refraction, reflection, interference, and
diffraction.
 Microwaves can pass through glass and plastic. This is the reason why we use a plastic or glass
container in a microwave oven and not metal containers, as metal reflects microwaves.
 Ultra violet radiation may be detected using photographic films because ultraviolet light does not
pass through ordinary glass, the camera must be fitted with quartz glass lenses.
Worked Examples
1. What is the wavelength of radio waves of frequency 95.6MHz?(c = 3.0 x 108 m/s)
𝒗 𝟑 𝒙 𝟏𝟎𝟖
Soln: From: 𝒗(𝒄) = 𝒇𝝀 ∴𝝀= = = 𝟑. 𝟏𝟒 𝒎
𝒇 𝟗𝟓.𝟔 𝒙𝟏𝟎𝟔
2. Why does light usually appear to travel in a straight line in spite of its wave nature?
ANS: Due to its very small wavelength, its diffraction is not easily observed
3. Different parts of the electromagnetic spectrum are useful for different methods of communication.
The diagram shows a transmitter emitting two electromagnetic waves, L and M

(c) (i) Wave L is used to send a signal to a satellite. Which part of the electromagnetic spectrum
does wave L belong to?
(ii) What name is given to the process that occurs as wave L passes into the ionosphere?
(d) Wave M is reflected by the ionosphere.
(i) On the diagram above, draw the path of wave M until it reaches the receiver.
(ii) On the diagram above, draw a line to show the normal where wave M meets the
ionosphere. Label the line N.
4. The commercial Programme of radio Tanzania is broadcast on wavelengths of 1500m and 247 m.
The frequency of the 1500 m wave is 200 kHz. What is
(a)The velocity of the wave? (b)The frequency of the 247 m wave?
(a) Velocity , v = f = 1500 x 200x103 = 3 x 108 m/s
𝒗 𝟑×𝟏𝟎𝟖
(b) Frequency, f = = = 𝟏𝟐𝟏𝟓kH
 𝟐𝟒𝟕

1. An FM radio station broadcasts electromagnetic waves at a frequency of 150 MHz .The radio
waves have a wavelength of 2.0 m. Calculate the speed of the radio waves (ANS: v = 3 x108 m/s)
2. Explain how are microwaves used in cooking?
3. Explain why, in remote mountainous regions, such as the Uluguru – Morogoro, radio signals from
terrestrial transmitters can be received, but television reception can only be received from satellite
transmissions.
4. Explain the following:
(a) Infrared radiations are used for photography in fog.
(b) Infrared radiations are used for signals during war
(c) The photographic darkrooms are provided with infrared lamps
(d) A rock salt prism is used instead of a glass prism to obtain the infrared spectrum.
(e) A quartz prism is required for obtaining the spectrum of the ultraviolet light.
(f) Ultraviolet bulbs have a quartz envelope instead of glass.
5. Answer the following:
(a) Name the EM waves which are suitable
(i) For radar systems used in aircraft navigation.
(ii) For the treatment of certain forms of cancer.
(iii) For TV remote control.
(iv) For cooking food
(b) Which of the following types of radiation has
(i) the longest wavelength (ii) the highest frequency?
A. UV B. Radio waves C. Light D. X-rays E. IR

Self Assessment – 1
1. (a) Explain why radio waves are similar to light waves but not sound waves
(b) A radio station transmits a signal of wave 1500m. Calculate the frequency of this signal
(ANS: ƒ = 200 KHz)
2. Light of frequency 4.6 × 1014Hz travels at a speed of 1.24 × 108ms-1 in diamond. Calculate the
refractive index of diamond for this color of light. (ANS: 𝝁 = 2.42)
3. (a) What is diffraction of wave?
(b) Illustrate how plane water wave fronts are diffracted on passing through a narrow gap
(c)(i) Is it possible for light to be diffracted on passing through an open window?
(ii) Give an explanation on your answer above
4. (a) What is the fundamental frequency of a vibrating string?
(b) Sonometer consists of a taut steel wire fixed between two bridges 100cm apart. Defining the
first harmonic, second harmonic, third harmonic and fourth harmonic, explain how overtones
can be obtained
5. How an echo differs from the reverberation?
6. Sound travelling towards a cliff 700m away takes 4.2 seconds for an echo to be heard. Calculate
the velocity of sound in air. (ANS: Va = 333.33m/s)
7. A boy standing 100m from the foot of a high wall claps his hands and the echo reaches him 0.5
second later. Calculate the velocity of sound in air using this observation.
(ANS: V in air is 400m/s)
8. A student standing between two vertical walls and 480m from the nearest wall, shouted. She
heard the first echo after 3 seconds and the second after two second later use this information to
calculate;
(i) Velocity of sound in air (Va =320m/s)
(ii) Distance between the two walls.(d =1280 m)
9. An old woman sitting in a gorge between two large cliffs gives a short sharp sound. She hears
two echo, the first after 1 second and the next after 1.5sec. The speed of sound is 340m/s what
is the distance between the two cliffs? (ANS: d=425 m)
10. A sonar signal (a high frequency sound wave) sent vertically downwards from the ship is
refracted from the ocean floor and detected by a microphone on the keel. 0.4 sec after
transmission. If the speed of sound in water is 1550m/s. What is the depth of the ocean in
meters?
(ANS: The depth of the ocean is 300m)
11. A man sees steam coming out from a factory whistle and 3 seconds later he hears the sound.
The velocity of sound in air is 360m/s. Calculate the distance from the man to the factory.
ANS: d = 1080m
12. (a)(i) Distinguish between longitudinal wave and transverse wave
(ii) Explain how beats are formed
(b) A light wave is refracted into an optically dense medium. What change will occurs in
(i) The frequency?
(ii) The speed?
(iii) The wavelength?
(c)A sound is sent out from the ship and its reflection from the ocean floor returns one second
later. Assuming that the velocity of sound in water is 1500m/s. how deep is the ocean?
(ANS: d= 750m)
13. (a) (i) What is a sonometer?
(ii) Briefly explain when resonance is said to occur.
(b)Two boys are stand 200m apart on one side of a high vertical cliff at the same perpendicular
distance from it. When one fires a gun, the other hears the sound 0.65 seconds after the flash

and the second sound 0.25 second after the first sound. Calculate the perpendicular distance
of the boys from the cliff
14. Which of the following has the shortest wavelength?
(i) Radio waves (ii) X – rays (iii) Red light
15. A column of air 26.25 cm long in a closed tube resonates to a sounding tuning fork. If the velocity
of sound in air is 33 600 cm/s, what is the frequency of the fork? (ANS: f = 320 Hz)
16. If the shortest length of the tube for resonance is 0.12 m and the next resonant length is 0.37 m,
what is the frequency of vibrations? Take the speed of sound in air as 340 m/s. (AN: f = 680 Hz)
17. Explain the following
(a) Strings of different thickness are used on a stringed instrument such as a violin or a guitar
(b) The same note played on a violin and a flute sound different
(c) The strings of a stringed instrument are usually mounted on a hollow box of special shape
(d) Matter expands when heated and contracts when cooled. Explain why a musician must
retune a stringed instrument if its temperature changes
(e) How does the size of the gap in the barrier affect the diffraction of waves?
18. The commercial program of Radio Annur is broadcast on wavelengths of 1500 m and 250 m. The
frequency of the 1500 m wave is 200 kHz what is the frequency of 250 m wave?
19. Explain briefly how the concept of wave is applied in each of the following fields (i) Medicine
(ii) Communication (iii) Scientific research
20. A light wave is refracted into an optical less dense medium. What change will occur in (i)The
frequency (ii) The speed (iii)The wavelength
21. A solid is sent out from the ship and its reflection from the floor of the ocean returns half a
second later. Assuming that the velocity of sound in water is 1500 m/s, how deep is the ocean?
22. Gamma rays bursters are objects in the universe that emit pulses of gamma rays with high
energies. The frequency of the most energetic burst has been measured at around 3.x 1021 Hz.
(a) What is the wavelength of these gamma rays? (ANS: 𝝀 =1.0 x 10-13 m)
(b) What could be their period? (ANS: T = 3.33 x 10-22 s)
23. Differentiate between ultrasonic and infrasonic vibrations
24. The diagram below shows the electromagnetic spectrum. Region D represents visible light
(a) Which region contains radiation produced in nuclear reactors?

(b) Which region represents radiation capable of promoting the production of vitamin D in the skin?
(c) Which region is contains radiation used in radar system?
25. Explain why a duck remains floating at the same place as wave passes by the water in a lake
26. Two similar sonometer wires of the same material produces 2 beats per second. The length of
one is 50 cm and that of the other is 50.1 cm. Calculate the frequencies of the two wires
𝟏
(From: 𝒇 ∝ . f1 =1002 Hz, f2 = 1000 Hz)
𝑳
27. Explain why it is not advisable for soldiers to march across a bridge in rhythm
28. A note of 100 vibrations per second is reflected back to an observer from a wall 34 meters away
in 0.2 seconds. Calculate the speed of sound and the wavelength of tone
29. A note of frequency 100 is sounding. What is the frequency of a note (a) one octave higher (b)
two octave higher?
30. Transverse stationary waves are set up in a long string using a suitable vibrator of frequency 60
Hz. The average distance between successive nodal points is measured to be 50 cm .Calculate
the velocity of transverse waves in the string ANS: V = 60 m/s
31. The velocity of sound in air is 330 m/s, Find the wavelength in water of sound wave of frequency
660 Hz if the velocity of sound in water is 1. 32 km/s

32. How far does sound travel in air when a turning fork of frequency 250 Hz completes 50
vibrations? The speed of sound in air is 340 m/s. (ANS: 𝝀 = 𝟏. 𝟑𝟔 𝒎)
33. A loud sound is made and the echo from a distant cliff is heard 8 s later .If the atmospheric
temperature is 220 C, how far away is the cliff?
34. What is the approximate distance of a thunderstorm when you note a 3 s delay between the flash
of lighting and the sound of thunder? (d ≈ 𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎 𝒎 ≈ 𝟏 𝒌𝒎)
35. How long does it take for a radio signal sent from the earth to reach the moon? The distance
from the earth to the moon is 3.84 x 106 m
36. During a storm ,thunder is heard 7 s after the lightning is seen .If the temperature of the air is 28
0C ,how far away is the storm ( C = 3 x 10 8 m/s)
37. The diagram below illustrates how pressure at a person’s ear varies with time for
two different sounds A and B from two different sources.
(i) Calculate the frequency of sound A. [ANS: 500Hz]

(ii) Comment on the difference in the sounds heard by referring to their pitch and their loudness.

Chapter –2:
Electromagnetism
 Electromagnetism is produced when an electrical current flows through a simple conductor such
as a length of wire or cable, and as current passes along the whole of the conductor then a
magnetic field is created along the whole of the conductor.
 The small magnetic field created around the conductor has a definite direction with both the
“North” and “South” poles produced being determined by the direction of the electrical current
flowing through the conductor.
 Therefore, it is necessary to establish a relationship between current flowing through the
conductor and the resultant magnetic field produced around it by this flow of current allowing us to
define the relationship that exists between Electricity and Magnetism in the form
of Electromagnetism.
 Thus; Electromagnetism – Is the effect produced by the interaction of an electric current with a
magnetic field
Magnetic field due to a current carrying conductor

 When current is passed through a straight current-carrying conductor, a magnetic field is
produced around it. The field lines are in the form of concentric circles at every point of the
current-carrying conductor.
 The direction of the magnetic field is determined by using the right-hand grip rule and Maxwell’s
Corkscrew Rule.
Right hand Grip Rule

For solenoid, the rule states that
“If you hold the a solenoid (Coil) in the right hand so that the four fingers curl around the solenoid,
then the curly figures show the direction of the current and the thumb represents the North Pole of
the Coil”.
The strength of magnetic field produced by a current carrying solenoid depends on

 The number of turns in the solenoid: Larger the number of turns in the solenoid, greater will be the
magnetism produced.
 The strength of the current in the solenoid: Larger the current stronger will be the magnetic field
produced.
 The nature of core material used in making solenoid: the use of soft iron rod as core in a solenoid
produces the strongest magnetism
For conductor ,the rule for conduct States that
“Wrapping right hand around a conductor your fingers point in the direction of magnetic field
and the thumb points in the direction of current”
OR
if we hold the current carrying conductor in our right hand so that the thumb stretches to the
conductor while the fingers wrapped around it, then the thumb shows the direction of current
while the curly fingers shows the direction of magnetic field lines of force.
The pattern of magnetic field lines around a straight conductor carrying current can be described by the
following activity.
 Take a sheet of smooth cardboard with a hole at the centre. Place it horizontally and pass a wire
vertically through the hole, Sprinkle some iron fillings on the cardboard and pass an electric
current through the wire.
 Gently tap the cardboard. We find that the iron filling arrange themselves in concentric circles
around the wire as shown in figure below. If a small compass needle is kept anywhere on the
board near the wire, the direction in which the north pole of the needle points gives the direction of
the magnetic field (i.e., magnetic lines of force) at that point.
 On reversing the direction of flow of current, we observe that the iron filings arrange themselves in
circles around the wire showing that the magnetic field lines are still circular in nature.
 The direction of the magnetic field can be obtained by using a compass.
NB: If the current direction is reversed, the direction of the magnetic field is also reversed. And when
current through the wire is decreased, field also gets reduced.
Maxwell’s Cork Screw Rule
The rule states that:
“Imagine we are driving a corkscrew in the direction of the current then the direction in which handle
turn directs the direction of the magnetic field lines”.
See the figure below:

Fleming’s Left Hand Rule
 A current-carrying conductor when placed in a magnetic field will experience a force by this
conductor. The direction of force acting on this conductor will depend upon the direction of the
magnetic field and the current flowing through the conductor. Fleming’s Left-Hand Rule can be
used to find the direction of this current flow.
 The Rule states that
“If you hold the index finger, the middle finger and the thumb of your left hand mutually
perpendicular to each other so that the index finger points in the direction of the magnetic
field and the middle finger points in the direction of current in the conductor, then the
thumb will point in the direction of the force (motion) acting on the conductor.”
 The left hand should be held as shown below, with the thumb, first finger and second finger all at
90° to each other.
For example, Using Fleming's left-hand rule we can predict here (as shown below) that if we turn on
the electrical supply the carbon rod will move in the thumb's direction.
See below for the result:
Therefore, the rod has moved to the right as predicted.

NB: Fleming’s left hand rule is applicable to electrical motors, that’s why it is also known as Motor
Rule.

Forces between parallel Current-Carrying Conductors
 A current carrying conductor, such as a wire, produces a magnetic field around it, and the
direction of the field depends on the direction of the current through the wire. This is determined by
the right hand thumb rule
 If the currents are in the same direction in both conductors, the magnetic field lines between the
conductors cancel out – the conductors will attract each other (See the fig. below)
 If the currents are in the opposite direction in both conductors, the magnetic field lines between
the conductors push each other apart – the conductors will repel each other (See the fig below)

1. (i) A straight wire conductor passes vertically through a piece of cardboard sprinkled with iron
filings. Copy the diagram and show the setting of iron filings when a current is passed through the
wire in the upward direction and the cardboard is tapped gently. Draw arrows to represent the
direction of the magnetic field lines.
(ii)Name the law which helped you to find the direction of the magnetic field lines.
2. Zainabu was making a model of electric bell. She connected the coil in the circuit and switched it
on. However the magnetism produced in the coil was not strong enough. Then she made some
changes in the coil now and the circuit was now working properly. She also found out other ways
on producing a strong magnetism.
(a) What changes did Zainabu make in the coil
(b) Which other way(s) did she discover for increasing the strength of magnet?

Application of Electromagnet
 Electromagnets have a wide range of uses in all sorts of devices. Can you think of some devices
from everyday life where we use electromagnets? Electromagnets are used in cranes to pick up
cars in scrapyards and also to separate iron from garbage dump.
 They are also used in loudspeakers, telephones, and in electric motors which are used in electric
fans, washing machines, refrigerators, etc. Electromagnets are also used in electric bell.
In Electric Motor
 An electric motor is a device that uses an electromagnet to change electrical energy to kinetic
energy. You can see a simple diagram of an electric motor in the Figure below. The motor
contains an electromagnet that is connected to a shaft. When current flows through the motor, the
electromagnet rotates, causing the shaft to rotate as well. The rotating shaft moves other parts of
the device.
 For example, in an electric fan, the rotating shaft turns the blades of the fan.
Construction of Electric motor

 It consists of a single loop of an insulated copper wire in the form of a rectangle ABCD (see figure
above).
 Strong field magnet. Armature coil is placed between two pole pieces of a strong magnet which
provide strong magnetic field.
 It consists of two halves of a metallic ring (Commutators). The two ends of armature coil are
connected to these two halves of ring. Commutators reverse the direction of current in armature
coil. The inner sides of these halves are insulated and attached to axle.
 The external conducting edges touch the two stationary carbon brushes which press against the
commutator. These brushes act as contact between commutator and terminal battery. These
brushes are connected to a source called battery.
 Carbon brushes which press lightly against the commutators so that that the coil rotates freely
and easily also these brushes act as contact between commutator and terminal battery
 Battery. It is connected across the carbon brushes. It supplies current to the armature coil
Principle of Electric motor

An electric motor works on the principle that when a rectangular coil is placed in a magnetic field and a
current is passed through it, a force acts on the coil which rotates it continuously. Hence, electrical
energy is converted into mechanical energy

Working Mechanism of an Electric motor
 When the coil is horizontal and current passes through it as shown on the diagram, side AB
experiences an upward force while BC experiences a downward force. The two forces make the
coil rotate in the clockwise direction.
 When the coil is in the vertical position with AB at the top and CD at the bottom, the brushes touch
the spaces between the two split rings.
 Due to momentum, the coil continues to rotate and the commutators interchange the contact
positions with the brushes.
 The current is then reversed in the coil and the forces acting on each side reverse in direction. Side
AB is now on the right with a downward force while side CD is on the left with an upward force. The
coil continues to rotate.
In Moving Coil Galvanometers

 A galvanometer is an instrument used to detect the presence of an electric current in a circuit.
 A moving coil galvanometer is the galvanometer where by the moving part is the coil.
 Mode of Action: The pointer rotates due to the force developed on the coil (by Fleming’s left
hand rule). When the current passes through the coil will be magnetized hence different poles will
be formed.
Advantages
 The scale is uniform.
 Moving coil galvanometer is more accurate.
 The sensitivity of moving coil galvanometer is very high.
 A moving coil galvanometer can be converted into an ammeter and voltmeter.
Disadvantage of moving coil galvanometer
 It can be used only to measure direct currents.
 Develops errors due to factors like aging of the instrument, permanent magnets and damage of
spring due to mechanical stress.
 Overwhelming can cause damage to the galvanometer.
 This instrument cannot be employed for the measurement of AC (because in AC, the direction of
current keeps changing frequently, and so the pointer will not be able to deflect, ie,,. It will
remain in its zero position since the system will not be able to respond so quickly in opposite
directions)
 The restoring torque can be changed once the temperature is changed
 The changing of torque cannot be done easily.

Factors affecting the Sensitivity of the Galvanometer
1. The quantity of the current passing through the coil. The bigger is the current the higher is
the sensitivity and vice verse.
2. The strength of a magnet. The stronger the magnet, the higher is the sensitivity.
3. The number of turns of the coil. The bigger number of turns in the coil the greater the
sensitivity.
4. Cross sectional areas of the coil. The bigger is the cross – sectional area of the coil, the
higher is the sensitivity.
Applications of Galvanometer
 It is used for detecting the direction of current flows in the circuit. It also determines the null
point of the circuit.
 It is used for measuring the current.
 The voltage between any two points of the circuit is also determined through galvanometer.
 Galvanometers are used in the bridges & potentiometers to indicate the null deflection.
 It can be converted into an Ammeter by connecting a low resistor (ie,.. shunt) parallel to it
 It can be converted to a Voltmeter by connecting a high resistance (ie,.. multiplier) in series
with it
 It can be used as an Ohmmeter (Resistance measuring device) by making special
arrangements to it.
Conversion of Moving Coil Galvanometer into an Ammeter

 Ammeter Is an electrical device used to measure the quantity of an electric current in amperes.
How to convert:
 By replacement of the wires with low resistance.
 By connecting the resistor of low resistance called SHUNT parallel to the galvanometer
 If I = IS + IG
 Potential difference across the shunt is equal to the Potential difference across the
galvanometer VG., ie VS = VG
𝑰𝒈𝑹𝒈
 Then: VS = ISRS and VG = IGRG  ISRS = IGRG  RS = ,
𝑰𝑺
(since: IS + IG = I)
 Shunt, R is a small resistance which can be connected parallel to the galvanometer to give
𝑰𝒈𝑹𝒈
out ammeter reading ,ie RS =
𝑰−𝑰𝒈
Whereby
 IG = full-scale deflection current of the instrument
 RG = Instrument resistance
 Rm = Shunt resistance

The Conversion of a Moving Coil Galvanometer into a Voltmeter
 A voltmeter is electronically device used to measure the potential difference.
How to convert:
 By replacement of the wire of high resistance.
 By replacing a resistor of high resistance known as Multiplier connected in series with the
moving coil galvanometer.
Whereby:
Rm = Resistance of multiplier
RG = Resistance of the coil of galvanometer
Im = Full scale deflection (f.s.d) current of the meter which can safely be carried by the instrument. The
same current will flow through the multiplier
Vm = Potential difference across multiplier
VG = Across galvanometer
V = Total Potential difference of the full scale deflection
 For series connection: V = Vm + VG (where I is constant)

 Then: Vm = IR ,VG = IRG
𝑽 𝑽−𝑰𝑹𝑮
𝑻𝒉𝒖𝒔; 𝑽 = 𝑰𝑹𝑮 + 𝑰𝑹𝒎 → 𝑽 = 𝑰(𝑹𝑮 + 𝑹𝒎 ) 𝑹𝒎 = − 𝑹𝑮 → 𝑹𝒎 =
𝑰 𝑰
 Multiplier: Is the large or high resistance which is connected in series with the galvanometer
𝑽−𝑰𝑹𝑮
to give voltmeter reading , 𝑹𝒎 =
𝑰
Worked examples:
1. A galvanometer gives a full scale deflection when a current of 10mA flows through it. How
would you convert it to an ammeter capable of reading 3A if the resistance of the galvanometer is
5Ω?
ANSW: To do this, we connect a resistor of low resistance called shunt in parallel with the
galvanometer. The value of such shunt is calculated below:
From; p.d across galvanometer = p.d across shunt

𝐼 𝑅𝐺 𝐼 𝑅𝐺 0.01×5
IGRG=ISRS → 𝑅𝑆 = ( 𝐺 )=(𝐺 )= = 0.167
𝐼−𝐼𝐺 𝐼𝑆 2.99
2. A galvanometer of internal resistance 100 𝛀 gives a full scale deflection for a current of 10 mA.
Calculate the values of the resistances necessary to convert the galvanometer to:

𝑽−𝑰𝑹𝑮 𝟓−𝟎.𝟎𝟏×𝟏𝟎𝟎
(a)A voltmeter reading to 5 V [ANS: 𝑹𝒎 = = = 400
𝑰 𝟎.𝟎𝟏
𝐼𝐺 𝑅𝐺 0.01×100
(b)An ammeter reading to 10A [ANS: RS = = = 0.1
𝐼−𝐼𝐺 10−0.01
3. A moving coil milliammeter gives its full – scale deflection for a current of 1 mA. The potential difference
between its terminals is then 100mV. What resistor placed in series with the meter will limit 1mA when
10 V is placed across the combination?
𝑽−𝑰𝑹𝑮 𝟏𝟎−𝟎.𝟏
ANS: 𝑹𝒎 = = = 𝟗𝟗𝟎𝟎𝛀, NB: 𝑽𝑮 = 𝑰𝑹𝑮 =100mA = 0.1V
𝑰 𝟎.𝟎𝟎𝟏
4. A galvanometer having a resistance of 50 gives a full scale deflection for a current of 50mA.
What is the length in meter of a resistance wire of area of cross – section 2.97 x 10-3cm-2 that can
be used to convert the galvanometer into an ammeter which can read a maximum of 5 A current
(specific resistance of wire = 5 x 10-7 m]
ANSW: given; I = 5A, IG =50mA=0.05A, RG = 50, A=2.97 x 10-3cm-2
First; find the shunt resistance ie,.
𝐼 𝑅 𝟎.𝟎𝟓×𝟓𝟎 𝟐.𝟓 𝟓𝟎
RS = 𝐺 𝐺 = = = = 𝟎. 𝟓𝟎𝟓𝟏
𝐼−𝐼𝐺 𝟓−𝟎.𝟎𝟓 𝟒.𝟗𝟓 𝟗𝟗
𝑨𝑹 𝑨𝑹 𝟎.𝟓𝟏×𝟐.𝟗𝟕×𝟏𝟎−𝟕
Also; from 𝝆 = →𝒍= = = 0.3𝑚 = 30𝑐𝑚
𝒍 𝝆 𝟓×𝟏𝟎−𝟕
5. For converting galvanometer into an ammeter, a shunt resistance of small value is used in
parallel, whereas in the case of a voltmeter a resistance of large value is used in series. Explain
why?
ANS:
 A shunt resistance should be connected in parallel to the galvanometer so as to keep its
resistance low. Such low resistance galvanometer (Ammeter) is used in series with the circuit
to measure the strength of current through the circuit. A low resistance may not affect the value
of current to be measured.
 A high resistance should be connected in series with the galvanometer so as to increase
its resistance. Such high resistance galvanometer (Voltmeter) is used in parallel with the circuit
to the potential difference. A high resistance may not introduce any change in the value of
potential difference to be measured.
In Electric Bell
 An electric bell is a mechanical bell that works on electromagnet. When the current is passed
through it, produces sound like buzzing. It is used in fire or burglar alarms, school bells and door
bells etc. But now a day, they are replaced with electronic buzzer.
 It consists of Electromagnet (A copper wire is wound around an iron piece which acts a magnet
when current flows through it), A Striker in touch with contact screw through an iron strip, A
metal gong, An Armature with a hammer at one end is kept close to the electromagnet facing its
poles and A key or a switch. See the diagram below

Mechanism (Working of an electric bell)
 When current is switched on, it flows through the circuit and the soft iron core becomes
magnetized. The magnetized iron core then attracts the soft iron armature, which has a
hammer at its end. On attraction, the hammer knocks the gong and the bell rings.
 When the soft iron armature is attracted, the contact at the contact screw is broken and current
stops flowing. The electromagnet loses its magnetism and releases the soft iron armature and
this closes the contact again. This process is repeated and the bell rings continuously as long
as the switch is closed.
NB;
 Soft iron is used to make electromagnets as it gains and losses magnetism quickly depending
on existence of magnetic fields. The armature is also made of soft iron which can induce
magnetism rapidly.
 No matter what direction is the current flow, the bell rings continuously as long as the ‘push’
switch is closed because any pole induces the armature.
Worked examples
1. In the electric bell, explain what would happen if the armature is made of steel.
 ANS: If the armature is made of steel the hammer hits the gong and remains there/ the bell rings
once this is because steel acquires permanent magnetism
2. Why the core of the electromagnet of an electric bell is made of soft iron and not steel?
 ANS: Because iron gains and looses magnetisms easily. It is only magnetized if there is a
magnetic field around it and losses its magnetism immediately when the field is removed. It also
requires very little energy to magnetize and demagnetize
Reasons for steel:
(i) Steel forms a permanent magnet
(ii) Steel is not easily magnetized and demagnetized
1. What will happen to a compass needle when the compass is placed below a wire and a
current is made to flow through the wire? Give a reason to justify your answer.
Answer: The compass needle will show deflection. This happens because when a current is
passed through a conductor (here, wire) a magnetic field is produced around the conductor due to
which the compass needle gets deflected
2. State the rule to determine the direction of a
(a) Magnetic field produced around a straight conductor-carrying current
(b) Force experienced by a current-carrying straight conductor placed in a magnetic field which is
perpendicular to it, and
(c) Current induced in a coil due to its rotation in a magnetic field.
3. How does the magnetic effect of electric current help in the working of an electric bell? Explain with
the help of a diagram.
4. A small electromagnet for lifting and releasing a small steel ball is made in the laboratory as
shown below
(a) Explain why soft iron is better material to be used for the core than steel.
(b) In order to lift a slightly larger ball, it is necessary to make a stronger electromagnet. State two
ways in which electromagnet can be made more powerful.
5. A moving coil galvanometer has a coil of resistance 25 and can carry a maximum of 15mA.
(a) What is the value of the shunt required to enable the galvanometer to register 10A full scale
deflection. (ANS: RS = 0.038 Ω)
(b) What is the value of the multiplier required to enable the galvanometer to register 10V full scale
deflection. How will be connected? (Rm = 641.67Ω)
6. A moving will galvanometer has a resistance of 20 and gives a full scale deflection when a
current of 50mA passes through it. Calculate the value of the resistance which must be used so
that the meter may measure the potential difference up to 100V.
(ANS: A multiplier of resistance 1980 must be connected in series with the galvanometer
so that the meter may measure up to 100V)
7. A moving coil galvanometer which gives a full scale deflection of 0.005A is converted to a
voltmeter reading up to 5V using an external 975 Resistance what is the resistance of the
galvanometer (ANS: RG = 25 )
8. A student is required to measure currents up to 1.00 A. She is given a reel of wire of resistance
0.5/m and a moving coil galvanometer of resistance 10 which has a full scale deflection for a
current of 0.01A. Explain how the student could adapt the galvanometer in order to measure the
required range of currents.
9. A galvanometer coil has a resistance of 40 and the full scale deflection current 15mA. If it is to be
converted so that it gives a full scale deflection current 1. 5A, then the required shunt will have a
resistance of what size? (ANS: Rs = 0.4)
10. Explain how an electric motor turns the blades of an electric fan.
11. A d.c. motor is rotating in a clockwise direction. How can the direction of rotation be
reversed?
ANS: The direction of rotation of motor can be reversed by interchanging the connections at the
terminals of the battery joined to the brushes of the motor.
12. The diagram below shows the circuit for an electric bell.
(a)Explain in your own words why the bell will not work if the electromagnet is replaced with a
permanent magnet.
(b)Explain why the core of the electromagnet used in an electric bell must not be made from
steel.
Electromagnetic Induction
 Electromagnetic induction is the complementary phenomenon to electromagnetism. Instead of
producing a magnetic field from electricity, we produce electricity from a magnetic field. The
important difference is that, electromagnetism produces a steady magnetic field from a steady
electric current whereas electromagnetic induction requires motion between the magnet and the
coil to produce electricity (voltage)
 Therefore; Electromagnetic induction is the production of electromotive force whenever there is
change in the magnetic flux (lines) linking a conductor
OR
 Electromagnetic Induction - is the process of generating electric current with a magnetic field. It
occurs whenever a magnetic field and an electric conductor move relative to one another so the
conductor crosses lines of force in the magnetic field. If the magnet or coil is moved back and
forth repeatedly, alternating current is produced.
Electromagnetic Induction can occur either when:
 A conductor cuts through a magnetic field OR
 The direction of a magnetic field through a coil changes
Electromagnetic induction is used in:
 Electrical generators which convert mechanical energy to electrical energy
 Transformers which are used in electrical power transmission
Experiment to verify the Electromagnetic Induction
 This phenomenon can easily be demonstrated with a magnet and a coil, or a wire and two magnets
 Moving the wire up or down through the magnetic field causes a potential difference (p.d) to be
induced across the ends of the wire. Thus an induced current flows in the wire. (see the figure
below)
 Note: there is no current flowing through the wire to start with
Results of the experiment

 When the wire is not moving, the ammeter shows a zero reading
That is when the wire is held still inside, or outside, the magnets, the rate of change of flux is zero,
so, there is no e.m.f induced
 As the wire is moved through between the magnets, an e.m.f is induced within the wire, shown
momentarily by the reading on the ammeter
As the wire moves, it ‘cuts through’ the magnetic field lines of the magnet, generating a change in
magnetic flux
 When the wire is taken back out of the magnet, the current is induced in the opposite direction
As the wire changes direction, the direction of the current also changes. The ammeter will
momentarily show a reading with the opposite sign

NB:
As previously shown, the faster the wire moved through the magnetic field, the greater the strength
of the magnet or the longer the wire, all increase the magnitude of EMF produced as the
all increase the rate of change of magnetic flux linkage.
Alternatively;
Also a coil may be used to demonstrate this phenomenon (electromagnetic induction). Connect a coil
to a sensitive galvanometer, now move a bar magnet in and out of the coil to induce an e.m.f
Factors affecting magnitude of Induced E.M.F
(i) The speed at which the wire, coil or magnet is moved:
(Rate of change of magnetic flux)
Increasing the speed will increase the rate at which the magnetic field lines are cut. This
will increase the induced potential difference
(ii) The number of turns on the coils in the wire:
Increasing the number of turns on the coils in the wire will increase the potential
difference induced. This is because each coil will cut through the magnetic field lines and the total
potential difference induced will be the result of all of the coils cutting the magnetic field lines
(e.m.f  N)
(iii) The size of the coils (Cross section Area of the conductor):
Increasing the area of the coils will increase the potential difference Induced .This is because
there will be more wire to cut through the magnetic field lines
(iv) The Strength of magnetic field
When strong magnet is used, it results strong magnetic field which produce high magnitude of
induced e.m.f and vice versa
Laws of Electromagnetic Induction
 There are two laws of electromagnetic Induction
 Faraday’s law
 Lenz’s Law
Faraday’s Laws of Electromagnetic Induction
 In the course of his work, Faraday discovered the principle of electromagnetic induction in 1831
that when there was change in a magnetic field in which a coil or an inductor was placed, EMF was
induced in the coil.
 This happened only whenever he moved either the coil or the magnet he used in the
experiment. EMF was induced in the coil only when there was change in the field flux (if the coil
is fixed, moving the magnet towards or away from the coil causes EMF to be induced).
Experiment of Faraday’s Law of EMI:
Consider the figure below.

First, connect a coil of wire to a galvanometer, which is just a very sensitive device we can use
to measure current in the coil. There is no battery or power supply, so no current should flow.
Now bring a magnet close to the coil. You should notice the following.
 When the magnet is moved towards the coil, with its north pole facing the coil, the galvanometer
shows a deflection in one direction.
 When the magnet is moved away from the coil, the galvanometer shows a deflection in the
opposite direction.
 If the experiment is repeated with South Pole of the magnet facing the coil, the deflections in the
galvanometer are reversed.
 When the magnet is stationary, there is no deflection in the galvanometer.
 It is further observed that the deflections increase with the velocity of the magnet relative to the
coil
 The same results are obtained if the magnet is kept fixed and coil moved.
After his experimental results, Faraday gave the following laws of EMI:
Faraday’s first law of EMI states that “EMF is induced in a coil when there is a change in the
flux linking to the coil”.
Faraday’s second law of EMI states that “the magnitude of induced EMF in a coil is directly
proportional to the rate of change of flux linking to the coil”.
Alternatively; (when combining first and second law), it states that

“Emf is induced in a circuit whenever relative motion exists between a conductor and a
magnetic field and that the magnitude of this emf is proportional to the rate of change of the
flux linking to the conductor”
NB:
 The direction of induced emf and hence current in a coil or conductor can be determined by two
methods. (i) Lenz’s law (ii) Fleming’s right hand rule.
 Faraday’s law is a basic law of electromagnetism that predicts how a magnetic field tends to
interact with an electric circuit, producing an electromotive force. This law is used as the
fundamental operating principle of transformers, inductors, and other types of electrical motors,
generators, and solenoid
Factors affecting the induced Emf according to Faraday’ law
 Increasing the number of turns of wire in the coil
By increasing the amount of individual conductors cutting through the magnetic field, the amount of
induced emf produced will be the sum of all the individual loops of the coil, so if there are 10 turns
in the coil there will be 10 times more induced emf than in one piece of wire.
 Increasing the speed of the relative motion between the coil and the magnet
If the same coil of wire passed through the same magnetic field but its speed or velocity is
increased, the wire will cut the lines of flux at a faster rate so more induced emf would be
produced.
 Increasing the strength of the magnetic field
If the same coil of wire is moved at the same speed through a stronger magnetic field, there will be
more emf produced because there are more lines of force to cut.

Lenz’s Law
 Lenz law or Lenz’s law is a law that states the direction of the electric current induced in
a conductor through a changing magnetic field is similar to the magnetic field created by the
induced current that is opposite to the changes in the initial magnetic field.
The law States that:
The direction of induced EMF is such that it opposes the change causing it.
OR
“The induced effect is always such as to oppose the cause that produced it”.
 According to experiment of Lenz’s law of electromagnetic induction, the following were observed
(i) By Lenz’s Law, when magnet is inserted into the solenoid, a North pole will be induced on
the right side of coil to oppose the incoming North pole. By Right Hand Grip Rule, the
induced current will flow anticlockwise so that pointer deflects to right. See the fig below
(ii) By Lenz’s Law, when magnet is withdrawn from the solenoid, a South pole will be
induced on the right side of coil to oppose the outgoing North pole. By Right Hand Grip
Rule, the induced current will flow clockwise so that pointer deflects to left (see the figure (i)
and (ii) below)
(iii) If the experiment is repeated with South Pole of the magnet facing the coil, the deflections in
the galvanometer are reversed. (see fig. below)
N.B
 When the north pole of the magnet in the figures above moves closer to or further from the loop,
an EMF will be created with polarity such that the induced current in the loop will create a
magnetic field that opposes the changing magnetic field from the magnet.
 Lenz’s law is an example of the principle of conservation of energy. When the magnet or
solenoid is moved against the opposing force, work is done. Therefore, mechanical energy is
converted to electrical energy.
Fleming’s Right Hand Rule
 The direction of induced EMF can be decided by using Fleming's right-hand rule as the left-hand
rule is used to determine the direction of force experienced by the current-carrying conductor
placed in the magnetic field,

 According to the Faraday’s law of electromagnetic induction, when a conductor moves in a
magnetic field, an EMF is induced in it. The direction of this EMF and current can be defined by
Fleming’s right hand rule, which states that
“Stretch the thumb, forefinger and middle finger of the right hand such that they are mutually
perpendicular to each other. If the forefinger gives the direction of magnetic field and the thumb
points in the direction of the motion of a conductor then the middle finger will give the direction of
the induced current”. (See the figure below)
NB: Fleming’s right hand rule is applicable to electrical generators and alternators. That’s why it is also
known as Generator Rule.
Differences between Fleming’s Left Hand and Right Hand Rules
Fleming’s Left Hand Rule Fleming’s Right Hand Rule
Used for eclectic motors. Used for electric generators.
Used to find the direction of motion and current in Used to find the direction of induced EMF &
electric motors Current in eclectic generators.
The thumb shows the direction of applied force or The thumb shows the direction of motion of the
motion. conductor in a magnetic field.
The first (index of forefinger) shows the direction The first (index of forefinger) shows the direction
of lines of magnetic force (flux). of lines of magnetic force (flux).
The second (middle) finger shows the direction of The second (middle) finger shows the direction of
current. induced EMF and current.
Worked examples:
1. Figure below shows a bar magnet falling towards a solenoid.
What is the polarity at X and the direction of the current at Y?

Solution:
The magnet is moving towards the solenoid. According to Lenz’s law, the magnet and solenoid
must repel each other. Therefore, X is a North pole. The current at end X is in the anti-clockwise
direction. Therefore, the current at Y is to the left.

2. Explain briefly two different ways to induce current in a coil. State the rule which
determines the direction of induced current.
ANSW:
Two ways to induce current in a coil
(i) If a coil is moved in a magnetic field.
(ii) By bringing a bar magnet close to the coil or taking away from it.
(iii) By rotating the coil in a uniform magnetic field.
Statement of Fleming's Right Hand Rule.
3. The figure below shows the circuits close to each other. When the
switch is closed, the galvanometer shows a reading and then returns to zero
(a) Explain the observation

(b) Give one adjustment can be done to the arrangement so that
(i) The galvanometer gives a bigger deflection in the same direction
(ii) The galvanometer deflects in the opposite direction when the switch is closed
(a) ANSW:
 When current flows, the change in current in the dc coil causes a flux which links with the coil
in second circuit, thus an emf is induced
 When closed, no more change in flux in dc, hence no induced emf
(b) ANSW:
(i) increase turns in primary coil using more cells in the primary coil
(ii) Reversing terminals of the battery
Class Activity – 2: 3
1. Explain how a moving magnet and a coil of wire can be used to produce alternating current
2. A student holds a bent piece of wire in a horizontal magnetic field, as shown. She moves the wire
downwards through the field, and then upwards.
(a) Explain why an e.m.f is induced between the ends of the wire
(b) How will the e.m.f differ between moving the wire downwards and moving it upwards?
(c) Suggest how she could move the wire to induce a bigger e.m.f across its ends.
(d) She now moves the wire horizontally from side to side in the magnetic field. Will an
e.m.f be induced? Give a reason to support your answer
3. (a) A coil of insulated wire is connected to a galvanometer. What would be seen if a bar magnet
with its south pole towards one face of the coil is
(i) Moved quickly toward it
(ii) Moved quickly away from it
(iii) Placed near its one face?
These activities are then repeated with North Pole of the magnet. What will be the
observations?
(b) Name and define the phenomenon involved in above activities.
(c) Name the rule which can determine the direction of current in each case.
4. A coil of insulated copper wire is connected to a galvanometer. What will happen if a bar magnet is:
(a) Pushed into the coil?
(b) Held stationary inside the coil?
(c) Withdrawn from inside the coil?
5. Why does a galvanometer connected to a coil show deflection when a magnet is moved near it?
6. When a magnet is pushed into the solenoid in the figure below, the ammeter record a brief current.
(i) Explain why current is produced in the circuit

(ii) State the magnetic pole produced at the left-hand end of the solenoid
(iii) State the rule you have used to determine the polarity above
(iv) State three ways by which the magnitude of the induced current can be increased
Self and Mutual – Induction

Self-Induction
 Is the phenomenon in which a change in electric current in a coil produces an induced e.m.f in
the coil itself
OR: The process of inducing emf in the coil due to the change of current in the coil itself.”
 The change in the magnetic flux in a coil may be due to the relative motion of the coil and the
magnetic field or due to the change of current in the coil itself.
 Let us consider a coil of N turns with a battery, a galvanometer and a rheostat in its circuit. If the
current in the coil is changed with the help of rheostat, then, the magnetic field also changes.
An emf (electromotive force) is therefore induced in the same coil.
 The direction of the emf is such that it opposes the change in current. In other words, the
direction of the induced current is opposite of the primary current.

NB:
 But a changing magnetic flux produces a varying current through the coil which itself will produce
its own magnetic field. This self-induced emf opposes the change that is causing it and the faster
the rate of change of current the greater is the opposing emf. This self-induced emf will, by
Lenz’s law oppose the change in current in the coil and because of its direction this self-induced
emf is generally called a Back-Emf.
 Back e.m.f is the voltage induced in the coil due to variation of electric current flowing in the
same coil
Mutual Induction
 If two coils (the first is the primary and the other is secondary) are close together then changing
current in the primary coil produces a magnetic field which passes through (links) the secondary
coil. Therefore an e.m.f is induced in the secondary coil. This effect is known as mutual induction
 Therefore; Mutual Induction –Is the process of inducing e.m.f in the secondary coil by changing
the magnetic flux of the primary coil with the help of varying current through it.
 Consider two coils of wire kept side by side as seen below, when magnetic flux linking with the
secondary coil changes, an e.m.f is induced in it causing current to flow, hence a deflection in the
galvanometer.
NB:
Current in the primary coil can be changed by;
(i) Switching the current ON and OFF
(ii) Varying the current using a Rheostat
(iii) Applying an alternating current in the primary coil
The e.m.f in secondary coil can be increased by;

(i) Winding the primary and secondary coils on a soft iron core
 Soft iron becomes magnetized and demagnetized easily. It concentrates the magnetic field
in both coils thus making them able to reach the secondary coil

(ii) By varying more turns on secondary coil
 The induced e.m.f from each turn of secondary coil is equal to the total e.m.f induced in
individual turns. Therefore, the higher the number of turns in the secondary coil, the higher
the induced e.m.f
The coil which varies current is primary coil while the coil with induced current is secondary coil
Mechanism
 Primary coil produces magnetic flux which change magnetic flux in secondary coil to produce
electromotive force
 Consider two coils located near each other. The coil with the battery circuit is called the primary
coil and the coil joined with the galvanometer circuit is called the secondary coil. The secondary
coil within the magnetic field of the current-carrying primary coil.
 The current in the primary coil can be changed by a rheostat.
If the current is changed in the primary coil, the magnetic flux through the secondary coil due to
primary also changes. So, an emf will be induced in the secondary coil also.
Application of Mutual Induction
 It is used in transformers
 It is used in the ignition system
 It is used in flash tubes in cameras and strobe light
 In wireless telegraphy
 Generators and motors use principle of mutual induction to work
Eddy Currents
 This occurs when the alternating current flows through the coil, it set up magnetic flux in the
magnetic material. The flux also links to the core material and induces EMF at the various points
of the core, according to Faraday’s Law of Electromagnetic induction. The potential difference
causes closed-loop circulating current in the core. Thus the circulating current is called Eddy
Current. (see the figure below)
 As these currents are not responsible for doing any useful work, and it produces a loss (I2R loss)
in the magnetic material known as an Eddy Current Loss. Similar to hysteresis loss, eddy current
loss also increases the temperature of the magnetic material.
Methods used to minimize Eddy Current loss (Eddy currents)
(i) Laminated core:
 The core is made from thin laminated sheets. The lamination on sheets provides electrical
insulation between two adjacent sheets. The thin sheet has a smaller cross-section area
𝝆𝑳
(as 𝑹 = ) and therefore its resistance is more. The large resistance hinders the path of eddy
𝑨
currents. Thus, the magnitude of current and loss reduces.
 This is the reason to why all instruments use principle of electromagnetic induction are laminated
like motor armature, dynamos armature, transformer coils are wrapped by insulator sheets.
(ii) The eddy current loss is also reduced by using a magnetic material having a higher value of
resistivity like silicon steel, ferrite, etc
Application of Eddy Currents

Unlike mechanical brakes, which are based on friction and kinetic energy, eddy current brakes
rely on electromagnetism to stop objects from moving.
 Eddy currents are created when a conductor passes through a magnetic field, which creates
opposing forces that spin inside the conductor. According to Lenz’s law, an eddy current produces
a magnetic field that is in opposition to the magnetic field that produced it, and therefore eddy
currents are an inverse response to the source magnetic field. This reaction between
electromagnetic forces happens to be ideal for clean deceleration.
Advantages of Eddy Current

 Cookers- Induction-based cookers utilise the heating effect caused by transforming electrical
energy into heat energy. Over the induction cooktops, utensils with metal plate bases are put.
Copper coils are inserted beneath ceramic plates in these cooktops. When an alternating current
is fed via a coil, the oscillating magnetic fields created cause eddy currents in the metal plate of
the utensils, which warms the utensils.
 Braking Mechanism in Trains- Metal wheels on trains run on metallic tracks. When the brakes
are applied, the trains’ metal wheels are exposed to a magnetic field, which induces eddy
currents in the wheels. As a result of the magnetic interaction between the applied magnetic field
and the eddy currents created in the wheels, the trains slow down. This impact becomes greater
as the wheels begin to spin quickly, and as the train slows, the braking force reduces, bringing
the train to a smooth stop.
 Electric power meters: The metal disc in the electric power meter (analogue type) rotates due to
the eddy currents. This rotation can be used to measure power consumption.
 Speed Indicators in Cars- Every vehicle we use for transportation has a speedometer, which
tells us how fast the vehicle is travelling at any particular time. It has a magnet that rotates in
response to the vehicle’s speed. Eddy currents are created in the drum, and when the drum
travels in the direction of the revolving magnet, the connected pointer moves across the scale,
showing the vehicle’s speed.
 Furnace Based on Induction – Induction furnace can be used to melt metals. A high frequency
alternating current is passed through a coil. The metal to be melted is placed inside the coil. The
eddy currents generated in the metals produce heat that melts it. This method is frequently used
to extract metals from their ores. Induction furnaces are used to create alloys.
 Electromagnetic damping: Certain galvanometers have a core of metallic material. When the
coil oscillates, the eddy currents are generated in the core. This eddy current opposes the motion
and brings the coil to rest quickly.
 Eddy current instruments are used for detecting cracks in metal parts. (Non-destructive
Testing)
Eddy currents are used to identify flaws in huge structures or machinery such as aeroplanes. A
change in the magnetic field at a location, as indicated by a change in the number of induced
eddy currents, will be observed everywhere there is an irregularity in the metal surface.

Disadvantages of eddy currents
 Complicate construction of cores of electromagnetic coils
 Causes heating in electrical components appliances
 They cause energy losses as heat e.g in transformers

1. In an experiment, a coil was connected in series with an ammeter and an a.c power supply as
shown in the figure below
Explain why the current was reduced when an iron core was inserted in the coil.
2. Two coils of insulated copper wire are wound over a non conducting cylinder as shown. Coil I
has larger number of turns.
(a) Write your observations when, (i) key K is closed; (ii) key K is opened;
(b) Give reason for your observations.
(c) Mention the name of the phenomenon involved and define it.
(d) Name of two coils used in this experiment.
(e) State the rule which gives the direction of induced current.
3. Two circular coils A and B are placed closed to each other. If the current in the coil A is
changed, will some current be induced in the coil B? Give reason.
ANS: YES, induced current is produced in coil B. It is because, when we change current in coil A, it
changes magnetic flux. This changing magnetic flux induces current in coil B.
4. Why a thick metal plate oscillating about a horizontal axis stops when a strong magnetic
field is applied on the plate?
ANS: due to the production of eddy currents because eddy current opposes mechanical motion
5. What are the applications of eddy currents?
6. What are eddy currents?
Based on Faraday’s law of EMI, eddy currents are small circular current loops formed within a
conductor by the changing magnetic field around the conductor
7. How are eddy currents produced?
Eddy currents are generated inside a conductor when it moves through a magnetic field or when
the magnetic flux flowing through it varies continuously.
8. Why are Eddy currents undesirable?
When a conductor is moved in a magnetic field, eddy currents are generated. Eddy currents
cause energy to be lost as heat. It can cause power loss and lower efficiency in electric motors,
generators, and even transformers. These currents may cause the equipment to degrade..

Induction Coil (Spark coil)
 Is an electrical device consisting of two coils (primary and secondary coil) where secondary coil
wound over primary coil on an iron core.
 OR Induction coil is a device for getting a high voltage from a low one.
 This device, which is the basis of many ignition systems for cars, uses the mutual inductance
between two coils to produce a high voltage. A simplified diagram of an induction coil is shown in
Figure below.
 A primary coil consisting of a small number of turns of thick copper wire is wound round a bundle
of soft iron rods that are insulated from each other. The secondary coil, which may consist of
many hundreds of metres of fine wire, is wound over the primary.
Mechanism
 On closing the switch K, a current flows in the primary and magnetises the core, which
attracts the armature and breaks the circuit. The magnetic field dies away; the armature
is pulled back by the spring and the current flows again. The process then repeats itself.
 The rapidly changing magnetic field produces a high voltage in the primary coil; the greater the
rate at which this field changes, the greater is the induced voltage. A capacitor is connected
across the make and break contacts; this reduces sparking and also causes the field to die
away much more rapidly than if the capacitor had not been present. As a result the induced
voltage in the secondary is much greater when the circuit is broken than when it is made. The
secondary current therefore pulsates, but it is always in the same direction. Sparks of several
centimetres in length may be obtained through air at atmospheric pressure with quite small
induction coils, and larger coils were originally used to power X-ray tubes.
Application of Induction Coil

 It is used commonly in ignition system of internal combustion engines
 It is used to trigger the flash bulb tubes used in cameras and strobe lights
 It is also used in wireless telegraphy
 It is used in cooking, example induction cooker
Generators
 Generator : Is a device which converts mechanical energy into electrical energy
 OR: Generator – Is the device which produces electricity on the basis of
electromagnetic induction by the continuous motion of either a coil or a magnet
 A small generator is called a dynamo. For example, the small generator used on bicycles for
lighting purposes is called a bicycle dynamo.

Types of Generators
 Alternating current generator (A.C Generator)
 Direct current generator (D.C Generator)
Alternating Current Generator (Alternator)
 A.C Generator – Is a device which converts mechanical energy into electrical energy
 OR; A.C Generator – Is the device which produces electricity on the basis of electromagnetic
induction by the continuous motion of either a coil or a magnet
 OR Is a device which consists of a coil rotating in an external magnetic field to
produce alternating current.
NB:
o The direction of motion, current and magnetic field can be shown by Fleming right hand rule
Construction:
 It consists of a rectangular coil of insulated copper wire with sides (labelled A, B, C, and D). This
coil is placed in a magnetic field between the poles of a strong permanent horseshoe magnet.
 The two free ends of the coil are connected to the two slip rings. Current generated in the coil is
taken out through the two carbon brushes pressed lightly against the slip rings.
NB;
 An armature is the movable coil of wire in a generator that rotates through the magnetic field. The
armature may consist of many coils. The ends of the coils are connected to slip rings.
 Slip rings are metallic rings connected to the ends of the armature and are used to connect the
induced voltage to the brushes. When the armature is rotated in the magnetic field, a voltage is
generated in each half of the armature coil.
 A brush is a sliding contact that rides against the commutator segments or slip rings and is used
to connect the armature to the external circuit.

 Magnetic poles - The magnets are placed as shown in the figure, the North Pole and the South
Pole are kept facing each other. This is done to ensure that the magnetic field is constant
throughout the structure. The rectangular coil is placed between these magnets.
Working Principle of AC Generator

 AC generator works on the principle of Faraday’s laws of electromagnetic induction; i.e when a
coil is rotated in a magnetic field, a magnetic flux change is produced in the coil, as a result, an
electromotive force (emf) is produced in it. This in turn produces an induced current in the coil.
 Magnetic flux can be varied either by varying the magnetic field or by rotating the coil in a steady
magnetic field. The magnitude of the induced emf is given by Faraday’s law of electromagnetic
induction and its direction by Fleming’s right hand rule.
Each time one side of the coil (either AB or DC) end up in a vertical position, the induced
current changes direction – hence alternating current. Why this happens (see explanations
below)
 We know that magnetic field lines go from north pole to south pole
 As the coil rotates, it cuts the magnetic field lines and induces emf and current. In the diagram
above, as the coil rotates, side AB will cut the magnetic field upwards while side CD cuts the
field downwards
 This will induce an emf and current within the coil, in a particular direction
 As the coil rotates further, side AB will eventually cut the magnetic field downwards while side
CD cuts the field upwards
 Since the sides have now reversed, the direction of induced current will also become reversed too
Mechanism of Alternator (A.C Generator)
 Starting with the coil in the horizontal position, sides AB and CD are cutting the magnetic lines of
force. Maximum E.M.F is therefore induced in the coil. Current flows from A to B and from C to D
 When the coil is in the vertical position, sides AB and CD are moving along the magnetic lines of
force .The induced E.M.F drops to zero and current stops flowing
 During the second quarter rotation, the coils start cutting the lines of force and induced E.M.F
increases from zero to a maximum value when the coil is in a horizontal position again. Current
flows from B to A and from D to C, i.e is reversed
 This cycle of events is repeated automatically hence electricity is produced (See the fig below
shown from the CRO)

 The direction and magnitude of the induced e.m.f changes with time depending on the position of
the coil
NB:
Frequency of the alternating current:
Alternating current (AC) so produced has a definite frequency. This frequency is equal to half the
number of times the polarity changes in one second. In our country, the frequency of the alternating
current supplied by the power generation units is 50 cycles per second (or Hz). This means, the
alternating current (AC) produced in our country changes polarity 100times in one second
Direct Current Generator

 Direct current generator – Is a device that consists a coil rotating in an external magnetic field to
produce direct current
 See the fig below:
Construction:
 A simple DC generator consists of a coil of insulated copper wire. The coil is placed between the
two poles of a strong horseshoe magnet. In actual practice, a large number of turns of the insulated
copper wire are wound on a soft iron core.
 The two ends of the coil are connected to the two halves of a split ring (R 1, R2 called commutator).
Two carbon brushes press against the two half–rings lightly. The current is taken out through the
brushes B1 and B2.
Working Principle
A DC generator operates on the principle of electromagnetic induction that is when the magnetic flux
linking a conductor changes, an EMF is induced in the conductor.
 In d.c generator the Slip Rings are replaced by a commutator in order to prevent reverse of
current. Each half commutator is called commutator segment which is insulated from other half
commutator
 Commutator works like a rectifier that changes AC voltage to DC voltage within the armature
winding.

Mechanism of D.C Generator
 Let the coil ABCD be initially in the horizontal position, and be rotated anticlockwise. When the coil
is rotated anticlockwise, the arm AB moves downwards and the arm CD moves upwards.
 The coil during this motion cuts the magnetic lines of force and an induced current is produced in
the coil. According to Fleming’s right hand rule, during the downward motion of the arm AB, the
induced current flows from B to A in the arm AB, and from D to C in the arm CD. The current so
produced is taken out through the two half–split rings, and the carbon brushes.
 After half the rotation (rotation through 180º), the arms of the coil interchanged their positions; the
arm AB comes to right and the arm CD to the left. Then the arm CD starts moving downwards, and
the arm AB upwards. During this half–rotation, the induced current flows from C to D in the arm
CD, and from A to B in the arm AB.
 The two half–split rings (R1 and R2) rotate with the coil and touch the two carbon brushes (B1, B2)
one by one. As a result, each carbon brush continues to have the same polarity, (+ or –). The
brush B2 always remains positive (+) terminal, and the brush B1 remains negative (–) terminal. The
current so produced is called direct current (DC). See the fig below
ALTERNATIVELY;
 If you turned the handle the opposite way (ie,.. if you change the direction of rotation) and then you
were to plot the voltage change through time for one complete 360° revolution of the handle, you
would find the following:

Dynamos
 A dynamo is a direct-current generator
 A simple dynamo is the same as an alternator except that the dynamo has a split-ring
commutator instead of two separate slip rings, see figure below
 As the coil rotates, it cuts through the field lines. This induces a potential difference between
the end of the coil
 The split ring commutator changes the connections between the coil and the brushes every half
turn in order to keep the current leaving the dynamo in the same direction. This happens each
time the coil is perpendicular to the magnetic field lines
 Therefore, the induced potential difference does not reverse its direction as it does in the
alternator. Instead, it varies from zero to a maximum value twice each cycle of rotation, and
never changes polarity (positive to negative). This means the current is always positive (or
always negative)

Advantage of alternator
1. Commutators are complex and costly to construct, therefore many d.c generators are being
replaced with a.c generators by using rectifiers
Rectifiers are devices that allow current flowing in one direction only.
2. A.C generator has the advantage of stepping up and stepping down the voltages as per the
requirement. This is not possible for the Emf of a D.C generator because transformer works with
A.C only
3. The loss of energy during the transmission in AC voltage in is less when compared with the DC
voltage and this makes its installations easy when the transformers are at distance
4. The design of the A.C generator is failry simpler than D.C generator type
In both a.c and d.c generators, the induced current can be increased by:
(a) Using stronger magnet
Increasing the strength of the magnet will produce a stronger magnetic force on the wire and
therefore more voltage (and therefore current).
(b) Increasing the number of turns of the coil
If you want to increase the voltage (and therefore the current) generated by the turning handle you
can increase the length of the wire affected by the magnets. You do this by forming a many-coiled
armature. The small voltage from each circle will add together to give a much larger voltage. A coil
with 100 turns will have more voltage than a one-turn coil. This is true when you create direct
current or when you create alternating current.
(c) Increasing the speed of rotation of the coil
The faster you turn the handle, the more voltage (and therefore current) will be generated. The
problem is that the more current you generate the harder it is to turn the handle. Because
electricity is now passing through the coil, the coil itself is now producing a magnetic
effect and Lenz's law says that it will try to oppose this movement. The faster you go the
harder it is to turn. This is why, when you need large voltages or current you need a very
powerful turning handle. This is true when you create direct current or when you create alternating
current.
(d) Winding the coil on a soft iron core so as to increase the magnetic flux trough the coil
Differences between AC and DC generators
A.C generator D.C generator
 The coil is connected to slip rings.  The coil is connected to a split rings
 The same part of the coil is always (commutator).
connected to the same slip ring.  A brush makes contact with a different half of
 The current in the slip rings changes the split ring commutator during each half of the
direction when the current in the coil rotation (cycle).
reverses.  One brush always makes contact with the
 The brushes collect the alternating positive half of the split ring commutator and the
current (AC) from the slip rings. other brush always makes contact with the
negative half of the split ring commutator.
 The brushes collect DC from the split rings
(commutator).
Similarities between AC and DC generators
 Both convert mechanical energy to electrical energy.
 The coils are turned mechanically (e.g. by steam, flowing water or wind).
 The induced emf increases and decreases during each cycle.
 When the coil cuts through the magnetic field, the changing magnetic flux induces an emf and
electric current in the coil.
 The induced V and I have maximum values twice during every cycle.
 Carbon brushes collect the current.
Worked examples
1. A keen cyclist builds his own dynamo to generate electricity for his lights. Unfortunately, when he
tries it out the lights are not bright enough. Suggest two changes he could make to his dynamo to
generate more electricity. Is there a third solution to his problem?
ANSW:
(i) Increase the number of turns in the coil
(ii) Use a stronger magnet
(iii) Yes, He could pedal faster

1. (a) Explain how a bicycle dynamo generates current.
(b) Why does the dynamo produce no current when the cyclist has stopped?
2. What are the Similarities between AC and DC generators
3. The speed of rotation of the coil in an alternating-current generator is increased. Explain what
changes, if any, will occur in the amplitude and frequency of the current produced by the
generator as a result of this change.
4. Explain the functions of each of the following in an electric motor:
(a) Split ring– commutator (b) Brushes (c) Armature
5. Explain why, the direction of induced current in the coil of an A.C. generator changes after
every half revolution of the coil.
ANS;
 After every half revolution, each side of the generator coil starts moving in the opposite
direction in the magnetic field. The side of the coil which was initially moving downwards in the
magnetic field, after half revolution, it starts moving in opposite direction – upwards.
 Similarly, the side of coil which was initially moving upwards, after half revolution, it starts
moving downwards. Due to the change in the direction of motion of the two sides of the coil in
the magnetic field after every half revolution, the direction of current produced in them also
changes after every half revolution
6. The diagram shows a simple electrical generator connected to a lamp. When the coil is turned, a
voltage is induced.
(a)Explain why a voltage is induced when the coil is turned.

(b)State two ways that this induced voltage can be increased.
(c) When the lamp is connected to the generator, the coil is hard to turn. When the lamp is
disconnected from the generator, the coil is easy to turn. Suggest, in terms of energy, why
it is harder to turn the coil when the lamp is connected.

Transformer
Transformer – Is a device that transfers an alternating current from one circuit to another by the
principal of mutual induction either by increasing or decreasing the voltage
OR
A transformer is a device that changes (transforms) and alternating potential difference (voltage)
from one value to another value be it smaller or greater using the principle of electromagnetic
induction
Working Principle
 Transformer works on the principle of mutual induction of two coils or Faraday Law’s of
Electromagnetic induction. When current in the primary coil is changed the flux linked to the
secondary coil also changes. Consequently an EMF is induced in the secondary coil due to
Faraday law’s of electromagnetic induction.
Construction
 A transformer consists of a soft iron core with two coils wound around it which are not
connected to one another. These coils can be wound either on separate limbs of the iron core
or be arranged on top of each other.
 The coil to which the alternating voltage is supplied is called the primary coil or primary
winding and the coil in which e.m.f is induced is called secondary coil or secondary winding, see
the figure below
 When an alternating potential difference is supplied the resulting alternating current in the
primary coil produces a changing magnetic field around it. This changing field induces an
alternating current in the secondary coil. The size of the induced voltage resulting from the
induced current in the secondary coil depends on the number of turns in the secondary coil.
How Transformers work?

 Transformers only work with alternating current (a.c)
 The primary coil has alternating current flowing through it. It is thus an electromagnet, and
produces an alternating magnetic field
 The core transports this alternating field around to the secondary coil.
 Now the secondary coil is a conductor in a changing magnetic field. A current is induced in the coil
N.B;
 If the secondary coil has only a few turns, the e.m.f induced across it is small. If it has a lot of turns,
the e.m.f induced will be large. Therefore, to get a high voltage out, we need a secondary coil with
a lot of turns compared to the primary
 If direct current is connected to a transformer, there is no output voltage. This is because the
magnetic field produced by the primary coil is unchanging. With an unchanging field passing
through the secondary coil, no voltage is induced in it.
Types of Transformer
o Step up transformer
o Step down transformer
Step up Transformer
 If the number of turns on the secondary winding of a transformer is greater than the number of
turns on the primary winding, then the secondary output voltage will be greater than the
primary input voltage. This type of transformer is called Step Up Transformer and is illustrated
in the figure below.
 Thus; Step Up transformer–Is the transformer that convert low alternating voltage from primary
coil to high alternating voltage in secondary coil
 Step-up transformers are used to step up voltage coming from a power station onto the power
lines that transmit electrical energy.
Step down Transformer

 If the number of turns on the secondary winding of a transformer is less than the number of
turns on the primary winding, then the secondary output voltage will be smaller than the
primary input voltage. This type of transformer is called Step Down Transformer and is
illustrated in the figure below.
 Therefore Step Down Transformer Is the transformer that convert high alternating voltage
from primary coil to low alternating voltage in secondary coil
Difference between Step – down and Step – up transformer

Step – down transformer Step – up transformer
Decreases the output voltage Increases the output voltage
Has many number of turns in primary coil Has many number of turns in secondary coil
Primary voltage is higher than secondary voltage Secondary voltage is higher than primary voltage
Current is high on the secondary winding. Current is low on the secondary winding.
Secondary winding is made up of thick insulated Primary winding is made up of thick insulated
copper wire copper wire.
It is used in doorbell, voltage converter, etc It is used in Power plant, X-rays machine,
microwaves, etc.
Rating of output voltage 110v ,24v, 20v, 10v, etc. Rating of output voltage is 11000 volts or above
Transformer Equation
 From the factors affecting the induced e.m.f (Faraday’s law)
For primary coil

𝑵 𝑷 ∝ 𝑽𝑷 → 𝑁𝑃 = 𝑘𝑉𝑃 ------ (i)
For secondary coil
𝑵 𝑺 ∝ 𝑽𝑺 → 𝑁𝑆 = 𝑘𝑉𝑆 ------- (ii)
Divide equation (i) to equation (ii)
𝑵𝑷 𝑲 𝑽𝑷
=
𝑵𝒔 𝑲 𝑽𝑺
𝑵𝑷 𝑽𝑷
∴ =
𝑵𝒔 𝑽𝑺
Suppose no Power Loss (For ideal transformer)
PP = PS
But: P = IV
𝑽𝒑 𝑽𝒑 𝑰𝒔
Then: IP x VP = IS x VS…….... make the subject, → =
𝑽𝒔 𝑽𝒔 𝑰𝒑
𝑽𝒑 𝑰𝑺 𝑵𝒑
Therefore: = =
𝑽𝒔 𝑰𝑷 𝑵𝒔
Where:
 NP and NS are the number of turns in primary coil and secondary coil respectively
 VP and VS are primary and secondary voltage respectively
 IP and IS are primary and secondary currents
 PP and PS are the power in primary coil and power in secondary coil
Transformer Efficiency
 Is the ratio power in secondary coils to power in primary coils expressed as a percentage
 Mathematically:
𝑷𝒐𝒘𝒆𝒓 𝒐𝒖𝒕 𝒑𝒖𝒕
𝑬𝒇𝒇𝒊𝒄𝒊𝒆𝒏𝒄𝒚 = × 𝟏𝟎𝟎%
𝑷𝒐𝒘𝒆𝒓 𝒊𝒏𝒑𝒖𝒕
𝑷𝒐𝒘𝒆𝒓 𝒊𝒏 𝒔𝒆𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒅𝒂𝒚𝒓𝒚 𝒄𝒐𝒊𝒍 𝑷𝒔

= × 𝟏𝟎𝟎% = × 𝟏𝟎𝟎%
𝑷𝒐𝒘𝒆𝒓 𝒊𝒏 𝒑𝒓𝒊𝒎𝒂𝒓𝒚 𝒄𝒐𝒊𝒍 𝑷𝒑
 But: Ps = Is x Vs and Pp = Ip x Vp
𝑷𝑺 𝑰 𝑺 𝑽𝑺
∴ 𝑬𝒇𝒇𝒊𝒄𝒊𝒆𝒏𝒄𝒚 = × 𝟏𝟎𝟎% = 𝐱 𝟏𝟎𝟎%
𝑷𝑷 𝑰 𝑷 𝑽𝑷

Worked Examples
1. A transformer with primary coil of 400 turns and secondary coil 200 turns is connected to 240 V ac
mains. Calculate the secondary voltage.
Soln:
Given: NP = 400, NS = 200, VP = 240 V, VS =?
𝑵 𝑽
From: 𝑷 = 𝑷
𝑵𝒔 𝑽𝑺
𝟒𝟎𝟎 𝟐𝟒𝟎
= → 𝑽𝑺 = 𝟏𝟐𝟎 𝑽
𝟐𝟎𝟎 𝑽𝑺
2. A transformer with primary coil of 1200 turns and secondary coil 600 turns is connected to 240 V
mains. If the primary current is 3.0A and secondary is 5.0A. What is its efficiency?
Soln:
Given: VP = 240 V, NP = 1200, NS = 600, IP = 3.0A, IS = 5.0A
Required: Efficiency=?
𝑵 𝑽
From: 𝑷 = 𝑷
𝑵𝒔 𝑽𝑺
𝟏𝟐𝟎𝟎 𝟐𝟒𝟎
= → 𝑽𝑺 = 𝟏𝟐𝟎 𝑽
𝟔𝟎𝟎 𝑽𝑺
𝑷𝒔 𝑰𝑺 𝑽𝑺
𝑨𝒍𝒔𝒐 𝑬𝒇𝒇𝒊𝒄𝒊𝒆𝒏𝒄𝒚 = × 𝟏𝟎𝟎% = 𝐱 𝟏𝟎𝟎%
𝑷𝒑 𝑰 𝑷 𝑽𝑷
𝑰𝑺 𝑽𝑺 𝟏𝟐𝟎 𝐱 𝟓
∴ 𝑬𝒇𝒇𝒊𝒄𝒊𝒆𝒏𝒄𝒚 = 𝐱 𝟏𝟎𝟎% = 𝐱 𝟏𝟎𝟎% = 𝟖𝟑%
𝑰𝑷 𝑽𝑷 𝟐𝟒𝟎 𝐱𝟑
Sources of energy/ Power loses in a Transformer

There are four main causes of energy/ Power loss in a transformer. These are
(i) Resistance of coils (Copper losses)
 This is caused by high resistance of copper wire, which leads to energy loss in form of heat
 The copper losses can be minimized by using thick copper wires in both primary and
secondary coils to lower their resistance.
(ii) Flux leakage
 This leads to energy loss as a result of magnetic flux produced by the primary coils failing to
link up with the secondary coils
 It can be minimized by winding the secondary coils over the primary coil
(iii) Hysteresis losses
 This is the energy lost due to continuous magnetization and demagnetization of the core
 It can be minimized by the use of soft iron core which is easily magnetized and demagnetized
(iv) Eddy currents
 Eddy currents circulating through the core produces a lot of heat. The heat produced reduces
the amount of power that can be transferred to the secondary coil from the primary coil.
 It can be minimized by laminating the core. The laminated core is made up of thin sheets of
soft iron plates insulated from each other. The air between the laminates increases the
resistance of the core through minimizing the eddy currents.
Transmission of electricity
 Electricity generated at the power stations is usually at low voltage and high current.
 Before transmission, the voltage is first stepped up to very high voltages then transmitted over
a network of transmission cables known as the national grid system
 The national grid system is a network of transmission cables connecting all power stations in
a country to each other and to the consumers

 Advantage of the national grid system of transmission is that “to ensure that the power is
available to consumers even when one of the stations fails’’
 In the National Grid, a step-up transformer is used to increase the voltage and reduce the
current. The voltage is increased from about 25,000 Volts to 400,000 Vots causing the current
to decrease. Less current means less energy is lost through heating the wire.
 To keep people safe from these high voltage wires, pylons are used to support transmission
lines above the ground.
 Before reaching the end user, a step-down transformer, reduces the voltage from the
transmission voltage to the safer voltage of 230 V for home use.
N.B:
Electric power transmission network should be efficient, safe and at the same time economical.
Keeping this in mind, power is transmitted at high voltage for the following reasons.
(i) To improve the efficiency of power transmission.
As electricity is transmitted over long distances, there are inherent energy losses along the
way. High voltage transmission minimizes the amount of power lost as electricity flows from
one location to the next, ie,.. the higher the voltage, the lower the current. The lower the
current, the lower the resistance losses in the conductors. And when resistance losses are low,
energy losses are low also. Therefore, the efficiency of power transmission is increased.
(ii) To reduce power losses.
We know that, the resistance of transmission lines itself contribute the most to the power loss.
The power loss in the lines due to resistance is called copper loss or I2R loss. Lesser the
current lesser will be the power loss. Hence during power transmission, the voltage is
stepped up to reduce current. For transmitting the same amount of power to a distance, the
power loss will be more while transmitted at a lower voltage.
(iii) To reduce power transmission cost.
It is known that, the lower current that accompanies high voltage transmission reduces
resistance in the conductors as electricity flows along the cables. This means that; thin,
light-weight wires can be used in long-distance transmission. As a result, transmission towers
do not need to be engineered to support the weight of heavier wires that would be
associated with a high current. These considerations make high voltage transmission over
long distances an economical solution.
Summary of steps involved during the transmission of electricity
Power loss during transmission

 Power loss during transmission , P is given by: P = I2R
 Whereby: P = Power lost during transmission, I = Current in the cables, R = Resistance
of the cables
Dangers of high voltage transmission
 Risk of electric shock due to the high voltage
 Risk of fire when the cables touch each other
 Strong electric fields set up by high voltages are harmful to animals and human beings
Precaution
 To minimize the dangers of high voltage transmission, the cables are supported high above
the ground
Uses of transformer
 Transformers are used in power stations to step up voltage for transmission from the station to the
area of consumption. The stepping up reduces the current so that losses due to resistance in the
transmitting wires are reduced
 The transformers are used to step down the voltage to the area of consumption as for as the value
of voltage required for domestic use is connected.
 Electricity is transmitted from one part of the country to another part by grid system
 It can increase or decrease the value of capacitor, an inductor or resistance in an AC circuit. It can
thus act as an impedance transferring device.
 It can be used to prevent DC from passing from one circuit to the other.
 It can isolate two circuits electrically.
Worked Examples
1. A lamp rated at 15 V 80 W is connected to the secondary coil of a step-down transformer and is at
full brightness. The primary coil is connected to a supply of 220 V. The transformer is 65% efficient.
Calculate the current in the primary coil.
ANS: VS = 15V, PO = 80W, VP = 220V, 𝜼 =65% =0.65, IP =?
𝑷𝑶 𝑰𝑺 𝑽𝑺 𝑰𝑺 𝑽𝑺
From; 𝜼 = = → 𝑰𝑷 = , but; PO = ISVS = 80W
𝑷𝑰 𝑰𝑷 𝑽𝑷 𝜼×𝑽𝑷
𝑰𝑺 𝑽𝑺 𝟖𝟎
∴ 𝑰𝑷 = = = 𝟎. 𝟓𝟔A
𝜼×𝑽𝑷 𝟎.𝟔𝟓×𝟐𝟐𝟎
2. When a 240 V electrical supply is connected to the primary winding of a transformer, a current of
50mA flows in the circuit. The secondary winding is connected to a 5 ohm resistor in which a
current of 1.5A flows, calculate
(a) The power supplied to the transformer
(b) The power dissipated in the 5 ohm resistor
(c) The efficiency of the transformer
ANS: Given; VP =240V, IP = 50mA = 0.05A, IS =1.5A, R =5
(a) PSupplied = PInp = IPVP = 240 x 0.05 = 12 W
(b) PDissipated = POutput = ISVS = 𝑰𝟐𝑺 ×R = (1.5)2 x 5 = 11.25 W
𝑷 𝟏𝟏.𝟐𝟓
(c) Efficiency = 𝑶𝒖𝒕 × 𝟏𝟎𝟎% = × 𝟏𝟎𝟎% = 93.75%
𝑷𝑰𝒏 𝟏𝟐
3. 100kW of power are being supplied to a factory through wires of resistance of 0.1. What power is
lost in the leads if the voltage at the factory end of the wires is (a) 230 V (b) 10,000 V?
ANS: Given; Pinput = 100000 = 100kW, R =0.1,
𝑷 𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎
(a)When V = 230V, PLost =?, From; P = 𝑰𝑽 → 𝑰 = =
𝑽 𝟐𝟑𝟎
𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎
Thus; maximum current in the wire, I = = 𝟒𝟑𝟒. 𝟕𝟖 𝑨
𝟐𝟑𝟎
∴ PLost = IV = I2R = (434.78)2 x 0.1 = 18903.4 W ≈ 𝟏𝟖. 𝟗kW
𝑃 100000
(b)When V = 10,000V, PLost =?, From; P = 𝐼𝑉 → 𝐼 = =
𝑉 10000
𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎
Thus; minimum current in the wire, I = = 𝟏𝟎 𝑨
𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎
∴ PLost = IV = I2R = (10)2 x 0.1 = 10W ≈ 𝟎. 𝟎𝟏 kW
NB: At 230V over 18 percent of the energy is wasted merely in warming the wires while at
10,000V, the energy losses are negligible, ie,,. the high voltage is transmitted with low current.
With low current, there is less energy losses in transmission cables and vice versa (ie,. P = I2R).
4. A power line from a power substation to a town some distance away, has a resistance of 0.10
ohms per kilometer. Determine the rate of energy loss in the transmission of power over 50 km at a
current of 60 Amperes
SOLN: Given: Total resistance over 50 km = 0.1 x 50 = 5, I = 60 A
From: P = I2R ∴ 𝑃 = 𝐼 2 × 𝑅 = 5 × 60 × 60 = 18000 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑡𝑠
5. The secondary windings of a transformer in which the voltage is stepped down are usually made of
thicker wire than the primary. Explain.
ANS: This is because more current flows in the secondary coil. The use of thicker wire reduces its
resistance and therefore the loss of energy as heat in the coil.
6. The schematic diagram indicating the transmission of electricity is given below:
By giving reason name the devices to be used in the places indicated as ′A′ and ′B′.
ANSW:
A indicates Step Up Transformer because it has increased the voltage up to 400 kV from 20kV
whereas B indicates Step Down Transformer because it has reduced the voltages from 400kV to 220
V for domestic supply
7. Explain the following:
(i) Where step-up and step-down transformers are used in National Grids.
(ii) Why transformers are used in National Grids.
(iii) Why a transformer will not work if a d.c. voltage is applied across its primary coil.
ANSW:
(i) Step – up transformers are used immediately before transmission through the National Grid.
Step – down transformers are used when the supply approaches towns, villages or the place
where the electrical energy is needed, e.g. a factory
(ii) Because they are used to reduce energy loss in the wire.
(iii) This is because magnetic field created when dc current is passing through a coil is stationary,
so no current is induced in the secondary coil
Class activity – 2:6

1. A transformer is used to step down 240V mains supply to 12V for laboratory use. If the primary
coil has 600 turns, determine the number of turns in the secondary coil (AN: Ns = 30 turns)
2. Electrical power is often transmitted over long distances in high-voltage power lines (cables).
Transformers are used to increase the voltage provided by the power station and to reduce the
voltage for the final user. Explain why electricity is transmitted at high voltage like this.
3. Explain why a step-up transformer is used when transmitting electricity long distances across
the United Republic of Tanzania.
4. Describe fully how electricity is transmitted from Julius Nyerere Hydro Power Station (JNHPS)
to our homes.
5. State two advantages of high-voltage transmission of electrical energy.
6. (a)The resistance of a length of power transmitting cables is 10  and is used to transmit 11
kV at a current of 1.0A. Determine the power loss (ANS:P = 10 W)
(b)If this voltage is stepped up to a 160 kv by a transformer, determine the power loss (Assume
the transformer is 100% efficient) (ANS:P = 0.048 W)
(c) By what factor is the power loss reduced when the power is transmitted at 16 kV as
𝑹𝒆𝒂𝒍 𝒑𝒐𝒘𝒆𝒓 𝟏𝟎
opposed to 11 kV (ANS: Power factor = = = 𝟐𝟎𝟖. 𝟑𝟑 𝒕𝒊𝒎𝒆𝒔 )
𝑨𝒑𝒑𝒂𝒓𝒆𝒏𝒕 𝒑𝒐𝒘𝒆𝒓 𝟎.𝟎𝟒𝟖
7. A current of 0.6A is passed through a step up transformer with a primary coil of 200 turns. A
current of 0.1A is obtained in the secondary coil. Determine the number of turns in the
secondary coil and the voltage across if the primary coil is connected to 240V mains.
(ANS: Ns = 1200 turns, Vs = 1440V)
8. A student designed a transformer to supply current of 10 A at a potential difference of 60 V to
an electric motor from a.c supply of 240V. If the efficiency of the transformer is 80%, calculate;
𝑷
(a) Power supplied to the transformer [ANS; 𝒆𝒇𝒇 = 𝑶𝒖𝒕 →PIn = 750W]
𝑷𝑰𝒏
(b) Current in the primary coil [ANS; PIn = IPVP  IP = 3.125A]
9. Explain by giving three reasons, why power being transmitted in power lines from the power
stations is stepped up
1. A step up transformer has 10000 turns in the secondary coil and 100 turns through the primary
coil. An a.c of 5A flow in the primary coil when connected to a 12V a.c supply, Calculate
(a) The voltage across secondary coil (ANS: Vs = 1200V, Is = 0.045A)
(b) Current in secondary coil if transformer efficiency is 90%
2.The figure below shows a simple transformer. Study it and answer the questions that follow.
(a) Explain why the core is a continuous loop?

(b) Give a reason as to why the core is laminated.
(c) State and explain which coils are thicker.
(d) What type of transformer is that?
3. With a secondary transformer output of 1,320 watts and a primary input of 1,800 watts,
calculate the efficiency of the transformer. (ANS: 73.33 %)
4. Explain how does a Transformer work?
5. Explain why a transformer will not work with direct current
6. What is the difference in energy transformation between a D.C motor and a D.C generator?
7. State five ways by which the electric motor can be made to rotate faster
ANS:-
(i) By increasing the current flowing through the coils
(ii) By using stronger magnets
(iii) By using many number of turns of the wire
(iv) By increasing the area of the coil in the magnetic field
(v) By using many coils with more split ring parts in many planes
8. What is the main structural difference between the D.C generator and the A.C generator?
9. A power line from a power substation to a town some distance away, has a resistance of 0.4 Ω
per kilometer. Determine the current flowing through the power lines if the rate of energy loss in
the transmission of power over 100 km is 100,000 W (ANS: P = 50 A)
10. What is meant by the national grid system?
11. What is the advantage of having a national grid in power transmission?
12. Why is the electricity transmitted at very high voltage and low current?
13. During the transmission of electricity over long distances, an alternating current is passed over
alluminium cables at high voltages and low current.
(a) Why is alternating current (a.c) used in preference to direct current (d.c)?
(b) Why are alluminium cables preferred to copper for long distance transmission of electricity
ANSW:
(a) This is because;
 Alternating current can be easily stepped up and down since transformers work only on
a.c not on d.c
 Direct current requires thick overhead cables which will be expensive to buy and
support
(b) It is because
 Alluminium has lower density than copper. (It is lighter than copper, therefore easy
to support. Use of copper wires will require very strong poles to support since copper
wires are fairly heavy)
 Alluminium is a better conductor of electricity than copper
 Alluminium does not corrode easily, unlike copper
14. A transformer is used to step down 120V mains to 24volts, for kitchen use. If the primary coil
has 400 turns, find the number of turns is the secondary coil (NS = 80)
15. Explain why soft iron is better material to be used for the core than steel?
16. A step up transformer has 5000 turns in the secondary coil. And 500turns through the primary
coil. An alternative current of 5A flows in the primary coil when connected to a 12V A.C supply.
(a)Calculate the voltage across the secondary coil. (ANS: VS = 120V, IS = 0.45A)
(b) If the transformer has an efficiency of 90% what is the current in the secondary coil?
17. A step down transformer is used to light a 12V, 24W lamp from 240 volts mains. The current
through the primary coil is 125mA. What is the efficiency of the transformer? (AN: Eff = 80%)
18. A transformer is used to step down 24V mains supplier to 12V for laboratory use, if the primary
coil has 600turns. Find the number of turns in the secondary coil. (Ns = 30 N)
19. A current of 0.6A is passed through a step up transformer with a primary coil of 200 turns. A
current of 0.1 A is obtained in the secondary coil. Find the number of turns in the secondary
coil and the voltage across if the primary coil is connected to 240V mains
(ANS: NS = 33 N, VS = 39.6V)
20. A Transformer has 1000 turns in its primary coil, which is connected to a 250 V a.c supply. The
secondary coil is connected to an ammeter via a 100 ohm resistor .Determine the number of
turns in the secondary coil if the ammeter reads 1.5 A (ANS: NS = 600)
21. Could a transformer be used to increase the voltage of a battery? Explain
22. Explain the function of the commutator in a DC electric generator
23. A low voltage outdoor lighting system uses a transformer to step down a 240 voltage house
hold voltage to 24 voltages. The lighting system has 6 lamps with a total resistance of 10Ω
(a) What is the current in the secondary coil of the transformer (ANS:I =24 A)
(b) What is the current in the primary coil (ANS: I = 2.4 A)
24. The figure below shows a step – down transformer connected to a 240 V mains socket. The
primary coil P, has 4000 turns while the secondary coil, S, has 200 turns. The efficiency of the
transformer is 60% and a current of 50 A flows through P. Calculate the current through S

25. A student is designed a transformer to supply a current of 10 A at a potential difference of 60 V
to a motor from an a.c mains supply of 240 V. If the efficiency of the transformer is 80%.
Calculate
(a) The power supplied to the transformer (ANS: PIN = 750 W)
(b) The current in the primary coil (ANS: IP = 3.125 A)
26. The ratio of the number of in the secondary coil in a transformer to that in the primary coil is
16:1.If the current in the secondary circuit is 4.0A. What is the current in the primary circuit?
(ANS: IS = 0.25A)
27. A transformer is used on a 240 V a.c supply to deliver 12 A at 120 V to a heating coil. If 20% of
energy taken from the supply is dissipated in the transformer
(a)What is the current in the primary coil? (ANS: IP = 7.5 A)
(b)Give three causes of 20% energy dissipation in the transformation above
28. Sketch the magnetic field patterns due to a current passing through:
(a) a long straight line (b) a circular coil
(c) a long solenoid. Indicate clearly the direction of current and magnetic field
29. Two transformers T1 and T2 are connected as shown in the figure below
Given that N1 =10, N2 = 200, N3 =100, N4 = 50 and V1 =240 V, what is the value of V4?
30. A laptop computer is plugged into the 230 V mains .The lap top is left on standby .Its power
consumption from the mains is 3.2 W .The lap top’s transformer changes the 230 V mains to
9.2 V which goes to the laptop .What is the current passing through the laptop?
31. Transformers are designed to use alternating current .Describe what change happens when a
step – up transformer is used
32. What is meant by the national grid system?
33. Explain how transformers are used to improve the efficiency of power transmission in the
national Grid.
34. A step – down transformer in a mobile phone charger converts 230 V mains into 5 V .The
phone needs a current of 3 A when charging .What current is required from the mains?
35. Describe the structure and working of a simple d.c motor
36. A d.c generator has a resistance coil of 10 ohms and is connected to a bulb of resistance 100
ohms .Calculate the induced e.m.f if the current flowing in the bulb is 5 amps
37. A step – down transformer has a secondary winding of 100 turns and primary winding of 200
turns .If the output voltage is 150 V ,find the input voltage ,assuming the transformer is 100 %
efficient
38. Describe the structure of a step – up transformer
39. A transformer with primary and secondary windings of 200 and 100 turns respectively is
connected to 250 V mains .Calculate the secondary voltage if the transformer is 75 % efficient

Chapter –3: Radioactivity
Radioactivity is the process in which an unstable atomic nucleus loses energy by emitting radiation in
the form of particles or electromagnetic wave.
OR
Radioactivity - is the process in which unstable atomic nuclei spontaneously decompose to form
nuclei with a higher stability by the release of energetic sub atomic particles.
NB:
 Radioactivity is also called radioactive decay. Disintegrated atom is called parent nuclide while
the new atom formed is called Daughter nuclide
 In order to understand radioactivity the structure of atoms needs to be understood.
Structure of an Atom
 Atomic structure is the structure of an atom that consists of a nucleus at the center containing
neutrons and protons, while electrons are revolving around the nucleus. Primarily, the atomic
structure of matter is made up of protons, electrons and neutrons
Atomic Model
 In the 18th and 19th centuries, many scientists attempted to explain the structure of the atom with
the help of atomic models. Each of these models had their own merits and demerits and were
pivotal to the development of the modern atomic model.
 The most notable contributions to the field were by the scientists such as John Dalton, J.J.
Thomson, Ernest Rutherford and Niels Bohr. Their ideas on the structure of the atom are
discussed in this subsection.
 The figures below show the Atomic Models and how they developed

Dalton’s Atomic Theory
 The English chemist John Dalton suggested that all matter is made up of atoms, which were
indivisible and indestructible. He also stated that all the atoms of an element were exactly the
same, but the atoms of different elements differ in size and mass.
 Chemical reactions, according to Dalton’s atomic theory, involve a rearrangement of atoms to
form products. According to the postulates proposed by Dalton, the atomic structure comprised
atoms, the smallest particle responsible for the chemical reactions to occur (see the figure
above).
Thomson’s Atomic Model
 The English chemist Sir Joseph John Thomson put forth his model describing the atomic structure
in the early 1900s.
 He was later awarded the Nobel prize for the discovery of “electrons”. His work is based on an
experiment called cathode ray experiment.
 Based on conclusions from his cathode ray experiment, Thomson described the atomic structure
as a positively charged sphere into which negatively charged electrons were embedded.
 It is commonly referred to as the “plum pudding model” because it can be visualized as a plum
pudding dish where the pudding describes the positively charged atom and the plum pieces
describe the electrons (see the figure above).
 Thomson’s atomic structure described atoms as electrically neutral, i.e. the positive and the
negative charges were of equal magnitude.
Limitations of Thomson’s Atomic Structure:
Thomson’s atomic model does not clearly explain the stability of an atom. Also, further discoveries of
other subatomic particles, couldn’t be placed inside his atomic model.
The Nuclear model replaced the Plum Pudding model as it could better explain the observations of
Rutherford’s Scattering Experiment
Rutherford Atomic Theory
 Rutherford, a student of J. J. Thomson modified the atomic structure with the discovery of
another subatomic particle called “Nucleus”. His atomic model is based on the Alpha ray
scattering experiment.
 Rutherford atomic model was the first step in the evolution of the modern atomic model. Ernest
Rutherford was a keen scientist who worked to understand the distribution of electrons in an atom.
He performed an experiment using alpha particles and gold foil and made the following
observations and drew conclusion as seen from the fig below:
Rutherford’s Gold Foil Experimental set Up

 He selected a thin gold foil.
 The fast moving alpha particles are allowed to strike a very thin gold foil in vacuum.
Rutherford observed the following from his α-particle scattering experiment:

1. A large percentage of alpha particles traveled through the gold film without being deflected,
indicating that the majority of space in an atom is empty. As a result, an atom’s main portion
must be empty.
2. Some of the alpha particles are deflected through small angles showing that there is positive centre
in the atom which repel the positively charged alpha particles.
3. Very few alpha particles had deflected back or at large angles. In addition, relatively few particles
had 1800 deflected. As a result, he came to the conclusion that the positively charged particles
only occupied a small portion of an atom’s overall volume.
On the basis of above observations and conclusions, Rutherford proposed the nuclear model
of atom (after the discovery of protons). According to this model:
 The positive charge and most of the mass of the atom was densely concentrated in extremely
small region. This very small portion of the atom was called nucleus by Rutherford.
 The nucleus is surrounded by electrons that move around the nucleus with a very high speed
in circular paths called orbits. Thus, Rutherford’s model of atom resembles the solar system in
which the nucleus plays the role of sun and the electrons that of revolving planets.
 Electrons and the nucleus are held together by electrostatic forces of attraction. (ie,. see the
figure below)
Weakness of Rutherford’s model

(i) His model failed to explain the stability of atoms.
(ii) Rutherford’s atomic model does not explain any arrangement of electrons in orbit, so it
remains incomplete. It is one of the major limitations of Rutherford’s atomic model.
In this experiment;
(i) Gold was used, because it could be beaten into a very thin sheets
These very fine sheets are only a few atoms deep. If the foil was too thick the alpha particles would
just be absorbed. Remember that he expected most of them to just go through but he knew that
they could be absorbed by thicker foils and even by a few centimetres of air.
(ii) Evacuated chamber was used.
It had to be performed in a vacuum because the air would absorb the alpha particles before they hit
the foil or before they got to the screen!
(iii) Zinc Sulphide Screen.

Zinc sulphide fluoresces (gives out a photon of visible light) when it is hit by a charged particle.
Covering the microscope lens with ZnS allowed the viewer to 'see' where the alpha particles hit
(or at least count their impacts).
According to this level we shall end up the discussion with Rutherford Atomic Model.
Generally, atoms are made up by subatomic (three types of) particles namely Protons (P), Neutrons
(n) and Electrons (e)
Protons
 Proton is the positively charged particle of an atom.
 It is denoted by small letter p. its charge and its mass is +1.6 x 10-19 C and 1.6726 x 10-27 kg
respectively
Neutrons
 Neutron is the neutral charged particle of an atom.
 It is denoted by small letter n. Its charge and its mass are 0 C and 1.6749 x 10-27 kg
respectively
Electrons
 An electron is the negatively charged particle of an atom.
 It is denoted by small letter e. Its charge and mass are -1.6 x 10 −19 C and 9.1094 x 10−31 kg
respectively. The electron always revolve around the nucleus
Other terms which used in this topic;
Atomic Number
 Atomic number is the number of protons present in a nucleus of a particular atom.
 It is denoted by capital letter Z
Mass Number
 Mass number is the sum of protons and neutrons particles.
 Also is called atomic mass/weight. It is denoted by capital letter A Mathematically: A = Z + N
 In a given atom/elements (X) mass number (A) located as Superscript while atomic
number (Z) located as Subscript. i.e 𝑨𝒁𝑿
Isotopy
 Is the existence of atoms of the same element with the same atomic number but differ in
atomic mass.
 Elements which can form isotopy are called isotopic elements (isotopes)
Isotopes
 Are the atoms of the same element having the same atomic number but different mass number
Isotopic Elements and their Isotopes
Elements Z Isotopes A
Hydrogen 1 Protium - 1 1
Deuterium 2
Tritium 3
Carbon 6 Carbon - 12 12
Carbon - 13 13
Carbon - 14 14
Oxygen 8 Oxygen - 16 16
Oxygen - 17 17
Oxygen - 18 18
Chlorine 17 Chlorine - 35 35
Chlorine - 37 37
Uranium 92 Uranium - 234 234
Uranium - 235 235
Uranium - 238 238
lead 82 Lead - 202 202
Lead - 206 206
Lead - 207 207
Lead - 208 208
NB:
 The different isotopes always differ by one neutron (1 01𝑛 )
 Isotopes of particular element/atom; the larger the mass number (A) the heaviest of element
and vice versa
Isobars
 Isobar is the different elements having the same mass number but different atomic number.
 Examples 𝟐𝟑 𝟏𝟏𝑵𝒂 and 𝟏𝟐𝑴𝒈
𝟐𝟑
Isotones
 Isotones are different elements having the same number of neutrons.
Example 1
One isotope of chlorine has the symbol 𝟑𝟕𝟏𝟕𝑪𝒍
Calculate the number of neutrons in this isotope
Soln: from A = Z + N → 37 = 17 + 𝑁 → 37 − 17 = 20
∴ 𝑇ℎ𝑒 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑛𝑒𝑢𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑛𝑠 = 20
Matter
 Matter is anything that occupies space and has weight. Eg, water, iron, meat,etc
Element
 Is a pure substance that is made up of only one kind of atom and cannot be broken down into
simpler parts by a chemical means.
 For example, helium (H), hydrogen (He), iron (Fe) etc
Atom
 Is the smallest particle of an element that has all the chemical characteristics of an element.
For example, helium (H), hydrogen (He), iron (Fe) etc
Molecule
 Is a group of atoms. For example, water molecule (H2O), hydrogen molecules (H2)

1. Tin (Sn) has a total of twenty-five isotopes; the lightest is represented by the symbol 108Sn50.
Given that all twenty-five isotopes of tine exist, write down the symbol for the heaviest tin
isotopes (ANS: 𝟏𝟑𝟐 𝟓𝟎𝑺𝒏)
2. If the number of electrons and number of protons is equal in an atom, then why is it
wrong to say that the atomic number of the element is the same as the number of
electrons?
ANSW: It is wrong to say that the atomic number of the element is the same as the number
of electrons because an atom can lose or gain electrons, so the number of electrons keeps
changing and they are never constant. Whereas the number of protons never changes for an
element This is why atomic number is taken from number of protons

3. In 1909, Rutherford, Geiger and Marsden developed an experiment where alpha particles were
scattered from gold foil. The figure below shows the paths of some of the alpha particles that were
fired at the gold foil during the experiment
(i) Explain how the paths of the alpha particles were used to develop the nuclear model of
the atom
(ii) Explain why, in Geiger and Marsden’s experiment, some alpha particles were “back –
scattered” when they came near to the nucleus of a gold atom
(iii) Explain why only a very few alpha particles were back – scattered.
4. State two ways in which Rutherford’s experiment changed Thomson’s model of the atom.
5. What was the earliest model of the atom? [A: tiny spheres that could not be divided]
6. What Name was given to Rutherford’s experiment
7. By which angles did the α-particles get deflected in the scattering experiment?
8. Which sub-atomic particle was discovered by Rutherford through his Alpha (α) Particle Scattering
Experiment? [ANS: Nucleus]
9. Why was a gold foil used in the Alpha (α) Particle Scattering Experiment?
10. What kind of experiment did Rutherford perform?
Stable and Unstable Nuclei

Nuclear stability
 The nucleus is composed of protons and neutrons. The protons repel each other (electrostatic
force) but the nucleus is kept held together by the strong nuclear force.
 Thus, this strong force must exist between the protons and neutrons in a nucleus to overcome
the electrostatic repulsion between the protons. This force is called the strong nuclear force
and the energy associated with this force is called the binding energy.
 It is the amount of strong nuclear force and the associated binding energy in a nucleus that
determines whether it will be stable or unstable.
Stable Atom
 A stable atom is an atom that has enough binding energy to hold the nucleus together
permanently. Many nuclei in nature are very stable, most of the nuclei formed at the creation of
the universe or after supernovae explosions many millions of years ago are still in existence
now.
 Elements with fewer protons, such as the ones near the top of the periodic table, are stable if they
have the same number of neutrons and protons. For example carbon, carbon-12 is stable and has
six protons and six neutrons.
 However as the number of protons increases, more neutrons are needed to keep the nucleus
stable. For example lead, lead-206 has 82 protons and has 124 neutrons.
 The graph below is a plot of neutron number against proton number. It is used as rule to
determine which nuclei are stable or unstable.

 Nuclei with too many, or too few, neutrons do exist naturally but are unstable and will decay by
emitting radiation.
Unstable Atom
 In unstable nuclei the strong nuclear forces do not generate enough binding energy to hold the
nucleus together permanently. It is unstable nuclei that are radioactive and are referred to as
radioactive nuclei and in the case of their isotopes called radioisotopes.
 In summary it is the balance of protons and neutrons in a nucleus which determines whether a
nucleus will be stable or unstable. Too many neutrons or protons upset this balance disrupting
the binding energy from the strong nuclear forces making the nucleus unstable. An unstable
nucleus tries to achieve a balanced state by given off a neutron or proton and this is done via
radioactive decay.
NB:
 Strong Force – Is the force that hold protons and neutrons present in the nucleus oppose and
overcome repulsion between protons
 Binding Energy – Is the energy that holds protons and neutrons present in the nucleus oppose
and overcome repulsion between protons
 Nuclear Binding Energy – Is the energy required to split the nucleus of an atom into its
components
Types of Radioactivity
 Natural radioactivity
 Artificial radioactivity
Natural Radioactivity
 Is the process in which an unstable atomic nucleus loses energy by emitting radiation in the form
of particles or electromagnetic wave
 For examples of unstable isotopes which decay naturally are carbon-14 and heavy elements
such as lead, uranium etc
How Natural Radioactivity Occurs?

 Natural radioactivity occurs when atomic nucleus has many number of protons in the nucleus, due
to the law of charges, like charges repel therefore repulsion force is larger enough to overcome
strong force (binding energy) resulting unstable atomic nucleus disintegrate (decay) into smaller
nuclei (daughter nuclide) which are smaller and more stable than parent nuclide
Nuclear Radiation
 Nuclear Radiation – Is the energy or particles or electromagnetic waves emitted by unstable atom
(radioactive element)

Types of Nuclear Radiation
 Alpha (𝛼) particle
 Beta (β) particle
 Gamma (γ) rays
Alpha Particle (𝛼)
 Alpha particles are released by high mass, proton rich unstable nuclei. The alpha particle is a
helium nucleus; it consists of two protons and two neutrons. It contains no electrons to balance
the two positively charged protons. Alpha particles are therefore positively charged particles
moving at high speeds.
Effect on Nucleus
 When a radioactive nucleus emits an alpha particle its atomic number decreases by two and mass
number decreases by 4.
 The effect tend to form other element and the nuclear equation is given by:
𝑨
𝒁𝑿 → 𝑨−𝟒 𝟒
𝒁−𝟐𝒀 + 𝟐𝑯𝒆
Whereby:
 𝐴𝑍𝑋 Is parent nuclide
𝐴−4
 𝑍−2𝑌 Is daughter nuclide
 The parent nuclide can give more than one daughter nuclide
Examples of some alpha emitters: radium, radon, uranium, thorium.
Example 1: Uranium-238 undergoes an alpha decay to produce thorium-234
238 234
Solution: 92𝑈 → 90𝑇ℎ + 42𝐻𝑒
Example 2: Radium-222 undergoes an alpha decay to produce radon-218
222 218
Solution: 88𝑅𝑎 → 86𝑅𝑛 + 42𝐻𝑒
Properties of Alpha Particles
 It is helium in nature
 It is a positively charged particle. it has relative charge of 2+
 It has very low penetrating power since it is the heaviest particle
 It can be stopped/shielding by a few cm of air, thin sheet of paper, skin, clothes etc
 It can cause some materials to fluorescence i.e. to give out light
 It affects/blackens photographic plate (film)
 It is a heaviest particle due to its biggest mass and charge
 It has very high ionizing power, since it is a heaviest particle
 It is emitted up to speed of 0.1of light
 It can be deflected by electric and magnetic field
Beta Particle (β)

 A beta particle is formed when a neutron changes into a proton and a high – energy
electron. The proton stays in the nucleus but the electron leaves the atom as a beta particle (ie,..
𝟏 𝟏 𝟎
𝟎𝒏 → 𝟏𝒑 + −𝟏𝒆)
 When an electron leaves a nucleus it does not alter the mass number of that nucleus, however
the electron carries away a negative charge so the removal of an electron increases the atomic
number of a nucleus by 1.
 Example of an equation for beta decay is, 146𝐶 → 147𝑁 + −𝟏𝟎𝒆

 This is the decay that is used in radiocarbon dating. A carbon – 14 nucleus decays to become a
nitrogen–14 nucleus. (The beta particle, an electron is represented by −𝟏𝟎𝒆)
 If we could see inside the nucleus, we would see that a single neutron has decayed to become a
proton (ie,.. 𝟏𝟎𝒏 → 𝟏𝟏𝒑 + −𝟏𝟎𝒆)
Effect on Nucleus
 When a radioactive nucleus emits beta particle its atomic number increases by one (1) and mass
number remains constant.
 The effect tend to form other element and the nuclear equation is given as:
𝑨 𝑨
𝒁𝑿 → 𝒁+𝟏𝒀 + −𝟏𝟎𝒆
Examples of some pure beta emitters:
Strontium-90, carbon-14, tritium, and sulfur-35
Example 1: Carbon-14 undergoes beta decay to produce nitrogen-14
𝟏𝟒
Solution: 𝟔𝑪 → 𝟏𝟒𝟕𝑵 + −𝟏𝟎𝒆
Example 2: Iodine-131 emits beta particles to produce xenon-131
𝟏𝟑𝟏 𝟏𝟑𝟏
Solution: 𝟓𝟑𝑰 → 𝟓𝟒𝑿𝒆 + −𝟏𝟎𝒆
Properties of Beta Particles
 It is electron in nature
 It is a negatively charged particle. It has relative charge of -1
 It has high kinetic energy electrons
 It has moderate penetrating power due to its low mass
 It can be stopped by a few mm of metals like aluminium, Plastic, glass, light metals etc
 It has moderate ionizing power due to its low mass
 It is emitted up to speed of 0.9C where C = 3 x 108 m/s
 It affects/blackens photographic plate (film)
 It causes some materials to fluorescence i.e. to give out light
 It has smaller mass and charge than the alpha particle
 It can be deflected by either electric or magnetic field
N.B
 Beta particles have less ionizing powers compared to alpha particles. This is because beta
particles have smaller mass than alpha particles
Gamma Rays (𝛾)
 After emitting an alpha or beta particle, the nucleus will often still be too ‘hot’ and will lose energy
in a similar way to how a hot gas cools down. A hot gas cools by emitting infrared radiation which
is an electromagnetic wave.
 High energy particles will emit energy as they drop to lower energy levels. Since energy levels in
the nucleus are much higher than those in the gas, the nucleus will cool down by emitting a more
energetic electromagnetic wave called a gamma ray.
 Gamma ray emission causes no change in the number of particles in the nucleus meaning both
the atomic number and mass number remain the same.
 Therefore; Gamma rays are electromagnetic waves of very short wavelength and high
frequency. Gamma rays are emitted by most radioactive sources along with alpha or beta
particles.
Effect on Nucleus
 When a radioactive nucleus emits gamma rays its atomic number and mass number remain the
same.
 If a nucleus 𝑨𝒁𝑿 under goes beta decay, the effect tend to form new nucleus and the nuclear
equation is given by:
𝑨 𝑨 𝟎
𝒁𝑿 → 𝒁+𝟏𝒀 + −𝟏𝒆 + γ
 Chemical reaction with alpha particle the nuclear reaction is given by;
𝑨
𝒁𝑿 → 𝑨−𝟒 𝟒
𝒁−𝟐𝒀 + 𝟐𝑯𝒆 + γ
Examples of some gamma emitters:
Iodine-131, cesium-137, cobalt-60, radium-226, and technetium-99m
Example 1: Cobalt-60 by emitting a beta particle to produce nickel-60 and gamma rays
𝟔𝟎 𝟔𝟎 𝟎
𝟐𝟕𝑪𝒐 → 𝟐𝟖𝑵𝒊 + −𝟏𝒆 + γ
Example 2: Iodine-131 emits beta particles to produce xenon-131 and gamma rays
𝟏𝟑𝟏
𝟓𝟑𝑰 → 𝟏𝟑𝟏 𝟎
𝟓𝟒𝑿𝒆 + −𝟏𝒆 + γ
Properties of Gama Rays
 They are electromagnetic waves in nature
 They are neutral in charge i.e have zero relative charge
 They have very high frequency electromagnetic radiation
 They have very high penetrating power since they have no mass
 They can be stopped by a thick layer of steel or concrete, dense metal, but even a few cm
of dense lead doesn't stop all of it
 They have lowest ionizing power since have no mass
 They have no mass since they are rays (radiations)
 They move with a speed of light i.e 3 x 108 m/s
 They affect/blacken photographic plate (film)
 They cause some material to fluorescence i.e. to give out light
 They cannot be deflected by electric field or magnetic field
Penetrating Power of Nuclear radiation
 The penetrating power of alpha rays, beta rays, and gamma rays varies greatly. Alpha particles
are the most easily absorbed. They can travel about 5cm in air before they are absorbed. Beta
particles can travel fairly easily through air or paper. But they are absorbed by a few millimeters of
metal
 Gamma radiation is the most penetrating. It takes several centimeters of a dense metal like lead, or
several meters of concrete to absorb most of the gamma radiation. Consider the figure below
showing the penetrating powers alpha particle, beta particle and gamma rays

Deflection of Nuclear Radiation
(a) In electric field
 By observing the deflection of different particles, we can work out the charge of different particles
in an electric field.
 Alpha particles move towards the negatively charged plate. Since they are attracted to
a negative charge, this shows us that alpha particles carry a positive charge.
 Beta particles move towards the positively charged plate. Since they are attracted to
a positive charge, this shows us that beta particles carry a negative charge.
 Gamma rays are unaffected. Gamma rays are uncharged, so are unaffected by the positively
and negatively charged plates.
 The figure below shows the deflection in an electric field
(b) Deflection in Magnetic field

 When a charged particle cuts through a magnetic field it experiences a force referred to as the
motor effect. Alpha particles are deflected by a magnetic field confirming that they must carry a
charge. The direction of deflection which can be determined by Fleming’s left hand rule
demonstrates that they must be positively charged. Remember for Fleming’s left hand rule the
second finger is aligned with the direction of the current which is from positive to negative
 Beta particles are deflected by a magnetic field in an opposite direction to alpha particles
confirming they must hold a charge opposite to alpha particles. Beta particles are fast moving
electrons and are thus negatively charged
 Gamma rays are unaffected by a magnetic field. This shows gamma rays are uncharged as
they do not experience a force when passing through the lines of a magnetic field. Gamma
rays are highly energetic waves with no charge associated with them.
 The figure below shows the deflection in Magnetic Field

 Alpha particles deflected toward south pole, beta particles deflected toward north pole while
gamma rays is not deflected
Ionizing power of the Nuclear radiations:

 When radiation passes through air, it may interact with air molecules, knocking electrons from
them, so that the air molecules become charged. We say that the air molecules have become
ionized. The relative ionizing effects is that; Alpha particles are the most ionizing while gamma
radiation is the least ionizing
 When these radiations are in a cloud chamber detector. Alpha particles produce straight traces
because they are heavy and they cause greater ionization of the gases through which they pass.
Beta particles produce irregular and light traces while gamma rays do not produce any trace as
shown in the figure below
NB:
 Alpha particle Is the particle emitted by radioactive material which is equivalent to helium nucleus
particle ( 42𝐻𝑒),. ie 𝜶 = 42𝐻𝑒
 Beta particle Is the particle emitted by radioactive material which is equivalent to electron ( −10𝑒 )
(β = −10𝑒)
 Gamma rays - Are electromagnetic waves with very short wavelengths and high frequencies
1. Explain how you would distinguish between alpha particles and gamma rays
2. Uranium 23892𝑈 emits an alpha particle to become another element, as shown in the following
equation 92𝑈 → 𝐴𝑍𝑋 + 𝐴𝑙𝑝ℎ𝑎 𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑒. Determine the value of A and Z (AN: A = 234 , Z = 90)
238
3. The element Thorium (Th) has atomic number 90 and mass number 234. The element decays by
emitting a beta particle to form Protactinium (Pa). Write a nuclear equation for this decay
(ANS: 𝟐𝟑𝟒 𝟐𝟑𝟒
𝟗𝟎𝑨 → 𝟗𝟏𝑷𝒂 + −𝟏𝒆)
𝟎
4. When the isotope 𝟐𝟕 𝟏𝟑𝑨𝒍 is irradiated with alpha particles, the products from each aluminium
nucleus are a neutron, and a nuclide that emits positrons to give the stable isotope 𝟑𝟎 𝟏𝟒𝑺𝒊. Write
nuclear equations for these two processes
5. Tin has an atomic number of 50. Write the nuclear equation for the beta particle emission of tin-
121. What is the daughter isotope?
ANSW: 𝟏𝟐𝟏 𝟎
𝟓𝟎𝑺𝒏 → −𝟏𝒆 + 𝟓𝟏𝑺𝒃
𝟏𝟐𝟏
Whereby, the daughter isotope is 𝟏𝟐𝟏

𝟓𝟏𝑺𝒃, an atom of Antimony
6. Why would a gamma source not be suitable in detecting the thickness of paper?
7. Explain why it is inappropriate to refer to gamma rays as gamma “particles.”?
8. The following reaction is part of a radioactive series. Identify the reaction x and determine the
values of c and z
𝑿 
𝟐𝟏𝟎 𝟐𝟏𝟎 𝑪
𝟖𝟑𝑨 → 𝟖𝟒𝑨 → 𝒁𝑸 (A: x is beta particle, c = 206, z = 82)
9. (i) Define the terms isotope
(ii) Uranium 238 𝟐𝟐𝟐
92𝑈 decayed to Polonium 𝟖𝟒𝑷𝒐 by 𝛼-particle emission at each stage via
𝟐𝟑𝟒𝑻𝒉, 𝟐𝟑𝟎𝑹𝒂 and 𝟐𝟐𝟔𝑹𝒏 . Following this stage 𝟐𝟐𝟒𝑷𝒐 decayed to 𝒒𝑹𝒏 by 𝛽-particle only
𝒙 𝒙 𝒛 𝟖𝟒 𝟖𝟔
(a)Write balanced equation of the stage decay process from 238 92𝑈 𝑡𝑜 𝒛𝑹𝒏 and determine the
𝟐𝟐𝟔
value of x, y, z and q
(b) Identify isotopes and isobars
(A; Isotopes is Radon; 𝟐𝟐𝟔 𝟐𝟐𝟐 𝟐𝟐𝟐
𝟖𝟔𝑹𝒏 and 𝟖𝟔𝑹𝒏, Isobars is 𝟖𝟒𝑷𝒐 and 𝟖𝟔𝑹𝒏)
𝟐𝟐𝟐
10. Three successive radioactive decays are shown in the diagram below; each one results in a
particle being emitted. The first decay results in the emission of  - particle. The second decay
results in the emission of an  - particle. The third decay results in the emission of another  -
particle
Nuclides W and Z are compared. Which nuclide of Z is formed at the end of this decay?
A. 𝟐𝟑𝟕
𝟗𝟎𝒁 B. 𝟐𝟑𝟑 𝟐𝟑𝟕
𝟗𝟐𝒁 C. 𝟖𝟗𝒁 D. 𝟐𝟑𝟑
𝟗𝟎𝒁 ANSW: D
11. A uranium nucleus, U-238 with atomic number 92, emits two 𝛼-particles and two 𝛽-particles and
finally forms a thorium (Th) nucleus. Write the nuclear equation for this process
( 𝟐𝟑𝟖 𝟒 𝟎
𝟗𝟐𝑼 → 𝟐 𝟐𝑯𝒆 → 𝟐 −𝟏𝒆 → 𝟗𝟎𝑻𝒉)
𝟐𝟑𝟒
12. When a neutron is captured by a uranium – 235 nucleus, the outcomes may be represented by the
nuclear equation:
𝟐𝟑𝟓 𝟏 𝟗𝟓 𝟏𝟑𝟗 𝟏 𝟎
𝟗𝟐𝐔 + 𝟎𝒏 → 𝟒𝟐𝐌𝐨 + 𝟓𝟕𝑳𝒂 + 𝐗 𝟎𝒏 + 𝟕 −𝟏𝒆
What is the value of X? [ANSW: X = 2]

13. Radioactive uranium 23892𝑈 emits an 𝛼-particle to become thorium. Thorium emits a 𝛽-particle to
become praseodymium which then emits another 𝛽-particle. What are the atomic number, mass
number and number of final atom produced?
(A: Uranium has atomic number 92 therefore the final product is uranium)
14. How are γ radiations produced? Explain how γ radiations and visible light are similar
15. Explain the change that takes place in a nucleus when a β particle is emitted? Express it by an
equation. State whether
(a)atomic number, and (b)mass number are conserved in a radioactive β-decay?
16. Can a hydrogen (𝟏𝟏𝑯) nucleus emit an alpha particle? Comment
17. A mass of lead is embedded in a block of wood. Radiations from a radioactive source incident on
the side of block produce a shadow on a fluorescent screen placed beyond the block. The
shadow of wood is faint, but the shadow of lead is dark. Give reason for this difference. If the block
of wood is replaced by a block of aluminium, will there be any change in the shadow?
18. The diagram in figure shows a radioactive source S placed in a thick lead walled container. The
radiations given out are allowed to pass through a magnetic field. The magnetic field (shown as
x) acts perpendicular to the plane of paper inwards. Arrows show the paths of the radiations A, B
and C.

(a) Name the radiations labelled A, B and C.
(b) Explain clearly how you used the diagram to arrive at the answer in part
19. A radioactive source emits  - and  - particles. Describe the experiments you would carry out to
distinguish between these radiations by investigating their ability
(a) To penetrate matter
(b) To produce ionization. Explain why a particle which is able to produce high ionization will
not also possess high penetrability in the same medium
20. A certain nucleus A (mass number 238 and atomic number 92) is radioactive and becomes a
nucleus B (mass number 234 and atomic number 90) by the emission of a particle.
(a) Name the particle emitted.
(b) Explain how you arrived at your answer.
(c) State the change in the form of a reaction.
21. An element P disintegrates by α emission and the new element suffers two further
disintegrations, both by β emission, to form an element Q. Explain the fact that P and Q are the
isotopes.
22. What effects does a transverse magnetic field have on narrow beams of
(a)  - rays (b)  - rays (c)  - rays from a radioactive source, as they pass through an
evacuated box? What conclusions can be drawn from observations of these effects?
23. Complete the following nuclear changes
(a) 𝒂𝒃𝐑 → 𝑺 + −𝟏𝟎
(b) 𝟐𝟑𝟖𝟗𝟐𝐀 → 𝟐𝟑𝟒
𝟗𝟎𝐓𝐡 + − − − + 𝒆𝒏𝒆𝒓𝒈𝒚
  
𝟐𝟑𝟖
(c) 𝟗𝟐𝐏 → 𝑸 → 𝑹 → 𝑺
  2
𝑨
(d) 𝒁𝐗 → 𝑋1 → 𝑋2 → 𝑋3
  
𝟏𝟕𝟐
(e) 𝑋 → 𝑋1 → 𝑋2 → 𝟔𝟗𝑋3
24. Complete each of the following bombardment reactions
(a) 𝟐𝟑𝟖
𝟗𝟐𝐔 + 𝟏𝟎𝒏 →? (c) ? + 𝟏𝟎𝒏 → 𝟐𝟒
𝟏𝟏𝐍𝐚 + 𝟒𝟐𝑯𝒆
(b) 𝟐𝟕
𝟏𝟑𝐀𝐥 + 𝟒𝟐𝑯𝒆 →? + 𝟏𝟎𝒏 (d) 𝟒𝟎
𝟏𝟖𝐀𝐫 + ? → 𝟒𝟑
𝟏𝟗𝐊 + 𝟏𝟏𝑯
25. Explain why even the strongest magnetic field cannot deviate gamma rays
26. Give the number of protons and number neutrons in the nucleus of each of the following
(a) Sodium – 25 (b) Nickel – 61 [ANS: (a) p = 11, n = 14 (b) p=28, n =33]
27. A source of  radiation lying on a bench is less dangerous than one emitting  radiation. However,
if a radioactive gas emitting  radiation is inhaled it is more dangerous than one which emitted 
radiation. Explain why both these statements are correct.
28. Give the atomic number, mass number and chemical symbol of the isotope formed when:
38𝑆𝑟 emits a  particle,
90
(a) [ANS: 39,90, Y]
27𝐶𝑜 emits  radiation,
60
(b) [ANS: 27,60, Co]
92𝑈 emits an  particle.
234
(b) [ANS: 90,230, Th]
Detection of Nuclear Radiations

 Nuclear radiation is detected by its ability of ionizing the atom/molecules of gas passed through the
detector, we have about many devices but the first-three are the common detectors
(i) Geiger Muller tube (GM tube)
(ii) Spark counter
(iii) Cloud chamber
(iv) Photographic plate (film)
(v) Bubble chamber
(vi) Gold leaf electroscope
Geiger Muller Tube

 Is a device which detects radiations by ionization of noble gas such as argon in a closed tube
Construction of Gm Tube Counter

 It consists of a hollow metal case enclosed in a thin glass tube. This hollow metal case acts
as a cathode.
 A fine tungsten wire is stretched along the axis of the tube and is insulated by ebonite plugs.
This fine tungsten wire acts as anode.
 The tube is evacuated and then partially filled with a mixture of 90% argon at 10 cm pressure
and 10% ethyl alcohol vapours at 1cm pressure.
 The fine tungsten wire is connected to positive terminal of a high tension battery through a
resistance R and the negative terminal is connected to the metal tube.
 The direct current voltage is kept slightly less than that which will cause a discharge between
the electrodes.
 At one end of the tube a thin window of mica is arranged to allow the entry of radiation into
the tube.
NB:
For alpha and beta particles to be detected by Geiger counters, they must be given a thin window.
This “end-window” must be thin enough for the alpha and beta particles to penetrate. However,
a window of almost any thickness will prevent an alpha particle from entering the chamber. The
window is usually made of mica with a density of about 1.5 – 2.0 mg/cm2 to allow low-energy beta
particles (e.g., from carbon-14) to enter the detector.

Working of Gm Tube
 The tube is filled with Argon gas, and around voltage of +400 Volts is applied to the thin wire in the
middle. When a particle arrives into the tube, it takes an electron from Argon atom.
 The electron is attracted to the central wire and as it rushes towards the wire, the electron will
knock other electrons from Argon atoms, causing an "avalanche".
 Thus one single incoming particle will cause many electrons to arrive at the wire, creating a pulse
which can be amplified and counted. This gives us a very sensitive detector.
Advantages of Geiger Muller counter

 It is durable and easily portable.
 It is a low-cost device.
 It can detect all types of radiation. i.e α, β, and γ radiations.
Disadvantages of Geiger Muller counter

 Its efficiency is low.
 The output pulse from a Geiger Muller counter is always of the same magnitude irrespective of
the energy of the incident radiation. Therefore, the Geiger Muller counter can detect all types
of radiation but it cannot distinguish which type of radiation is detected.
 It cannot determine the energy of the detected radiation.
 During the dead time, it cannot detect any incident radiation. Therefore the measured count in
the Geiger Muller counter is less than the actual count.
Spark Counter
 Spark counter is the device used to detect the presence of radiation based on their ability to
ionize dry air molecules by producing sparks, and for this reason it works best with  - particles
(ie,.. The Spark Counter only detects highly ionising alpha particles)
Diagram
Composition of Spark Counter

 Piece of wire gauze
 Long wire
 Power supply with voltage below level required to cause a spark
Working of Spark Counter

 A high voltage is applied between the gauze and the wire, and adjusted until it is just below the
voltage required to produce sparks.
 When a radioactive source is brought near, the air between the gauze and the wire
is ionised, and sparks jump where particles pass.

Wilson Cloud Chamber
 Is a device used to detect presence of radiation by producing tracks of light
 Figure above shows a simple form of cloud chamber, a device which
enables the tracks of charged particles to be seen.
 The felt ring round the top of the chamber is soaked in alcohol. The
bottom of the chamber is cooled by 'dry ice' (solid carbon dioxide) to
around -80 °C.
 As the alcohol vapour spreads downward through the chamber, it is
cooled beyond the point at which it would normally condense.
Working of Cloud Chamber

 When the radioactive rays enter the upper part, the ionisation of air will occur. The ions allow
the saturated alcohol vapour to condense forming tiny alcohol droplets and will cause the
formation of misty tracks.
 When these droplets (tracks) are visible, the radiation is detected
 Each radiation forms a definite pattern. The radiation is identified by analyzing the nature of the
pattern formed (see the figures below from the given table)
Alpha particle tracks Beta particle tracks Gamma Rays
An alpha particle that passes Has thinner, slightly longer and Don't produce tracks as
through the chamber will, irregular tracks because it is less such. The tracks seen are
therefore, leave a straight, ionising and smaller than the those caused by electrons
thick and short track of alpha particle, so loses its energy which have absorbed
droplets slower in the chamber energy from photons and
have escaped from atoms.

Photographic film (Plate):
 Photographic film goes darker when it absorbs radiation, just like it does when it absorbs visible
light. The more radiation the film absorbs, the darker it is when it is developed. People, who work
with radiation, wear film badges which are checked regularly to monitor the levels of radiation
absorbed.
 All the α-particle, β-particle and γ-ray can be detected by a photograph film.
 The main disadvantages of using a film as a radioactive tracer is that it needs
to be processed in order to prove the presence of radioactive rays.
Bubble Chamber
 Bubble Chamber is a chamber of superheated liquid in which the path of an ionizing particle is
made visible by a string of vapor bubbles.
 It is designed to detect charged particles through the tracks of bubbles present in a chamber
consisting of liquefied gas or liquid hydrogen.
 Cloud chambers work on the same principles as bubble chambers, but are based on
supersaturated vapor rather than superheated liquid.
Gold Leaf Electroscope

 When the charged plate of the electroscope is exposed to the source of radioactive, the gold leaf
will collapse slowly. This is due to the ions produced by radioactive source neutralize the charge in
the electroscope
 Alpha radiation can be detected using a charged electroscope. The more intense the radiation, the
faster the leaf falls.
 The method isn't suitable for detecting beta and gamma-radiation as these cause insufficient
ionization of the air.
 This method is suitable for detecting alpha particles because alpha particles have high ionizing
power.
1. The figure below shows cloud tracks observed when a radioactive source was placed in a diffusion
cloud chamber

What kind of radiation particle is emitted by the source? Give reason
2. A hospital physicist is working with some radioactive materials. The physicist wears a badge
containing photographic film. Light cannot reach the film.
When developed, it is found that the film behind both the uncovered window and the window
covered with 1 mm thick aluminium have turned black. State and explain which type of
radiation could cause the film in only these areas to turn black.
3. Explain why it is necessary to use a GM tube with a thin mica window in order to detect 
radiation.
4. Explain why  radiation can be detected using a spark counter whereas  and  radiation go
undetected.
5. The tracks observed in the cloud chamber demonstration help us to understand that radioactive
decay is random. Explain how the observations that you have made do this.
ANS: The tracks appear suddenly and unpredictably with different interval between them and
different directions.
Application of Natural Radioactivity (Radio isotopes)

In hospital (medicine)
 Cobalt – 60 is a radioisotope used frequently in radiotherapy. Abeam of gamma radiation, emitted

from a sample of cobalt – 60 is focused with great precision onto a cancerous tumor in the body of
the patient. The beam is rotated round the patient to reduce the dose to any one area of the body
while the tumour receives a high enough dose to kill the cancer cells
 Radioactive sodium – 24 is a radio tracer for diagnostic purpose
 Iron – 59 is used for diagnosis and treatment of Anaemia
 Used to measure correct patient dosages of radioactive pharmaceuticals
 Used in molecular biology and genetics research.
 Radioactive iodine 131 is used to monitor the function of thyroid gland
In industry
 In industry, radioactive isotopes of various kinds are used for measuring the thickness of metal or
plastic sheets; their precise thickness is indicated by the strength of the radiations that penetrate the
material being inspected.

 Used in preservation of food by killing microorganisms that cause spoilage
 Radioactive elements are used as tracers in identifying oil leakages in oil pipes.
 Radioactive elements are used as level indictor that is to check the filling packets of soap
powders.
 Radioactive elements are used to measure fluid flow in pipes in industries.
In food and agriculture
 It is used to kill weeds
 It is used to check cracking in pipes used for irrigation purpose
 It is used to measure the moisture of materials stored in soils
 It is used to measure amount of moisture content stored in grains and control pests
In transport
 It is used to inspect passenger’s luggage before boarding the plane
 It is used to inspect airline luggage for hidden explosives
Science Field
 It is important aid to biomedical researchers studying the cellular functions and bone formation in
mammals
 It is used in research in red blood cell survival studies
 It is used to tell researchers whether oil wells are plugged by sand or not
 It is used in biological research, agriculture, pollution control, and archeology
 It is used to analyze electroplating solutions
Archaeological field
 It is used for carbon – dating to determine the age of ancient remains
 Carbon – 14 Dating – Is the scientific method which is used to determine age of dead living and
non-living organism
 Carbon dating forms a radioactive carbon-dioxide which is taken up by plants in the manufacture
of carbohydrates by photosynthesis. When plants are cut down the atoms will start to decay by
emission of beta particles and by measuring the residue and half life the age of the ancient
containing carbon can be estimated.
Half-life of Radioactive Nucleus (Decay)

 Because radioactive decay is a random process, this means that all the unstable nuclei have the
same probability to decay at a certain instant. It is not possible to predict when a particular nucleus
is going to decay. However, you can predict how long it will take for half of the nuclei in a sample
to decay. This is called the half-life of the sample.
 Half life – is the average time required for one half of the nuclei present to decay
OR
 Half life is the time taken for the count rate of a sample of radioactive material to fall to half of
its starting level
 It is represented by the symbol (𝑡1/2)
 Each radioactive material has its own half-life
 The count rate is measured by using an instrument called a Geiger-Muller tube over a period
of time. A Geiger-Muller tube detects radiations by absorbing the radiation and converting it into
an electrical pulse which triggers a counter and is displayed as a count rate.
 Example: When we say that the half life of radiophosphorus is about three minutes, this means
that 60 mg of radiophosphorus will get reduced to 30 mg after a period of three minutes.
Activity
 Activity – Is the rate of disintegration of radioactive material with time
 OR; Activity is the number of atoms decayed per unit time
 Activity also is called count rate. SI unit of activity is count rate per second, (c.p.s)
Mathematically
𝒏𝒖𝒎𝒃𝒆𝒓 𝒐𝒇 𝒂𝒕𝒐𝒎 𝒅𝒆𝒄𝒂𝒚𝒆𝒅 (−𝜟𝑵) 𝜟𝑵
𝑨𝒄𝒕𝒊𝒗𝒊𝒕𝒚(𝑨) = = − 𝜟𝒕
𝒕𝒊𝒎𝒆 𝒕𝒂𝒌𝒆𝒏(,𝜟𝒕)
NB:
 Negative means as time goes the number of atoms decrease
 Activity is directly proportional to the original number of atoms presents
Mathematically
Activity (A) ∝ Original number of atoms presents (N)
𝐴 ∝ 𝑁 – removing the proportionality constant
𝐴 = 𝑘𝑁
𝛥𝑁
But: 𝐴 = −
𝛥𝑡
𝛥𝑁
− = 𝑘𝑁 = 𝜆𝑁 (𝑘 = 𝜆 = Proportionality/decay constant)
𝛥𝑡
But: Decay constant, 𝜆 is given by
𝑙𝑛2
𝜆= (Where by ln2 = 0.693)
𝑡1/2
0.693 0.693
∴ 𝜆= 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑡1 =
𝑡1/2 2 λ
 Generally the final amount remaining after time t is given by
𝒕
𝑵𝑶 (−𝒕𝟏/𝟐)
𝑵= 𝒐𝒓 𝑵 = 𝑵𝑶 𝟐 or 𝑵 = 𝑵𝑶 𝒆−𝝀𝒕
𝟐𝒏
Where by N = Final mass/activity/Amount remaining after time t

NO = Initial (Original) amount/fraction/activity/percentage
t = Total time taken/Time taken to decay
t1/2 = Half life
𝜆 = Decaying constant
−𝒕
𝒏 = 𝒏𝒖𝒎𝒃𝒆𝒓 𝒐𝒇 𝒉𝒂𝒍𝒇 − 𝒍𝒊𝒗𝒆𝒔, 𝒏 =
𝒕𝟏
𝟐
The half life of a radioactive element can be calculated by using
(a) Linear method

 This involves dividing the initial mass/ percentage /fraction by two after each half life
 In general, If No is the initial mass and t1/2 the half life then:
𝑵𝑶 𝑵𝑶 𝑵𝑶 𝑵𝑶
NO
𝟐 𝟒 𝟖 𝟏𝟔

Example: The count rate of a radioactive indium falls from 3200 counts per minute to 200 counts per
minutes in 220 minutes. Determine the half – life of the radioactive isotope
Soln:
𝒕𝟏 𝒕𝟏 𝒕𝟏 𝒕𝟏
𝟐 𝟐 𝟐 𝟐
3200 → 1600 → 800 → 400 → 200
Total number of half lives = 4
Total time taken = 220 minutes
𝟐𝟐𝟎
 𝒕𝟏/𝟐 = = 𝟓𝟓 𝒎𝒊𝒏𝒖𝒕𝒆𝒔
𝟒
(b) Formula method

We can determine the amount of a radioactive isotope remaining after a given number half-lives by
using the following expression:
𝒕
𝑵 𝟏 𝒕𝟏/𝟐 𝑵
= ( ) 𝑶𝑹 = 𝟐𝒏
𝑵𝑶 𝟐 𝑵𝑶
−𝒕
Whereby; 𝒏 = (𝒏 𝑖𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 ℎ𝑎𝑙𝑓 − 𝑙𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑠).This expression works even if the
𝒕𝟏/𝟐
number of half-lives is not a whole number.
Worked Examples:
1. The half life of a radioactive isotope is 3 hours. If the initial mass of the isotope were 256 g, find the
mass of it remaining undecayed after 18 hours
ANS: given t1/2 = 3hrs, t = 18hrs, NO = 256 g, N =?
𝒕 𝒕 𝟏𝟖
𝑵 𝟏 𝒕 𝟏 𝒕 𝟏 𝟑 𝟐𝟓𝟔
From; = ( ) 𝟏/𝟐  𝑵= 𝑵𝑶 ( ) 𝟏/𝟐 = 𝟐𝟓𝟔 × ( ) = = 𝟒𝒈
𝑵𝑶 𝟐 𝟐 𝟐 𝟔𝟒
2. The radioactive isotope of cerium-137 of weight 8g was collected on 1st Feb 2006 and kept in a sealed
tube. On 1st July 2006, it was found that only 0.25g of it remained. What is the half-life period of the
isotope
ANSW: given t1/2 =?, t = 5months , NO = 8, N =0.25g
𝒕 𝟓 −𝟓
𝑵 𝟏 𝒕 (𝟎.𝟐𝟓) 𝟏 𝒕
From; = ( ) 𝟏/𝟐  = ( ) 𝟏/𝟐  𝟐−𝟓 = (𝟐)𝒕𝟏/𝟐
𝑵𝑶 𝟐 𝟖 𝟐
−𝟓 −𝟓
−𝟓 = → 𝒕𝟏 = = 1 Month = 30 days
𝒕𝟏 𝟐 −𝟓
𝟐
3. How much time will be required for a sample of H-3 to lose 75% of its radioactivity? Given that
the half-life of tritium is 12.26 years.
ANSW: given t1/2 =12.26yrs, t = 5months, NO = 100%,
N = 100 – 75 = 25%
𝒕 𝒕
−𝒕
𝑵 𝟏 𝒕 𝟐𝟓 𝟏 𝟏𝟐.𝟐𝟔
From; = ( ) 𝟏/𝟐  = ( )  𝟐−𝟐 = (𝟐)𝟏𝟐.𝟐𝟔
𝑵𝑶 𝟐 𝟏𝟎𝟎 𝟐
−𝒕
−𝟐 =
𝟏𝟐.𝟐𝟔
 𝒕 = 𝟐 × 𝟏𝟐. 𝟐𝟔 = 24.52 yrs ≈ 24yrs and 6 months

4. If a radioactive isotope has a half –life of 2.5 hours, how long will it take for 256 grams of the isotope
to decay to 32 grams?
Soln:
𝒕 𝒕 𝒕
𝑵 𝟏 𝒕 𝟑𝟐 𝟏 𝟐.𝟓 𝟏 𝟑 𝟏 𝟐.𝟓
From: = ( ) 𝟏/𝟐 → = ( ) →( ) = ( )
𝑵𝑶 𝟐 𝟐𝟓𝟔 𝟐 𝟐 𝟐
𝒕
𝒃𝒚 𝒄𝒐𝒎𝒑𝒂𝒓𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝒆𝒙𝒑𝒐𝒏𝒆𝒏𝒕𝒔, 𝟑 = → 𝒕 = 𝟑 × 𝟐. 𝟓 = 𝟕. 𝟓 𝒉𝒐𝒖𝒓𝒔
𝟐.𝟓
5. The half-life for the radioactive decay of 14C is 5730 years. An archaeological artifact containing
wood had only 80% of the 14C found in a living tree. Estimate the age of the sample.
ANSW: given t1/2 = 5730 yrs, t = ?, NO = 100%, N = 80%
𝑵 𝟏 𝒏 𝟖𝟎 𝟏 𝒏 𝟒
From; = ( )  = ( )  = (𝟐)𝒏
𝑵𝑶 𝟐 𝟏𝟎𝟎 𝟐 𝟓
Then, introduce Logarithm to each side of the equation

4
4 log( ) log 0.8
log ( ) =
5
log(2)𝑛  𝑛= log 2
5
=
log 2
= −0.3219
−𝒕
But; 𝒏 = ∴ 𝒕 = 𝒏 × 𝒕𝟏/𝟐 = −0.3219 × −5730 ≈1845yrs
𝒕𝟏/𝟐
6. The limit of carbon dating is about 50 000 years. Explain why?
ANS: This means that half of the C – 14 has decayed by the time an organism has been dead for
5568 years, and half of the remainder has decayed by 11,136 years after death, etc.
The diminishing levels via decay means that the effective limit for using C – 14 to estimate time
is about 50,000 years.
(c) Graphical method

 This method involves plotting a decay curve, then using the curve to work out the half life
Radioactive Decay Curve
 Is the exponential curve drawn with number of atoms on the vertical axis and time for disintegration
on the horizontal axis
 It is s a graph of either mass, count rate, activity, percentage e.t.c against time
Consider the fig below
Whereby;
1T1/2 = First half life, 2T1/2 =Second half life and 3T1/2 =Third half life period

Worked Examples
1. A student measures the count rate from an unknown sample and plots their results against time on
the following graph. Calculate the half-life of the sample.
𝟏𝟒𝟎
Half of the original counts per minute is = 𝟕𝟎
𝟐
(Using the graph above) half-life is therefore 1.4 minutes (or any value between 1 minutes and 1.5
minutes).
2. From the figure below determine the half life
∴ Half life, t1/2 = t2 – t1 = 60 – 30 = 30 seconds

3. Isotope has a half-life of 1min and 1000 nuclei initially present, after 1min will decay to 500 nuclei,
next 1min will decay to 250 nuclei, and next 1min will decay to 125 nuclei and so on
Graphically

NB:
o Half-life is the same for isotope and it is independent to physical state, temperature and pressure
o Radioactive isotope never decays to zero value as there will always be some radioactive material
remaining which will decay further.
1. Iodine – 131, a beta emitter, has a half life of 8.0 days
(a) Write the nuclear equation for the beta decay of iodine – 131
(b) How many grams of a 12.0g sample of iodine – 131 would remain after 40days?
(c) How many days have passed if 48 g of iodine – 131 decayed to 3.0g of iodine – 131?
ANSW: (a) 𝟏𝟑𝟏 𝟓𝟑𝐈  𝟓𝟒𝐗𝐞 + −𝟏𝒆
𝟏𝟑𝟏 𝟎
(b) 0.375g (c) 32 days
1. Explain what is meant by the statement “radioactive decay is a random process”.
2. A nurse was accidentally exposed to potassium – 42 while doing some brain scans for possible
tumors. The error was not discovered until 36 h later when the activity of the potassium – 42
sample was 2.0𝜇𝐶𝑖 . If potassium – 42 has a half – life of 12h, what was the activity of the sample
at the time the nurse was exposed? [ANS: 16 𝝁𝑪𝒊]
3. In 168 seconds, the activity of thoron falls to one – eighth of its original value. What is its half –
life? Explain this term [ANS: 56s ]
4. A 120 – mg sample of technetium – 99m is used for a diagonostic test. If technetium – 99m has a
half life of 6h, how much of the technetium – 99m sample remains 24h after the test? [A: 7.5 mg]
5. A sample of a radioactive contains 120 nuclei. Calculate the number of half-life it takes for the
sample to decay so that there are only 15 nuclei left undecayed (ANS: n =3)
6. What is the half life of a radioactive material if its activity falls to 1/8 of its value in 3360 seconds
7. The half-life of iodine-131 is 8 days. A sample contains 800g of iodine-131. How much of the
sample will remaining undecayed after 40 days (AN: 25 g)
8. The half-life of iodine-131 is 8 days. A sample contains 16g of iodine-131
(a) Draw a graph to represents
(b) From the graph determine mass of the sample which will remain undecayed after 20 days
9. Which is more radioactive—an isotope with a long half-life or an isotope with a short half-life?
ANS: An isotope with a shorter half-life decay more rapidly is more radioactive.
10. Archaeologist can determine the age of organic matter by measuring the proportion of carbon -14
present in a sample. Assuming that carbon -14 has a half –life of 5600 years ,Calculate the age of
a piece of wood found to contain 1/8 as much carbon -14 as in a living material (A: t = 16 800 yrs)

11. Explain why long half –life of nuclear waste products presents a health hazard
(ANS: If the half –life is long/large, the activity remains at a very high level for a very
long time resulting in a health hazard)
12. A radioactive isotope M decays by emitting two alpha and beta particles to form 𝟐𝟏𝟒 𝟖𝟑𝒀. What is the
atomic number of M. After 224 days, 1/16 of mass of M remained. Determine the half life of M.
(A: At number = 86, t1/2 = 56 days)
13. A radioactive isotope has a half-life of 20 min.. A source of this isotope is found to have an activity
of 50 𝝁𝑪𝒊. What would you expect the activity to be after:
(a) 20 min,
(b) 40 min,
(c) One hour? [ANS: 25𝝁𝑪𝒊, 12.5 𝝁𝑪𝒊, 6.25 𝝁𝑪𝒊]
14. A sample of protactinium-234 of mass 100 g has a half-life of of 6.7 hours.
𝟏
(a) What fraction of the sample has not decayed after 20.1 hours? [𝑨𝑵𝑺; ]
𝟖
(b) What is the mass of undecayed protactinium-234 after this period of time? [𝑨; 𝟏𝟐. 𝟓𝒈]
15. Figure shows the decay curve of a radioactive sample.
(a) What is the half-life of the sample? [ANS; T1/2 = 50 – 20 = 30mins]

(b) State the value of T. ANS: T = 110mins]
16. The radioactive atoms in a substance decay to become stable atoms. It was found that after 136 s,
93.75% of the atoms have decayed. What is the half-life of the substance? [ANS; t1/2 = 34S]
Background radiation
 Humans are exposed to radiation all the time. This radiation is called background radiation.
Most of the background radiation the body is exposed to is from natural sources and is
called natural background radiation. A small amount of the background radiation is from
artificial sources and is called artificial background radiation.
 The chart below shows the percentage of background radiation that comes from both natural
and man – made sources

Natural background Radiation
(i) Cosmic radiation
Cosmic rays originating from the sun, stars and other major events in outer space are
continuously striking the Earth. The majority of these cosmic rays are absorbed by the Earth
atmosphere but the more energetic radiations interact with the atoms in the atmosphere
creating energetic neutrons. Other energetic rays such as gamma rays can make it through the
atmosphere to the Earth's surface.
(ii) Radioactive Rocks
 The Earth contains radioactive rocks. Since the Earth was formed 4 billion years ago many
of the short-lived radioactive rocks have decayed. However radioisotopes with long half
lives such as Uranium-235, Uranium-238 and Thorium-232 still remain along with the
radioisotopes formed from the decay of these long lived isotopes.
 During the radioactive decay of Uranium Radon gas is produced which seeps through
rocks underground and introduced into the atmosphere. Radon gas is radioactive and
accounts for a large proportion of the natural background radiation.
(iii) Human body and food
Small traces of radioactive materials are present in the human body. These come from natural
radioactive sources such as Carbon-14 in the air we breathe. Fruits and crops take in
radioactive materials from the soil as well as Carbon-14 from the air. These are introduced into
the body when they are eaten or via the food chain when meat or milk from animals grazing on
the crops are consumed.
Artificial background
This is background radiation resulting from human activity through the creation and use of artificial
sources of radiation.
(i) Medical sources. Humans are exposed to radiations by medical procedures such as
x-rays and radiotherapy
(ii) Nuclear weapons. Nuclear weapon testing in the 1950s and 1960s resulted in an
increase of radiation in the environment.
(iii) Nuclear power stations. Major incidents from nuclear power stations have released
radiations into the environment. Nuclear waste from power station also accounts for a
small proportion of artificial background radiation.

Background Count Rate
 Are the radiations present in the environment even when there is no apparent radioactive material
around
 OR; Is the number of counts recorded by a radiation detector from background radiation
 OR; Is the evidence or effect on a detector of radiation caused by background radiation
Source of Background Count Rate
 Earth’s radioactive impurities
 Residue of nuclear radiation present in G.M.T
 Cosmic rays escape from outer space through ozone layer
NB:
 A GM tube left well away from a radioactive source will still count some radioactive emissions
(The background count).
 If the GM tube is placed close to a radioactive source, it will count the emissions from the
source and the background count
 Background radiation count must be subtracted from the total count registered by a detector to
obtain the actual /correct count of the source
 Example if the background was 5 Bq and the count recorded is 45 Bq, then the count from the
source is ( 45 – 5 = 40 Bq)
 In calculations the Background count rate is treated as zero. i.e. not allowed (it is subtracted
from recorded count rate)
1. The activity of a radioactive element when measured using the Geiger Muller tube was found to
be 63 counts per minute. Given that the background radiation was 8 counts per minute,
determine
(a) The actual activity of the radioactive element (A = 63 – 8=55 c.p.m)
(b) The half –life of the element if the activity dropped from 128 counts/minute to 23 counts
per minute in 6 hours (ANS: t = 2hrs)
2. In an experiment to determine the half –life of the radioactive element, the following data was
obtained.
Activity (counts) per minute 52 44 34 28.5 24 19.0 17.5 15
Time (minutes) 0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5
(a) Given that the background radiation is 10 counts per minute, Plot a decay curve for the
element
(b) Estimate from your graph, the half –life of the element (t1/2 = 1.15 mins)
3. A Geiger Muller tube connected to rate meter is hold near a radioactive source, the corrected
count rate(allowing for Background count rate is 400 c.p.s. 40 min the corrected count rate is
25c.p.s. What is the half-life of the source? (ANS t1/2 = 10 min)
4. A rate meter records a background count rate of 2 c.p.s, when a radioactive source is held near
the count rate is 162 c.p.s. if the half-life of the source is 5 min. what will the recorded count
rate be 20 min? (ANS; N = 10 c.p.s)
5. How would you determine the type or types of radiations being emitted from a radioactive
source?
6. A snap shot photograph of a cloud chamber shows 40 tracks well defined alpha particle track.
A second snap shot taken 2 min later shows only 10 tracks. What is the half-life of the alpha
source? (ANS: T1/2 = 1 min)

Artificial Radioactivity
 Artificial radioactivity is the emission of radiation due to bombardment of small and stable nuclei by
high energetic particles.
 It is also called induced radioactivity or man – made radioactivity
 In artificial radioactivity, the nucleus must be excited by injection of a neutron for radioactivity to
start
How Artificial Radioactivity Occurs?
 Artificial radioactivity occurs when an atom is bombed with an accelerator or exposing it to slow
moving neutrons in a nuclear reactor
Method of Inducing Radioactivity

 Neutron activation
 Photonuclear reaction
Neutron Activation (Radio activation)
 Is the process whereby neutron radiation induces radioactivity in materials
 It involves making a radioactive isotope by neutron capture, e.g. the addition of a neutron to a
nuclide resulting in an increase in isotope number by 1 while retaining the same atomic number.
 It is often an inadvertent process occurring inside or near a nuclear reactor, where there are many
neutrons flying around.
 For example, Co–59 in or near a nuclear reactor will capture a neutron forming the radioactive
isotope Co-60, ie,. 𝟓𝟗 𝟏
𝟐𝟕𝑪𝒐 + 𝟎𝒏 → 𝟐𝟕𝑪𝒐
𝟔𝟎
 The Co – 60 isotope is unstable (half life of 5.272 years) and disintegrates into Ni – 60 via the
emission of β particle and γ radiation. The overall process is
𝟐𝟖𝑵𝒊 + −𝟏 + 𝟐 𝟎
𝟓𝟗 𝟏 𝟔𝟎 𝟎
𝟐𝟕𝑪𝒐 + 𝟎𝒏 → 𝟐𝟕𝑪𝒐 → 𝟔𝟎 𝟎
Photonuclear Reaction
 Is the radioactivity induced by bombarding the target nucleus with high energy X-rays or
gamma rays
 Example: In each of the nucleus reaction listen below what is the atomic number, mass
number and a name of the particle produced?
(i) Boron 105𝐵 bombarded with a neutron gives lithium 73𝐿𝑖 particle
(ii) Aluminium 27 𝟑𝟎
13𝐴𝑙 bombarded by 𝛼-particle to give silicon 𝟏𝟒𝑺𝒊 particle
ANSW:
(i) 105𝐵 + 𝟏𝟎𝒏  7 4
3𝐿𝑖 + 2𝐻𝑒 , Particle is alpha (helium)
13𝐴𝑙 + 𝟐𝑯𝒆 
(ii) 27 𝟒 𝟑𝟎 𝟏
𝟏𝟒𝑺𝒊 + 𝟏𝒑, Atom produced is proton
Application of Artificial Radioactivity

 Neutron activation is one of the most sensitive and accurate methods of trace-element
analysis
 Neutron activation uses nuclear reactors for nuclear energy generation
 Neutron activation uses nuclear reactors for making nuclear bombs

Comparison between Natural and Artificial Radioactivity
Natural Radioactivity Artificial Radioactivity
 Emission of radiation due to self  Emission of radiation due to disintegration
disintegration of a nucleus of nucleus through induced process
 Alpha, beta and gamma are emitted  Most elementary particles such as
 It is a spontaneous process neutrons, positron, etc are emitted
 It is exhibited by elements with atomic  It is an induced process
number more than 83  It is exhibited by elements with atomic
 It cannot be controlled number less than 83
 It can be controlled
Dangers of Nuclear Radiation
 Ionizing radiation damages the molecules in living cells. Damage to living cells increases with
increased exposure to ionizing radiation. If the DNA in the nucleus is damaged, the cell may
change into a cancer cell. Cancer cell divides rapidly forming growths called tumors which
cause serious health problems
 The more a cell is exposed to ionizing radiation the greater the chance that it will become
cancerous. Exposure to a very high levels of radiation can kill cells completely before
they have a chance to become cancerous
 If the radioactive source has been taken into the body by swallowing or breathing it in, then
Alpha radiation is the most harmful because it is easily absorbed by body cells. Beta and
gamma are not easily absorbed and so pass out of the body
 If the radioactive source is outside the body, then beta and gamma radiation are the most
harmful because they penetrate the skin and damage the cells inside. Alpha radiation is the
least harmful outside of the body because it does not penetrate the skin to reach the cells
inside.
Precaution to be taken from hazard

Radiation can cause harm to living things, but the dangers can be minimized if the following correct
precautions are taken.
 The best defense against ionizing radiation is distance. The greater the distance, the less chance
there is of being exposed to radiation.
 Radioactive source should be kept from the body and never brought close to the eyes.
 The time of exposure to ionizing radiation should be limited (The longer a person is exposed to
ionizing radiation, the greater is the dose of radiation received).
 Sources should be shielded from the body and handled using tongs/robots.(The handling tools
ensure the material is as far from the user as practicable so the intensity of the  radiation
from the source at the user is as low as possible and the user is beyond the range of  or 
radiation from the source)
 Sources should be stored in lead lined containers to ensure no exposure to the environment
whilst in storage.
 Wearing goggles and washing hands after using a radioactive source should be taken.
 Liquid and gas sources and solid powder form should be in sealed containers. This is to ensure
radioactive gas cannot be breathed in and radioactive liquid cannot be splashed on the skin or
drunk.
 Workers at nuclear power plants must wear film badges (a personal dosimeter) in order to
monitor their exposure to ionizing radiation.
 All areas containing ionizing radiation sources will then show the hazard symbol.

Nuclear Reaction
 Is a reaction that changes the atomic nucleus. Examples: fusion and fission.
Types of Nuclear Reaction
Nuclear fission
Nuclear fusion
Nuclear Fission
 Nuclear fission is the splitting up of large and unstable nuclei into two or more smaller nuclei.
This process releases a lot of energy.
There are two main ways that nuclear fission can take place:
(i) Spontaneously, which takes place naturally, without the help of a neutron
(ii) By absorbing a neutron, which makes the nucleus more unstable
In a nuclear reactor, we use neutrons to start the process, because spontaneous fission is
extremely rare. Let’s break down how the process works:
 A slowed neutron is fired at a large, unstable nucleus (usually uranium-235).
 The large nucleus absorbs the neutron, which makes it become uranium-236 (which is more
unstable). As the nucleus becomes more unstable, it splits up into smaller nuclei, which we call
daughter nuclei.
 In the process, the nucleus fires out two or three more neutrons and releases energy in the form
of gamma radiation.
 The neutrons released collide with more uranium nuclei, which will lead to more fission reactions.
This is known as a chain reaction.
 For example, uranium-235 atoms split into nuclei of krypton and barium along with three extra
neutrons that create fission chain reactions by hitting other uranium-235 atoms. Figure below gives
a diagrammatic representation of nuclear fission.
𝟐𝟑𝟓 𝟏𝟒𝟒
𝒊𝒆, .. 𝟗𝟐𝑼 + 𝟏𝟎𝒏 → 𝟐𝟑𝟔
𝟗𝟐𝑼 → 𝟖𝟗
𝟑𝟔𝑲𝒓 + 𝟓𝟔𝑩𝒂 + 3 𝟏𝟎𝒏 + Energy
Other examples are

 The splitting of Uranium-235. The equation of the reaction has been given below:
𝟐𝟑𝟓 𝟏𝟒𝟒
𝟗𝟐𝑼 + 𝟏𝟎𝒏 → 𝟐𝟑𝟔
𝟗𝟐𝑼 → 𝟓𝟒𝑿𝒆 + 𝟗𝟎
𝟑𝟖𝑺𝒓 + 2 𝟏𝟎𝒏 + Energy

 The splitting of Plutonium-239 is the other example of nuclear fission given below:
𝟐𝟑𝟗
𝟗𝟒𝑷𝒖 + 𝟏
𝟎𝒏 → 𝟏𝟑𝟕
𝟓𝟒𝑿𝒆 +
𝟏𝟎𝟎
𝟒𝟎𝑺𝒓 + 3 𝟏𝟎𝒏 + Energy
 If this process is not controlled, the whole system will not function properly, which could lead to
the release of large amounts of energy. This is what happens in a nuclear bomb.
 In nuclear reactors, the rate of fission has to be controlled, which can be achieved by using
control rods. They are inserted and removed from the reactor to increase or decrease the rate
of reaction and absorb neutrons.
 The energy released in the process is used to heat water, which turns into steam. The
steam moves through a turbine, which turns a generator to produce electricity. The steam
cools back into water, which can then be used over again.
NB;
 Nuclear fission of heavy element is a highly exothermic reaction that is why it is used as a source
of energy in form of heat. This energy is used mainly for heating water in nuclear power plants
 Uranium and plutonium are most commonly used for fission reactions in nuclear power reactors
because they are easy to initiate and control.
Application of Nuclear Fission
(i) It is used in nuclear power plants to generate electricity
 The heat produced during nuclear fission in the reactor core is used to boil water into steam,
which turns the blades of a steam turbine. As the turbine blades turn, they drive generators that
make electricity.
 Nuclear plants cool the steam back into water in a separate structure at the power plant called
a cooling tower, or they use water from ponds, rivers, or the ocean. The cooled water is
then reused to produce steam.

(ii) It is used in making nuclear bombs
 Nuclear fission produces the atomic bomb, a weapon of mass destruction that uses power
released by the splitting of atomic nuclei.
 When a single free neutron strikes the nucleus of an atom of radioactive material like uranium
or plutonium, it knocks two or three more neutrons free.
 Energy is released when those neutrons split off from the nucleus, and the newly released
neutrons strike other uranium or plutonium nuclei, splitting them in the same way, releasing
more energy and more neutrons. This chain reaction spreads almost instantaneously.
 Atomic bombs were exploded in war in Hiroshima and Nagasaki at the end of World War II.
Nuclear Fusion
 Nuclear Fusion – is the process which occurs when two light atomic nuclei join together to form a
single, heavier nuclei. This process occurs naturally in the centre of stars like the Sun and creates
no long-term radioactive waste or greenhouse gases and releases large amounts of energy.
 Fusion occurs when two low-mass isotopes combine under conditions of extreme heat and
pressure. This typically occurs with the hydrogen isotopes tritium (hydrogen-3) and deuterium
(hydrogen-2), which combine to create a helium isotope and a single extra neutron. This fusing of
isotopes releases several times as much energy as the fission process, without producing long-
term radioactive by-products. See the figure below
𝟐 𝟑 𝟒 𝟏
ie,.. 𝟏𝑯 + 𝟏𝑯 → 𝟐𝑯 + 𝟎𝒏 + energy
NB:
 Nuclear fusion of heavy element than iron or nickel is endothermic reaction while Nuclear
fusion of lighter element is exothermic reaction
 Nuclear fusion occur artificially in human enterprises
Application of Nuclear Fusion

(i) It is used in nuclear power plants to generate electricity
(ii) It is used in making nuclear bombs. For example, hydrogen bombs.
 Hydrogen bombs, which use nuclear fusion, have higher destructive power and greater
efficiencies than atomic bombs.
 Due to the high temperatures required to initiate a nuclear fusion reaction, the process is
often referred to as a thermonuclear explosion. This is typically done with the isotopes of
hydrogen (deuterium and tritium) which fuse together to form Helium atoms. This led to the
term ‘hydrogen bomb’
 The first hydrogen bomb was exploded on 1st November, 1952 at the small island of
Eniwetok in the Marshall Islands, some of its effects were felt 50 kilometres away
Examples
1. Boron absorbs neutrons with results as follows:
𝟏𝟎 𝟏 𝟕 𝟒
𝟓𝑩 + 𝟎𝒏 → 𝟑𝑳𝒊 + 𝟐𝑯𝒆
Why is boron suitable for use in a control rod?
ANS: When boron captures a neutron it is transformed into a stable isotope. If the control rods are
pushed into the reactor more neutrons are absorbed, causing the chain reaction to slow down.
If they are pulled out the chain reaction will proceed more vigorously.
2. Which is more dangerous? Fusion or Fission
Nuclear fission is more dangerous than fusion as it produces harmful weapons-grade radioactive
waste in the fuel rods that need to be stored safely away for thousands of years.
3. What general characteristic is typically necessary for a nucleus to undergo spontaneous fission?
ANS: A nucleus must be very large. Examples are Th-232 and U-235.
4. Explain each of the following
(a) Briefly describe how a nuclear reactor generates electricity.
(b) Briefly describe the difference between how a nuclear reactor works and how a nuclear bomb
works.
(c) Why must uranium be enriched to supply nuclear energy?
ANSW:
a. A nuclear reactor generates heat, which is used to generate steam that turns a turbine to
generate electricity.
b. Both nuclear reactor and nuclear bomb are powered by fission reaction however, in a
nuclear reactor, the fission is monitored and controlled to occur continuously for a much
longer time. In a nuclear bomb, the reaction is uncontrolled to explode in one event.
c. Natural uranium ores contain only 0.7% U-235. Most nuclear reactors require enriched U-
235 for their fuel.
Class Activity 3: 6
1. State one safety reason why
(a) Radioactive sources should not be touched with bare hands
(b) Radioactive sources emitting γ-rays should be stored in lead boxes with thick sides,
(c) The radiation symbol should be displayed on the cupboard or drawer in which radioactive
materials are kept.
2. A scientist needs to reduce the risks when working with radioactive sources.
(a) Explain why radioactive sources can be dangerous.
(b) Describe how to reduce the risks when working with radioactive sources.
3. Name the radiation which produces maximum biological damage. Give reason. What precautions
are necessary while handling and storing the sources of this radiation?
4. What safety measures and needed in a nuclear power plant?
5. Explain why ionising radiations can be dangerous if the dose becomes high.
6. Explain why is Nuclear Fusion not used?
7. Briefly, explain how are Fusion and Fission Similar?
1. A patient suffering from cancer of thyroid glands is given a dose of radioactive iodine 131, with a
half-life of 8 days, to combat diseases. He is temporarily radioactive and his nurse must be
changed regularly to project them. If his radiation is initially 4 times the acceptable level, how long
is it before the special nursing radiations can be dropped (ANS : t = 16 days)
2. The half life of iodine – 131 is 8 days .A sample contains 16 g of iodine – 131
(a) Draw a graph to represent the decay of the sample

(b) From the graph determine mass of the sample which will remain undecayed after 20 days (ANS:
(a) Draw graph (b) 3g)
3. The radiation produced by radioactive substances has many uses
(a) Describe one use of  - radiation that makes use of its ability to damage living tissues
(b) Describe one use of  - radiation that makes use of the fact that it is absorbed by a few
millimeters of solid matter
4. A sample contains 800 g of iodine – 131.How much of the sample will remain undecayed after
40 days ? (The half life of iodine – 131 is 8 days) (ANS: 25 g)
5. The half life of Technetium 99m is 6h. If 12 mg of Technetium 99m is injected into a patient and
starts to decay into Technetium 99m .Calculate the amount of Technetium 99m present in the
patient after 24h ANS: 0.75mg
6. After 24 days, 2 mg of an original 128 mg sample remain .What is the half – life of the sample?
(ANS: 4 days)
7. U – 238 has a half life of 4.46 x 109 years .How much U – 238 should be present in a sample 2.5 x
109 years old .If 2 g was present initially?
(ANS: 1.36 g remain)
8. How long will it take for a 40 g sample of I–131 (Half – life = 8.04 days) to decay to 1/100 its
original mass? (ANS 53.4 days)
9. If a radioactive element has a half – life of 40 minutes. Initial count rate was 1000 per minute , then
how long will it take for count rate to drop to 125 per minutes?(ANS:120min)
10. A particular radioactive has a half-life of 2.0 hours. A sample gives a count rate of 2400 per
second at 11:00 am. When will the count have dropped to approximately 300 per second in the
same counting system?
11. 8 x 108 atoms of Radon were separated from Radium. The half life of Radon is 3.82 days. How
many atoms will disintegrate after 7.64 days? (ANS: = 6 x 108 atoms)
12. The half life of a radioactive element is 10 minute. Calculate how it takes for 90% of a given mass
of the element to decay.(AN: therefore, time = 33min)
13. A radioactive material has a half life of 16 days. How long will it take for the count rate to fall from
160 counts /min to 20counts/min? (ANS: t= 48 min)
14. The half life of the Bismuth is 20min what fraction of a sample of this radioactive bismuth
𝑵 𝟏
remains after 2 hours? (ANS: = )
𝑵𝟎 𝟔𝟒
15. A radioactive nucleus is denoted by the symbol write down the composition of the nucleus
at the end of each of the following stages of disintegration.
(a) The emission of an alpha particle.
(b) The further emission of a beta particle.
(ANS (a) 𝟐𝟖𝟖 𝟐𝟖𝟒 𝟒 𝟐𝟖𝟒 𝟐𝟖𝟒
𝟗𝟐𝒀 → 𝟗𝟎𝑿 + 𝟐𝑯 (𝒃) 𝟗𝟎𝑿 → 𝟗𝟎𝑴 + −𝟏𝒆, 𝒑 = 𝟗𝟏, 𝒏 = 𝟏𝟗𝟑)
𝟎
16. The count rate recorded by Geiger Muller tube and counter close to an alpha particle source is 400
per minute after allowing for the back ground count. If the half life of the source is 4 days.
(i)What will be the count rate 12 days later?
(ii) What should be determined over period of several minute rather than over a few second?
(ANS: C = 50 count/min, This is because the rate of emission was so fast).
17. A rate meter record a background count rate of 2 counts per second when a radioactive source is
held near the count rate is 162 counts per second. If the half life of the source is 5 minute what will
be the recorded count rate be 20min later? (ANS: Therefore C = 10counts /sec, Hence the
recorded count rate = 10 + 2 = 12 counts/sec)
18. A Geiger Muller tube connected to a rate meter is held near a radioactive source. The correct count
rate allowing for background count is 400 counts per second. 40 min later the corrected count rate
is 25 counter rates per second. What is the half life of the source? (Half life = 10 minutes)

19. The rate os disintegration of a radioactive substance is recorded after every 3 days ,as shown in
the table below .Back ground radiation is 10 counts/day .Plot an appropriate graph and use it to
determine the half – life of the substance .Show how you obtained your answer
Time(days) 0 3 6 9 12 15
Counts/day 123 95 66 47 34 25
20. The following symbol represents an isotpe of nickel: 60 28𝑁𝑖

(i) What do the superscript and subscript represent?
(ii) How many protons and neutrons are there in the nickel isotope?
21. The half – life of Thorium – 234 is 24 days .Calculate the mass remaining unchanged of 0.64 g of
the substance after (a) 48 days (b) 72 days (c) 96 days
22. Chlorine exists in two forms – chlorine – 35 and chlorine – 37 .The atomic number of chlorine is
17
(a) What name is given to different forms of the same element?
(b) Write down the number of protons and neutrons in each type of chlorine atom
23. Radon has a half – life of 91 h 12 min .How long will it take until only 1/8 0f a sample of radon
remains unchanged ?
24. A radioisotope has a half – life of 8 hours. At 12 noon on 2 march a GM tube measures an activity
of 2400 Bq.
(a)Calculate the activity at 4.00 am on 3 march
(b) Determine the time at which an activity of approximately 75 Bq will be measured
25. The limit of carbon dating is about 50 000 years. Explain why?
26. Archaeologists are analysing ancient bones from a human settlement. They discover that a sample
of bone has one – sixteenth of the carbon – 14 of modern human bones. Determine the age of the
setllement (Given that the half – life of acrbon – 14 is 5700 years) ANS: 22,800yrs
27. A radioactive material has a half life of 2 minutes. Explain what that means . Determine how much
of the material will be left after 8 minutes
28. A radioactive source is known to emit one type of radiation only, i.e ∝, 𝛽 𝑜𝑟 𝛾. The source was
placed in a holder as shown in the figure below , first without a magnet and then a magnet was
introduced . A detector was placed at positions 1,2 and 3 and the count rates recorded in the table
below
Table
Counts per minute
Detector position Magnet not present Magnet present
1 26 295
2 300 28
3 28 26
(a) What is the reason for placing the two metal plates in front of the source?
(b) What is the value of the background counts per minute? (ANS: 27 c.p.m)

(c) Define the background count
29. A radioactive element has an initial count rate of 1200 counts per minute measured by a
scale and this falls to 150 counts per minutes in 15 hours
(a) Determine the half – life of the element (ANS: Half life = 5 hours)
(b) If the initial number of atoms in another sample of this element is 3.0 x 10 20, how many atoms
will have decayed in 25 hours?(A:9.375x1018 atoms)
30. A radioactive nucleus is denoted by the symbol 𝟐𝟖𝟒 𝟗𝟎𝑿 Write down the composition of the nucleus at
the end of the following stages of disintegration
(i) Emission of an alpha (∝)particle
(ii) Further emission of beta(𝛽) particle
(iii) Further emission of a gamma (𝛾) radiation
31. A particular radioactive has a half – life of 2.0 hours. A sample gives a count of 2400 per second at
11:00 a.m. When will the count have dropped to approximately 300 per second in the same
counting system? (A: 5:00 p.m)
32. Identify the type of radiation from the evidence supplied below:
(i) Absorbed in a few centimeters of air deflected by a magnetic field.
(ii) Very penetrating rays, not deflected by a magnetic field, harmful to living things
(iii) Mostly absorbed by a few millimeters of alluminium, deflected by a magnetic field
(iv) Has a wavelength of several meters, an aerial is required for the transmission of these waves
33. Determine the superscripts and subscripts of the following
(a) 146𝐶 (b) 238
92𝐶 (c) 32
20𝐶
34. Technetium has an atomic number of 43. Write the nuclear equation for the beta particle emission
of technetium-99. What is the daughter isotope?
35. (a) Draw a labelled diagram of a cloud chamber and describe how it works.
(b) Compare and contrast the ionising properties and the penetrating
properties of ,  and  - radiations.
(c) Briefly outline two uses of radioactivity.

Chapter – 4:
Thermionic Emission
 Thermionic emission: is the discharge of electrons from the surfaces of heated
materials.
OR
 Thermionic emission is the process by which free electrons are emitted from the surface of a
metal when external heat energy is applied
How Thermionic Emissions Occur?

 Thermionic emission occurs when kinetic energy of electrons from the surface of the heated
metal overcome the work function of the metal
Factors influencing Thermionic Emission
(i) Work Function (threshold energy) of the Metal:
 The work function of the metal is the minimum energy required by the atom of the metal to emit
an electron.
 Metals that have low work function will require less amount of heat energy to cause the free
electrons to escape from the metal. Hence, the metals with low work function emit large
number of free electrons at high temperature.
 On the other hand, metals that have high work function will require more amount of heat
energy to cause the free electrons to escape from the metal. Hence, the metals with high work
function emit less number of free electrons at high temperature.
 Thus, the emission of free electrons from the metal is inversely proportional to the work
function of a metal.
(ii) The temperature of the Surface:
 The temperature of the surface plays a vital role for thermionic emission. If the temperature of
the emitter metal is high, more electrons will be released. As high temperature provides
thermal energy to the electron which leads to the increment in their kinetic energy.
(iii) Surface Area of the Metal Surface:
 Higher the surface area of the metal, higher will be the thermionic emission. This is because
more the surface area more will be the rate of emission. The large surface area provides more
space for electrons to emit.
 Thus, if large surface area metals are used the rate of thermionic emission will increase
proportionally.
Types of Thermionic Emission
 Cathode rays
 X- rays
Cathode Rays
 Are fast moving electrons emitted from cathode moving to the anode in a cathode ray tube

Properties of Cathode Rays
 They travel in straight lines in absence of electric and magnetic field.
Verification that electrons travel in a straight line is that; when an opaque object (Maltese
cross) is placed in the path of the cathode rays, a sharp shadow of the Maltese cross is cast
on the screen.
 They carry negative charges.
 They cause fluorescence (glow) when they strike materials.
 They have energy and momentum.
 They are deflected by electrical and magnetic fields (this proves that they carry a charge).
 They travel with a speed less than the speed of light in vacuum.
 Cathode rays can ionize gas atoms if the potential difference is large and the gas pressure is not
high.
 They can penetrate thin sheets of paper or metal foils depending on their energy.
 Cathode rays produce heat upon falling on matter. Thu, they affect photographic plates.
 When cathode rays are stopped by heavy metals, x-rays are emitted
The Cathode-Ray Tube (CRT)

The CRT is a display screen which produces images in the form of the video signal. It is a type of
vacuum tube which displays images when the electron beam through electron guns are strikes on
the phosphorescent surface. In other Words, the CRT generates the beams, accelerates it at high
velocity and deflects it for creating the images on the phosphorous screen so that the beam
becomes visible. (see the figure below)
Why Cathode-Ray Tube is evacuated?

 Cathode-Ray Tube is evacuated so as to minimize air or electric resistance in order to make
electrons travel without colliding with other particles
 OR; The tube is evacuated so as to prevent the electrons from losing their energy as a result of
interacting with air particles before reaching the screen
What would happen if CRT not vacuums?
 If gas is maintained in the tube (at atmospheric or high pressure), the tube will behave like an
open circuit (insulator), when p.d across it is strong enough it will cause an electric spark which
will ionize the air and make it conduct electricity
 Therefore if the gas is maintained in the tube there is no production of cathode rays thus the
fluoroscope screen will not form image
NB:
 Conduction in gases and response of the tube, depend on pressure of gas. At atmospheric
pressure of a gas will behave simply as an insulator
Components of the Cathode-Ray Tube
 Electron Gun
 Deflection system
 Fluorescent Screen
1. Electron Gun
 It is used to produce electrons at a high fixed velocity.
 This is done through the process of thermionic emission
 It consists of Heater, cathode, control grid, accelerating and focusing anode.
(i) Heater
 Its heating element is used to heat cathode to high temperatures from 800°C to several
thousand degrees Celsius either directly by an electric current or indirectly
(ii) Cathode
 This is a metal filament such as tungsten heated by electron gun resulting metal electrons
attains enough kinetic energy than a Work Function of a metal and escape the cathode by
thermionic emission
(iii) Control grid
 The control grid controls the intensity of electrons in the vacuum tube. If the control grid
has high negative potential, then it permits only a few electrons to travel through it. Hence,
the dim spot is produced on the lightning screen. If the negative potential on the control grid
is low, then the bright spot is produced. Thus, the intensity of light depends on the negative
potential of the control grid
(iv) Focusing anode
 The focusing anode serves a dual purpose; to attract electrons from the area of the control
grid and to focus the electrons into a beam.
(v) Accelerating anode
 This is a metal disk maintained at a high positive voltage of 5 000 V to 50 000 V
 The accelerating anode is used to accelerate the electrons in the beam towards the front
of the tube or screen.
2. Deflection system
 The deflection system allows the electron beam to be deflected from its straight-line path
when it leaves the electron gun.
 The deflection system consists of two sets of parallel plates. One set which is arranged
vertically is known as X-plates and the other set which is arranged horizontally is known as Y-
plates
 When a positive voltage or potential difference is applied to the Y-plates, the electrons in
the beam will experience a force acting upwards causing the electron beam to deflect
upwards. The bright spot moves to the top of the screen.
 When a negative voltage is applied to the Y-plates, the electron beam deflects downwards.
The bright spot moves to the bottom of the screen.
 If no input voltage or potential difference is applied between the X-plates and Y-plates, the
electron beam does not experience any force. No deflection occurs and the bright spot is
at the centre.

 When an a.c. voltage is applied to the Y-plates, the electron beam deflects up and down.
The bright spot moves up and down rapidly to form a bright vertical trace on the screen. (see
the figures below
 Thus we can conclude that the function of the Y-plates is to move the electron beam up and
down the screen when an input voltage is applied across it
 The function of the X-plates is to sweep the electron beam across the screen horizontally from
left to right at a steady speed. The X-plates are usually connected to a time-base circuit
that generates a time-varying voltage as shown in Figure.
3. The fluorescent screen

 The fluorescent screen is coated on the inside surface with some fluorescent material such
as phosphor or zinc sulphide.
 When electrons in the beam strike the screen, the material fluoresces and becomes
luminous or glows. This enables a bright spot to appear wherever an electron beam
strikes the screen.
 Electrons are particles and they have mass. Since they move with high speed, they have
kinetic energy.
 When these high-energy electrons strike the screen, the fluorescent coating on the
screen converts the kinetic energy of the electrons into light energy.
 The displacement of the spot light on the screen is directly proportional to the voltage
applied to the plates.. Therefore a cathode ray tube can be used as voltmeter. The
advantage of using CRT instead of a voltmeter is that it can respond very rapidly to
changes in voltage. The fast response means the CRT can be used to visualize rapidly
changing alternating voltages.

Operation of the Cathode-Ray Tube
 Cathode is heated indirectly by a heater (electric gun) until thermal electron emission. The
electrons emitted are controlled by grid towards anode. After travelling through the hole in the
anode the electrons hit the luminescent screen, causing them to slow down and excite the
phosphor in the screen to fluorescence
Applications of the Cathode-Ray Tube
 The cathode ray tube is used to create a moving image.

 The CRT TV works by moving the electron beam scan the screen at a faster rate.
 It is used in the cathode ray oscilloscope (CRO).
 It is used as a display device in RADAR.
 It is used in computer monitors and some television.
Televisions (TV)
 It may be black and white television or coloured television
Operation of black and white television

 The signal is first amplified and then applied to the vertical deflection plates to deflect the beam
vertically. At the same time, a voltage is applied to the horizontal deflection plates thus causing the
beam to be deflected horizontally. The image is formed on the screen by varying the brightness at
thousands of points on the screen. The brightness of a point on the screen depends on the number
of electrons that strike it
Operation of colored television,
 The signal is first amplified and then applied to the vertical deflection plates to deflect the beam
vertically. At the same time, a voltage is applied to the horizontal deflection plates thus causing the
beam to be deflected horizontally. The image is formed on the screen (phosphors of primary
colour: red, green and blue). The image is formed by varying the intensity of the electron beam
that strikes the different phosphors
NB:
 The process where plate voltage (signal) converted to image on fluorescent screen is called scan
 The horizontal and vertical motion of electrons towards fluorescent screen is called scanning
The Computer Displays
 Computer displays work in the same way as the television
The Cathode-Ray Oscilloscope (CRO)
 The cathode-ray oscilloscope is a versatile laboratory instrument which is very useful in
displaying, measuring and analyzing wave forms
 It operates in a way similar to a television
Operation of Cathode-Ray Oscilloscope
 When the electron is injected through the electron gun, it passes through the control grid. The
control grid controls the intensity of electrons in the vacuum tube. If the control grid has high
negative potential, then it permits only a few electrons to travel through it. Hence, the dim spot is
produced on the lightning screen. If the negative potential on the control grid is low, then the bright
spot is produced. Thus, the intensity of light depends on the negative potential of the control grid.
 After moving the control grid, the electron beam passing through the focusing and accelerating
anodes. The accelerating anodes are at a high positive potential and thus they assemble the beam
at a point on the screen.
 After moving from the accelerating anode, the beam comes under the impact of the deflecting
plates. When the deflecting plate is at zero potential, the beam produces an area at the Centre. If
the voltage is applied to the vertical deflecting plate, the electron beam focuses upward and when
the voltage is used horizontally the spot of light will be deflected horizontally.
Uses of Cathode-Ray Oscilloscope (CRO)
 Measuring frequencies
 Measuring Voltages
 Measuring phase differences
 Measuring small time intervals
 Comparison of frequencies
Advantages of the C.R.O for use as a Voltmeter
 It can measure both direct and alternating current
 It can measure very large voltages without getting damage
 It does not take any current due to its high resistance and therefore does not interfere with the
circuit
1. Describe how cathode rays are produced?
2. Write any four properties of Cathode Ray
3. Explain the following
(i) Why the tube should be evacuated?
(ii) Why is a cathode ray tube evacuated to a low pressure?
(iii) What happens if the negative potential is changed on a grid?
4. How is a cathode ray tube used to convert an electrical signal into a visual signal?
5. In cathode ray tube, state
(a) The purpose of covering cathode by thorium and carbon
(b) The purpose of the fluorescent screen
(c) How is it possible to increase the rate of emission of electrons
6. State one reason each why cathode rays
(a) Are not electromagnetic waves
(b) Cast sharp shadows of objects in their path
7. Can rotate a light paddle wheel inside a discharge tube
8. Name the three main parts of a Cathode Ray Tube. Mention one important function of each main
parts:
X-Rays
 Are electromagnetic waves with very high frequencies and short wavelengths
How are they produced?
 X-rays are produced whenever fast moving electrons are sopped suddenly by metallic targets

The X-Ray tube
 Is a vacuum tube that converts electrical input power into X–Rays
OR
 Is a device for generating X- Rays by accelerating electrons to high energies and causing
them to strike a metal target from which the X–Rays are emitted
OR
 Is the highly evacuated glass bulb contains cathode and anode made of platinum and tungsten
or heavy metal of high melting point
X – Rays tube consists of:-
 Heater – produce heat.
 The cathode is concave shaped so that it can focus the electrons onto the target
 The anode is made of a good conductor of heat such as copper. This is used to ensure that the
heat generated when electron hits the target is quickly conducted away from the target
 The target is made of tungsten because tungsten has a high melting point therefore can
withstand the heat generated without melting
 Cooling in X –ray tube is enhanced by
(i)The cooling fins outside the tube
(ii)The oil circulating through the channels in the copper anode
(iii)The anode made of a good conductor of heat (copper)
 The tube is highly evacuated so that electrons don’t collide with air particles on their way to the
target. The air particles can cause the electrons to lose some of their kinetic energy
 X –ray tube is surrounded by lead shield .This is used to absorb and stray X-rays
How it works to produce X –rays?

 The cathode is heated with low voltage and electrons are emitted thermionically.
 Electrons are accelerated by a high p.d towards the anode.
 On striking the target, a small percentage of the electrons is converted to X-rays
 The anode is cooled by the cooling fins.
NB:
 Energy changes occurring in the X –ray tube during the production of X –rays
Electric energy → 𝑯𝒆𝒂𝒕 𝒆𝒏𝒆𝒓𝒈𝒚 → 𝑲𝒊𝒏𝒆𝒕𝒊𝒄 𝒆𝒏𝒆𝒓𝒈𝒚 → 𝑯𝒆𝒂𝒕 𝒆𝒏𝒆𝒓𝒈𝒚 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝑿 −
𝒓𝒂𝒚𝒔
 The intensity of x-ray beam increases with the number of electrons hitting the target, therefore
intensity is controlled by filament current /heating current or supply voltage.
 The penetrating power (quality) of an x-ray beam is controlled by the accelerating between
the cathode and the anode
 X-rays with high penetrating power are called hard x-rays while those with low penetrating
power are called soft x-rays.
 The x-ray tube is totally evacuated to prevent collision of electrons with gas molecules.
Types of X-Rays
 Soft X-rays
 Hard X-rays
Soft X-Rays
 Are the X-rays that produced by lower accelerating potential with longer wavelength and lower
range of frequency
 They have less energy and less penetrating power
Hard X-Rays
 Are the X-ray produced by high accelerating potential with short wavelength and higher range
of frequency.
 They have high energy and more penetrating power
Differences between hard and soft x-rays

Hard x-rays Soft x-rays
Produced by high accelerating potential Produced by low accelerating potential
Have shorter wavelength (high frequency) Have longer wavelength (low frequency)
They have higher energy They have less energy
Have higher penetrating power Have lower penetrating power
N.B
 The quality (hardness or softness) of X-rays is controlled by the potential difference
between the filament and the target. The higher the potential difference, the harder the X –
rays produced
 The intensity (amount) of X –rays produced is controlled by the heating current .The higher
the heating current , the more the electrons emitted and hence the higher the intensity of the X-
rays
Properties of X-Rays
 They travel in straight line at the velocity of light
 They cannot be deflected by electric or magnetic field (This is an evidence that they are not
charged particles )
 They can produce fluorescence
 They affect photographic film
 They penetrate matter but depend on density of matter
 They ionize gases.
 They can produce photoelectric emission

Application (Uses) of X-Rays
1. In the medical field soft X-rays are used
 To detect broken or fractured bones or some disease in soft tissue
 Treatment of cancer
 To detect growth inside the body
 To detect foreign objects in the body
2. Crystallography: Experimental study of the arrangement of atoms in solid (study of arrangement
of crystals)
3. Astronomy: X-rays emitted by celestial objects are used in observational astronomy
4. X-ray microscopic analysis: involves the use of electromagnetic radiation in the soft X-ray band
to produce image of very small objects
5. X-rays fluorescence: technique in which X-rays are generated within a specimen and detected.
The outgoing energy of the identified composition of the sample
6. Security installation: They are used for non-invasive security searches at airports and seaports
7. In industries:
(i) It is used to inspect metal-casting and welded joints for hidden faults
(ii) They are used to sterilize surgical equipment before packing
Effect of X – Rays to Human Beings
 Destroy body cells and can cause cancer
 Can cause mutation due to destroy of genitals
 They damage blood cells and eye sight.
 They can cause deep seated burns due to their greater penetration power.
Precautions
 Exposure to X –rays should be limited to short time intervals
 Lead aprons should be worn while dealing with x-rays
 Concrete walls should be used for rooms that store X- rays tubes
 X –rays tubes should be surrounded by lead shield to protect operators from stray X–rays
 The brain and other delicate parts of the body should not be exposed to x-rays
1. What are X – Rays?
2. Explain any three properties of X – Rays
3. In Cooling X-Ray tube(Modern X-Ray tube) how will you vary:
(a) Intensity of emitted X-Rays?
(b) Penetrating power of emitted X-Rays?
4. In an X – Ray tube, it is observed that the intensity of X – Ray increases when the heating voltage
at the filament is increased. Explain why
1. (a) State one way in which cathode rays differ from electromagnetic waves and describe an
experiment which illustrates this difference
(b) Draw a labeled diagram of a longitudinal section view of the cathode ray oscilloscope tube
showing its main features
2. (a) (i) What are the two types of X – rays?
(ii) X – Rays are said to have harmful effect to human beings when used for a long time.
Explain the effect that X – rays cause to human beings
(b) Describe how X – rays are produced in X – ray tube

(c) Show the three main parts of cathode ray oscilloscope on a well labeled diagram
3. (i) Give any four uses of cathode ray oscilloscope (CRO)
(ii) State two ways in which x – rays differ from gamma rays
4. (a) Explain briefly the following
(i) Thermionic emission
(ii)The production of a stream of electrons in cathode ray oscilloscope (C.R.T)
(b) What method in a device using the thermionic emission principle ensures that the electrons
produced
(i) Do not accumulate at the source? (ii) Reach their range undeviated?
(iii) Travel without meet other forms of particles on their way to the target?
5. How is hard X – Rays produced?
6. (a) (i) Define thermionic emission
(ii) What is X – rays? (iii) Mention two uses of X – rays
(b) With the aid of a diagram, explain how X – rays are produced
(c) Draw a well labeled diagram of a cathode ray oscilloscope.
7. State one property of X –rays which makes it possible to detect fractured bones
8. The penetrating power of x –rays is normally varied depending on the intended use. Explain
briefly how this is done
9. X –rays are passed through the air surrounding a charged electroscope. State what is observed.
10. How can the intensity of X-rays in an X –ray tube be increased
11. The figure below shows an X –rays tube
(a) Name the parts labeled A,B and C

(ANS: A =cooling fins B=metal target C= Filament cathode)
(b) Explain how X –Rays are produced in a tube
(c) Why it is necessary to use an evacuated tube?
(A:In order to minimize the chance of electrons colliding with air molecules)
(d) What are the purposes of high and low voltages.
 Low voltage heats up the cathode filament to emit electrons
 High voltage accelerates electrons towards the metal target
(e) With reason, state the most appropriate metal to be used to make part B
(ANS: tungsten/molybdenum, It has a high melting point)
(f) With reason, state the most appropriate metal to be used to make part B
(ANS: tungsten/molybdenum, It has a high melting point)
12. In the production of X – Rays what are the roles of
(i) Low voltage? (ii) High voltage? (iii) Tungsten target?
ANS:
(i) Used for heating the cathode
(ii) Used to provide a high p.d between the electrodes, for accelerating the electrons
(iii) Used for absorbing highly energetic electrons and emit X –Rays.
(Converting K.E of electrons into electromagnetic waves and heat)

Chapter – 5: Electronics
 Electronics – Is a branch of physics that deals with the emission, behavior and effects of electrons
in materials
OR; Electronics – Is the study of how to control the flow of electrons
NB:
 The various electronic components connected to each other to form systems or circuits called
Electronic systems (Electronic circuits)
 An electronic circuit is used to perform a wide variety of tasks. The main uses of electronic circuits
are:
o Conversion (ac to dc) and distribution of electric power.
o Controlling and processing of data
Electronic Components
 Is any basic discrete device or physical entity in an electronic system used to affect electrons
or their associated fields
 For example power sources, resistors, capacitors, diodes, transistors, and integrated
circuits etc.
 Depending upon the power delivering or absorbing ability, the circuit components can be
classified in following two types
(a) Active components
(b) Passive components
(a) Active Electronic Components
 An active component is an electronic component which supplies energy to a circuit.
 Some common examples of active circuit elements are energy sources (voltage sources or
current sources), battery, solar cell, generators or alternators, semiconductor devices such as
transistors, photodiodes, etc.
 The active elements are the circuit components which are entirely responsible for the flow of
electric current in the circuit.
Voltage Sources
 A voltage source is an example of an active component in a circuit. When current leaves from the
positive terminal of the voltage source, energy is being supplied to the circuit. As per the definition of an
active element, a battery can also be considered as an active element, as it continuously delivers
energy to the circuit during discharging.
Current Sources
 A current source is also considered an active component. The current supplied to the circuit by an ideal
current source is independent of circuit voltage. As a current source is controlling the flow of charge in a
circuit, it is classified as an active element.
Transistors
 Although not as obvious as a current or voltage source – transistors are also an active circuit
component. This is because transistors are able to amplify the power of a signal
(b) Passive Electronic Components
 The circuit element which can only absorb electrical energy and dissipates it in the form of heat
or stores in either magnetic field or electric field is known as passive circuit
component or simply passive component.

 Therefore, a passive component cannot provide electric power or power amplification in an
electric circuit. Some common examples of passive circuit components are switch, circuit
breaker, fuse, electrical wires, resistor, inductor, capacitor and transformer, etc.
Resistors
A resistor is taken as a passive element since it cannot deliver any energy to a circuit. Instead resistors can
only receive energy which they can dissipate as heat as long as current flows through it.
Inductors
 An inductor is also considered as passive element of circuit, because it can store energy in it as a
magnetic field, and can deliver that energy to the circuit, but not in continuous basis.
 The energy absorbing and delivering capacity of an inductor is limited and transient in nature. That is why
an inductor is taken as a passive element of a circuit.
Capacitors
 A capacitor is considered as a passive element because it can store energy in it as electricfield. The
energy dealing capacity of a capacitor is limited and transient – it is not actually supplying energy, it is
storing it for later use.
 As such it is not considered an active component since no energy is being supplied or amplified.
Transformers
 A transformer is also a passive electronic component. Although this can seem surprising since
transformers are often used to raise voltage levels – remember that power is kept constant.
 When transformers step up (or step down) voltage, power and energy remain the same on the primary
and secondary side. As energy is not actually being amplified – a transformer is classified as a passive
element.
Band theory in solid materials

 Band theory – Is the theory which explains about energy levels in a solid in terms of energy band
 Solids can be categorised into conductors, semiconductors or insulators in terms of their ability to
conduct electricity. Electron band theory explains differences in conduction.
Energy Band structure (Band structure)

 Is the series of “allowed” and “forbidden” energy bands that it contains
 The energy band that electrons can occupy are called allowed energy bands while those which
cannot be occupied by electrons are called forbidden energy bands
 The band structure of a solid consists of three bands ie,.. valance band, conduction band and
forbidden energy band as seen from the figure below
 From the figure above, the lower completely filled band is called valence band and the upper
empty band is called conduction band. The gap between the top of the valence band and bottom
of the conduction band is called the energy band gap. It may be large, small, or zero depending
on the material.

Conduction Band
 Conduction band – Is the upper most part of semiconductor in which the electrons are rarely
present. This band is either empty or partially filled with electrons.
 It is sufficient to make the electrons free to accelerate under the influence of an applied electric
field and thus constitute an electric current
Band Gap (Forbidden energy gap)
 The separation between the valence band and conduction band is known as forbidden energy
gap. If an electron is to be transferred from valence band to conduction band, external energy is
required, which is equal to the forbidden energy gap.
Valence Band
 It is called valence band due to valence electrons. This band may be partially or completely filled
with electrons. This band is never empty.
 In this band, electrons are not capable of gaining energy from the external electric field. Therefore,
the electrons in this band do not contribute to the electric current.
 The valence band is the highest range of electron energies where electrons are normally present at
the absolute zero temperature
Forbidden energy gap (Fermi energy level)
 Forbidden gap is the energy gap present between the valence band and conduction band in
which no electron energy levels are allowed. Hence, electrons do not stay or exist in the forbidden
gap.
 The figure below shows the conductor, semiconductor and insulator in terms of their energy level
(band gap)
For conductor
 Conductors are the materials that easily allow the flow of electrons or electric current through them.
In a conductor, no forbidden gap is present between the valence band and the conduction band.
Hence, the valence electrons can easily jumps into the conduction band.
 In some metals the conduction and valence bands partially overlap. This means that electrons can
move freely between the valence band and the conduction band.
 The conduction band is only partially filled. This means there are spaces for electrons to move into.
When electrons for the valence band move into the conduction band they are free to move. This
allows conduction.
 Example of conductors are all metals and some non-metals such as graphite (carbon)

For semiconductor
 A semiconductor is a material that has the electrical conductivity between that of a conductor
and an insulator.
 In semiconductors, a small forbidden gap is present between the valence band and the
conduction band.
 At room temperature there is sufficient energy available to move some electrons from the
valence band into the conduction band. This allows some conduction to take place.
 An increase in temperature increases the conductivity of a semiconductor because more
electrons will have enough energy to move into the conduction band.
 At absolute zero temperature, all the valence electrons are revolving around the nucleus of an
atom. Hence, there are no free electrons present in the conduction band to carry electric
current from one place to another place. Therefore, the semiconductor behaves as a perfect
insulator at absolute zero temperature.
 Germanium and Silicon are the best examples of semiconductors with forbidden energy gap of
0.7 eV and 1.1 eV respectively
For insulator
 The forbidden energy gap is very large. It is more than 3 eV and almost no electrons are
available for conduction
 Therefore, a very large amount of energy must be supplied to a valence electron to enable it to
move to the conduction band
 If the electron is supplied with high energy, it can jump across the forbidden gap. When the
temperature is increased, some electrons will move to the conduction band. This is the
reason, why certain materials, which are insulators at room temperature become
conductors at high temperature

How Semiconductor Conducts Electricity
 As the temperature is increased, some of the electrons in the valence band acquire thermal energy
that is greater than the forbidden gap energy and move to the conduction band. Therefore, the
material becomes a conductor. When an electron moves out of a valence band it leaves behind a
small space called a hole. Electrons and holes in the conduction and valence bands, respectively,
are referred to as free charge carriers.
Temperature Effect on Conductors, Semiconductors and Insulators
For Conductors
 The resistance of the conductor increase with the increase in temperature because of the
increased collision between electrons and the atoms. The collision between the electrons and
atoms causes hindrance of the movement of the electrons. Thus, the resistance increases.
 As the temperature increases, the resistivity of the metal increases linearly as well, giving it a
positive temperature coefficient of resistance. At high temperatures, the conductor resistivity
increases and conductivity decreases.
For Semiconductors
 When the temperature keeps on increasing, the number of valence band electrons moving into
conduction band is also increases. This shows that electrical conductivity of the semiconductor
increases with increase in temperature. i.e. a semiconductor has negative temperature co-
efficient of resistance. The resistance of semiconductor decreases with increase in
temperature this in turns decreases the resistivity.
 As the resistivity of the semiconductor decreases exponentially with an increase in
temperature, it becomes more conductive. A semiconductor exhibits excellent conductivity at
high temperatures.
NB:
When a heavy current flows in the semiconductor, it gets heated up this will lead to many
covalent bonds to break and liberating a large number of free electrons. Therefore the semi-
conductor will lose its property of controlled conduction and becomes an ordinary conductor.
For Insulators
 Insulators shift to the conduction zone with an increase in temperature. The resistivity of an
insulator decreases exponentially with the increase of temperature, resulting in an increase in
conductivity. Insulators exhibit a negative temperature coefficient of resistance.
 The below-given graph shows the relationship between the change in the Resistivity and
temperature rise for three categories of materials widely used for electrical application.

NB: The difference between insulators and semiconductors is due to a small amount of impurity added
to a semiconductor which affects the energy bands. This process is called Doping, which has been
discussed in the next part
1. How does the band gap indicate whether or not your substance is an insulator, semiconductor or
conductor?
2. How does the conductivity of a semiconductor change with the rise in its temperature?
3. Why does a semiconductor get damaged when a heavy current flows through it?
4. Why does the conductivity of a semiconductor increase with rise of temperature?
5. What is the primary difference in the band structure of semiconductors as compared to
insulators?
6. Explain why charges are able to flow through metals but not through a plastic.
7. Classify the following components as either active or passive. Give reason(s) for the classification
Resistor, capacitor, inductor, integrated circuit, transistor, diode and zener diode
8. Differentiate between active electronic component and passive electronic component
9. How could electrical conductivity be used to determine whether a material is a conductor or
semiconductor?
Types of Semiconductors
o Intrinsic semiconductors
o Extrinsic semiconductors
Intrinsic Semiconductors
 These are pure semiconductors in which there is no addition of impurities.
 Examples are silicon and germanium
 Conductivity in intrinsic semiconductors is limited hence ,they do not conduct electricity
Extrinsic Semiconductors
 These are impure semiconductors materials which contains added impurities
 Examples are N – Silicon , N – Germanium P – Silicon and P – Germanium

Difference between intrinsic from extrinsic semi-conductor
intrinsic extrinsic
Is the pure form of semi-conductor Is an impure form of semiconductor
It has equal number of holes and electrons It has unequal number of holes and electron
in conduction and valence band respectively
Its electrical conductivity depends on Its electrical conductivity depends on both
temperature only temperature and amount of doping
It has low conductivity It has high conductivity
It is of no practical use It is used in electronic devices
Doping
 Is the process of adding impurities to intrinsic semiconductors to alter their properties
 OR: Doping – Is process of adding impurity atoms to intrinsic crystal to produce an
extrinsic semiconductor.
 OR; Doping – Is the process of adding impurities in a pure semiconductor in order to
increase electrical conductivity
Terms used In Doping
 Hosts are atoms which can accept or donate an electron. Example All group IV elements
(Tetravalent) ie Silicon and Germanium
 Dopant is the element/impurity which added to modify the conductivity of an atom
NB:
o Heavily doping a semiconductor increases its conductivity. That is why heavily doped silicon is
often used as a replacement for metals
o Silicon and Germanium are the best semiconductors as they are used to make the most common
electronic devices/components such as transistors and diodes (This is because the energy
required to break their covalent bonds is very small ie 0.7 eV for Ge and 1.1 eV for Si)
Depending upon the type of impurity added, extrinsic semiconductors are classified into two types,
such as:
(i) N – type semiconductor
(ii) P – type semiconductor
N – type semiconductor
 When a small amount of pentavalent impurity is added to a pure semiconductor, it is known as n-
type semiconductor.
 The addition of pentavalent impurity provides a large number of free electrons in the
semiconductor crystal. Typical example of pentavalent impurities are arsenic (As), antimony (Sb),
phosphorus (P) and Bismuth (Bi). Such impurities which produce n-type semiconductor are known
as donor impurities as they donate free electrons to the semiconductor crystal.
 To explain the formation of n-type semiconductor, consider a pure Silicon crystal. We know
that Silicon atom has four valence electrons. When a small amount of pentavalent impurity like
antimony is added to Silicon crystal, a large number of free electrons become available in the
crystal. The reason is explained below.
 Antimony is pentavalent i.e. its atom has five valence electrons. An antimony atom fits in the
Silicon crystal in such a way that its four valence electrons form covalent bonds with four Silicon
atoms. The fifth valence electron of antimony atom finds no place in co-valent bonds and thus
remains free as shown in fig below

 Figure below shows the energy band description of n-type semiconductor.
 The addition of pentavalent impurity has produced a large number of conduction band electrons
i.e. free electrons.
 The four valence electrons of pentavalent atom form co-valent bonds with four neighbouring
Silicon atoms. The fifth left over valence electron of the pentavalent atom cannot be
accommodated in the valence band and travels to the conduction band.
 The following two points may be noted carefully:
(i) Many new free electrons are produced by the addition of
pentavalent impurity.
(ii) Thermal energy of room temperature still generated a few hole-
electron pairs. However, the number of free electrons provided by the pentavalent impurity far
exceeds the number of holes. Hence it is called n-type semiconductor (n stands for negative)
P-type Semiconductor
 The P-type Semiconductor is formed when a trivalent impurity such as Boron, Gallium, Indium,
Alluminium, etc is added to a pure semiconductor in a small amount, and as a result, a large
number of holes are created in it. These p-type producing impurities are known as Acceptors
because each atom of them creates one hole which can accept one bonded electron.
 A positive charge hole is created when the three valence electrons of the impurity bond with three
of the four valence electrons of the semiconductor and having one electron short, the covalent
bond cannot be completed, hence the missing electron is known as a hole.
 An extremely small amount of impurity has a large number of atoms, therefore, it translates to
millions of holes – which are the positive charge carriers – in the semiconductor. Hence, it is called
p-type semiconductor where 'p' stands for positive.
 In this semiconductor, the majority charge carriers are holes whereas minority charge carriers are
electrons. The density of the hole is higher than that of the electron, and the acceptor level mainly
lies closer to the valence band.

 To explain the formation of p-type semiconductor, consider a pure silcon crystal. When a small
amount of trivalent impurity like Boron is added to Silicon crystal, there exist a large number of
holes in the crystal. The reason is explained below:
 Boron is trivalent i.e. its atom has three valence electrons. Each atom of Boron fits into the silicon
crystal but now only three co-valent bonds can be formed. It is because three valence electrons of
Boron atom can form only three single co-valent bonds with three Silicon atoms as shown in fig.
below
 In the fourth co-valent bond only Silicon atom contributes one valence electron while Boron has no
valence electron to contribute as its three valence electrons are already engaged in the co-valent
bonds with neighbouring Silicon atoms. In other word, fourth bond is incomplete; being short of
one electron. This missing electron is called a hole. Therefore, for each Boron atom added, one
hole is created.
 Figure below shows the energy band diagram of p-type semiconductor.
 The addition of trivalent impurity has produced a large number of holes. However, there are a few
conduction band electrons due to thermal energy at room temperature. But the number of holes far
exceeds the number of conduction band electrons.
 It is due to the predominance of holes over free electrons that it is called p-type semiconductor (p
stands for positive).
Conduction in n-type semiconductor
Let us consider an n-type semiconductor as shown in below figure. When voltage is applied to n-type
semiconductor; the free electrons moves towards positive terminal of applied voltage. Similarly holes
moves towards negative terminal of applied voltage

In n-type semiconductor, the population of free electrons is more whereas the population of holes is
less. Hence in n-type semiconductor free electrons are called majority carriers and holes are called
minority carriers. Therefore, in a n-type semiconductor conduction is mainly because of motion of free
electrons.
Conduction in P-type semiconductor
 Let us consider a p-type semiconductor as shown in below figure. When voltage is applied to p-
type semiconductor; the holes in valence band moves towards negative terminal of applied
voltage. Similarly free electrons move towards positive terminal of applied voltage.
 In p-type semiconductor, the population of holes in valence band is more, whereas the population
of free electrons in conduction band is less. So, current conduction is mainly because of holes in
valence band. Free electrons in conduction band constitute little current. Hence in p-type
semiconductor, holes are called majority carriers and free electrons are called minority carriers.
Differences between P-type and N-type Semiconductors
 As a main difference, in n-type semiconductors, the electrons have a negative charge, hence the
name n-type. While in p-type, the effect of a positive charge is generated in the absence of an
electron, hence the name p-type.
 In a N – type semiconductor, the V group element of the periodic table is added as a doping
element, while in P-type the doping element is the III group element.
 In a N-type semiconductor, the majority carriers are electrons, and the minority carriers are holes.
But In the P-type semiconductor, holes are the majority carriers, and electrons the minority carriers.
 The number of free electrons in n – type semiconductor exceed the number of holes while the
number of holes in p – type semiconductor exceeds the number of free electrons
 In an n-type semiconductor, the donor energy level is close to the conduction band and away from
the valence band. While in the p-type semiconductor, the acceptor energy level is close to the
valence band and away from the conduction band. ie,..

 The impurity added in N-type semiconductor provides extra electrons known as Donor atoms,
whereas in P-type semiconductor impurity provides extra holes called Acceptor atoms.
 The Fermi level of the n-type semiconductor rests between the donor energy level and the
conduction band while that of the p-type semiconductor is between the acceptor energy level and
the valence band.
 Pentavalent impurities like Arsenic, Antimony, Phosphorus and Bismuth are applied in the n-type
semiconductor whereas in the p-type semiconductor, Trivalent impurities such as Aluminium,
Boron, Gallium, and Indium are added
 In the n-type semiconductor the majority carriers move from lower to higher potential while in the p-
type semiconductor, majority carriers move from higher to lower potential,

1. What happens when a pentavalent impurity is added to a pure semiconductor?
2. Ans. Upon adding a pentavalent impurity to an intrinsic semiconductor, an N-Type Extrinsic
Semiconductor is produced.
3. Why are semiconductors doped?
4. Why is n-type semiconductor so called?
5. Why is p-type semiconductor so called?
6. How does the energy gap in an intrinsic semiconductor vary, when doped with a
pentavalent impurity?
7. Why is germanium preferred over silicon for making semiconductor devices?
8. Why are there equal numbers of electrons and holes in an intrinsic semiconductors
9. Why is the conductivity of n -type semiconductor greater than that of the p -type semiconductor
even when both of these have same level of doping?
10. The forbidden energy band of silicon is 1.1 eV. What does it mean?
11. If a small number of impurities alters the electron or hole concentration in an intrinsic
semiconductor, how would this affect the electrical conductivity at low temperature?
12. Give at least two differences between the following
i. Intrinsic and extrinsic semiconductors
ii. P – type and n – type semiconductors
13. Explain how an extrinsic semiconductor is constructed
14. Why is a semiconductor an insulator at ordinary temperature?
15. Why is silicon preferred to germanium in the manufacture of semiconductor devices?
16. Explain how the element indium in group III and germanium in group IV of the periodic table are
used to fabricate a p – type semiconductor
P-N JUNCTION
 The PN junction is a junction formed together by P-type semiconductor and N-type semiconductor
material.
 The junction plays an important role in the development of the diode which is the building block of
most of the semiconductor devices like transistors, BJTs, solar cells and integrated circuits.

 The PN junction is generated when one side of the junction is doped with acceptor impurity
(trivalent) in P-region and another side is doped with donor (pentavalent) impurity in N-region.
 The region where both N-type and P-type material are joined together is called junction, also
known as the boundary of the semiconductor. (see figure below)
Mechanism of P–N Junction

 When a p-n junction is formed, an interesting phenomenon takes place. The P-type semiconductor
has excess holes and is of positive charge. The N-type semiconductor has excess electrons.
 At the point of contact of the P-type and N-type regions, the holes in the P-type attract electrons in
the N-type material. Hence the electron diffuses and occupies the holes in the P-type material.
Causing a small region of the N-type near the junction to lose electrons and behave like intrinsic
semiconductor material, in the P-type a small region gets filled up by holes and behaves like an
intrinsic semiconductor.
 This thin intrinsic region is called depletion layer, since it is depleted of charges (see diagram
above) and hence offers high resistance. It is this depletion region that prevents the further
diffusion of majority carriers. In physical terms the size of the depletion layer is very thin.
 Therefore, the boundary (junction formed) between the p – side and n – side is referred to as a p –
n junction
Terms used in P-N Junction

1. Diffusion of charge is the spreading out of charges (holes and electrons) which can result
repelling and attraction of charge
2. Potential barrier is the maximum voltage at the junction when there is no further diffusion of
charge
3. Depletion layer
 Is a region in a P–N junction diode where no mobile charge carriers are present
 It acts like a barrier that opposes the flow of electrons from n – side and holes from p – side

Biasing of the P – N Junction
 When a P- N junction is connected to a power supply it is said to be biased
 A P- N junction allows current to flow only in one direction when the p – side is connected to
the positive terminal of the power source and n – side to the negative terminal of the power
source
 There are two modes of action of P-N junction, these are
(a) Forward – bias
(b) Reverse- bias
(a) Forward- Bias of P-N Junction

 A p–n junction is said to be forward biased when the p–type region is connected to the
positive terminal while the n–type region is connected to the negative terminal of an external
cell or battery
 In forward bias, the positive charge applied to the p–region repels the holes while the negative
charge applied to the n–type repels the electrons .As the electrons and holes are pushed toward
the junction, the distance between them decreases This reduces the size of depletion layer and
lowers the potential barrier
 Therefore the charge carriers interact easily and makes the flow of an electric current possible
 When the voltage of the battery is greater than potential barrier majority charge carries (holes and
electrons) are pulled towards and large electric current flowing
(b) Reverse - Bias in P-N Junction

 A p–n junction is said to be reverse biased when the p–region is connected to the negative
terminal of the cell or battery while the n–region is connected to the positive terminal of the
battery

 When the diode is connected in this manner, the holes in the p-type are attracted away from the
junction by the external negative potential. Also electrons are attracted away from the junction by
the external positive potential. This increases the thickness of the depletion layer .Thus the
potential barrier and hence the resistance of the junction is increased .A very small current
(leakage current) may flow in the circuit due to the flow of minority charge carries.
 When the voltage of the battery is greater than barrier potential majority charge carries (holes and
electrons)are pushed away and very small or no electric current is flowing
Current – Voltage characteristic curve for a p – n junction diode
 The I–V characteristics curve of P-N junction diodes represents the relationship between current
and voltage in the circuit. The current is plotted along the y-axis while the voltage is plotted along
the x-axis. The curve provides valuable insights into the operation of the diode
 When the diode is forward biased, anode positive with respect to the cathode, a forward or positive
current passes through the diode and operates in the top right quadrant of its I-V characteristics
curves as shown. Starting at the zero intersection, the curve increases gradually into the forward
quadrant but the forward current and voltage are extremely small.
 When the forward voltage exceeds the diodes P-N junctions internal barrier voltage, which for
silicon is about 0.7 volts, avalanche occurs and the forward current increases rapidly for a very
small increase in voltage producing a non-linear curve. The “knee” point on the forward curve.
 Likewise, when the diode is reversed biased, cathode positive with respect to the anode, the diode
blocks current except for an extremely small leakage current, and operates in the lower left
quadrant of its I-V characteristic curves. The diode continues to block current flow through it until
the reverse voltage across the diode becomes greater than its breakdown voltage point resulting in
a sudden increase in reverse current producing a fairly straight line downward curve as the voltage
losses control. This reverse breakdown voltage point is used to good effect with zener diodes.
N.B
 Potential barrier is the potential required to overcome the barrier at the PN junction
 Zener/Break down voltage Is the reverse Voltage at which p-n junction breaks down with the
sudden rise in reverse current.
 Knee voltage Is the forward biased voltage at which the current through the junction starts to
increase rapidly.
 Reverse (leakage) current Is the current in a semiconductor device when the device is reverse
biased. Reverse current increases with reverse voltage but can generally be regarded as negligible
over the working range of voltages.
 Saturation current (Scale current) Is that part of reverse current in a semiconductor diode
caused by diffusion of minority carriers from the neutral regions to the depletion layer. The term
saturation comes from the fact that it reaches its maximum level quickly and does not significantly
change with the increase in reverse voltage.
1. Why does the width of depletion layer of a p-n junction increase in reverse biasing?
2. Name the kind of biasing which leads the following result:
a) Increase in resistance,
b) Decrease in resistance and
c) Increase in width of the depletion region.
3. What happens when the battery voltage is increased in a forward-biased P-N junction?
4. Explain what happens to the depletion layer when a diode is reverse biased?
5. Describe the model of action and application of PN junction diode
6. Sketch the I – V characteristic of a p – n junction diode indicating areas of reverse bias and
forward bias of the diode
Diodes
 A diode is an electrical device that allows current to flow through it in one direction. That is, If the
diode is forward biased, it allows the electric current flow. On the other hand, if the diode is reverse
biased, it blocks the electric current flow.
 It is a single p-n junction device with electrical terminals connected in the p-type and n-type regions
as shown in the figure below
 When the diode is reverse biased, extremely small current measured in microamperes flows
through it. This current is known as reverse saturation current (reverse leakage current)
Advantages of p-n junction diode

P-n junction diode is the simplest form of all the semiconductor devices. However, diodes plays a major
role in many electronic devices.
 A p-n junction diode can be used to convert the alternating current (AC) to the direct current (DC).
These diodes are used in power supply devices.
 The p-n junction diode becomes ON when it is forward biased whereas the p-n junction diode
becomes OFF when it is reversed biased (i.e. it acts as a switch). Thus, the p-n junction diode is
used as electronic switch in digital logic circuits.
Types of Diode
 Semiconductor diode
 Light-emitting diode
 Lesser diode
 Zener Diode
 Photo diode
 Avalanche Diode
 Schottky Diode
Semiconductor diode
 Most semiconductor diodes are made up of silicon or germanium.
 Semiconductor diodes are most used for very fast switching and microwave applications
 The figure below shows a semiconductor diode and its circuit symbol
Light-Emitting Diode (LED)

 A Light-emitting diode (LED) is a semiconductor device that emits light when an electric current
flows through it
 It operates only when a forward voltage is applied to it.
 LEDs are made from a variety of semiconductor materials depending on the wavelength of the light
required
 The most commonly used materials for visible LEDs are gallium phosphide and gallium arsenic
phosphide
 LEDs have a wide range of applications, from simple indicator lamps and huge display screens to
optical fiber communication links
 The figure below shows the LEDS and their circuit symbol
Lesser Diode
 A Laser Diode is a semiconductor device similar to a light-emitting diode (LED). It uses p-n
junction to emit coherent light in which all the waves are at the same frequency and phase.
 This coherent light is produced by the laser diode using a process termed as “Light
Amplification by Stimulated Emission of Radiation”, which is abbreviated as LASER. And
since a p-n junction is used to produce laser light, this device is named as a laser diode.
 Laser diodes produce a narrow beam of laser light in which all the light waves have similar
wavelengths and they travel together with their peaks lined up. This is why laser beams are
very bright, and can be focused over a very tiny spot.
 Laser diodes or semiconductor lasers are the most efficient and they come in smaller
packages. So they are widely used in various devices like laser printers, barcode readers,
security systems, Autonomous vehicles (LIDAR), Fiber optic communications etc.
 The figure below shows a Laser diode and its circuit symbol

Zener Diode
 Zener diodes are specifically manufactured and designed to be operated in the reverse breakdown
voltage.
 Every Zener diode is manufactured for a specific reverse breakdown voltage called the Zener
voltage.
 Zener diodes are used as voltage regulators in different electrical circuits.

Photo Diode
 A photodiode is a semiconductor device with a P-N junction that converts photons (or light) into
electrical current.
 They are also called a photo-detector, a light detector, and a photo-sensor. Photodiodes are
designed to work in reverse bias condition.
 The figure below shows a photodiode and its circuit symbol
NB:
 The photodiode symbol is similar to that of a LED, except the arrows in the photodiode point
inwards rather than outwards as in the LED
Applications of Photodiode
Photodiodes are used in many applications such as:-
 Photodiodes are used in safety electronics such as fire and smoke detectors.
 Photodiodes are used in numerous medical applications. They are used in instruments that
analyze samples, detectors for computed tomography and also used in blood gas monitors.
 Photodiodes are used in solar cell panels.
 Photodiodes are used in logic circuits.
 Photodiodes are used for the exact measurement of the intensity of light in science and industry.
 Photodiodes are faster and more complex than normal PN junction diodes and hence are
frequently used for lighting regulation and optical communication.
Avalanche Diode
 An avalanche diode is a special type of semiconductor device designed to operate in reverse
breakdown region.
 Avalanche diodes are used as relief valves (a type of valve used to control the pressure in a
system) to protect electrical systems from excess voltages.
 The construction of avalanche diode is similar to zener diode but the doping level in avalanche
diode differs from zener diode, ie,.. Zener diodes are heavily doped than the avalanche diodes
 The figure below shows Avalanche diodes and their circuit symbol
Tunnel Diode
 A Tunnel diode is a heavily doped p-n junction diode in which the electric current decreases as
the voltage increases.
 In tunnel diode, electric current is caused by “Tunneling”. The tunnel diode is used as a very
fast switching device in computers. It is also used in high-frequency oscillators and amplifiers.
 In tunnel diode, the p-type semiconductor act as an anode and the n-type semiconductor act as
a cathode.
 Tunnel diode and its circuit symbol is shown in the below figure.
Schottky Diode
 Schottky diode is a metal-semiconductor junction diode that has less forward voltage drop than
the P-N junction diode and can be used in high-speed switching applications.
 Scottky diode is formed by replacing a P-type semiconductor material with a metal like
Aluminium or Platinum
 When a metal is joined with N – type semiconductor, a junction is formed between the metal
and N – type semiconductor, forming a metal semiconductor diode called Schottky diode
 Whereby N – type semiconductor material acts a Cathode and the metal acts as the Anode
terminal as shown in the figure below

 Schottky diode conducts current in the forward direction when sufficient forward voltage is
applied
 Schottky diodes are used as rectifiers and switching regulators
 The I – V characteristic curve of a schottky diode is almost the same to that of a P – N junction
diode except the knee voltage.
 A schottky diode starts to conduct at much lower voltage compared to a P – N junction diode
as illustrated in the figure below
Advantage of semiconductor junction diode over vacuum tube diodes

 They are less expensive to make
 They consume less power
 They are reliable in circuits
 They are much easier to produce
 They occupy less space due to their small size
Applications of Junction Diodes in Rectification

 A rectifier Is an electrical device used to convert an alternating current into a direct current by
allowing a current to flow through it in one direction only
 Rectification Is the process of converting alternating current to direct current
 Diodes are used in rectification because they offer high resistance when reverse biased and
low resistance when forward biased

There are two types of rectification
 Half-wave rectifiers
 Full -wave rectifiers
Half-Wave Rectification
 A half-wave rectifier converts an AC signal to DC by passing either the negative or positive
half-cycle of the waveform and blocking the other.
 Half-wave rectifiers can be easily constructed using only one diode in series with the load
across which a unidirectional voltage is required, but are less efficient than full-wave rectifiers.
 The figure below shows the input and output of a half wave rectification
Mechanism
 During the first half-cycle of the AC sine wave, A is positive and B is negative.
The diode is forward-biased and current flows around the circuit formed by the diode, the
transformer winding and the load (R)
 During the second half-cycle, A is negative and, B is positive. The diode is reverse-biased
therefore no current flows in the circuit
NB:
o The output signal can be displayed on a CRO screen which outlines the above trace
o The output voltage of half wave rectification flows in pulse (half rectified) because the diode
allows current to flow during the first half of the cycle when it is forward biased and stops the
current during the second half when it is reversed biased
o The diode conducts on every half- cycle
o The rectified voltage is d.c and is always positive in value
o If the diode is reversed, then the output voltage is negative
o The voltage is not steady and needs to be smoothed (by putting a large capacitor, C in parallel
with the load) for it to be useful (see fig below)
o The capacitor is charged during the positive half-cycle of the a.c. and discharges through the load
in the negative half-cycle
Advantages of half wave rectification
 Low cost of construction, since it includes few components
 Easy to constructs
Disadvantages of half wave rectifier
 Power loss. This is because it allows either a positive half cycle or negative half cycle. So the
remaining half cycle is wasted
 Pulsating direct current. It produces impure direct current which is not much useful
 Produces low output voltage
Full – Wave Rectification
 We know that the Half Wave Rectifier converts AC input voltage into output DC voltage by
conducting in either one of the positive or negative half cycles. As a result, it passes one cycle and
blocks the other.
 Since one of the cycles passes the circuit and another gets blocked, one-half cycle is always
wasted. This wastage leads to loss of power and poor efficiency by producing a low output voltage.
 To make the process of rectification more efficient, Full Wave Rectifiers have proven to be
effective. Full Wave Rectifiers utilize both positive and negative half cycles of the input voltage to
produce an output voltage.
 There are two ways of achieving full – wave rectification that is:
(a) By Using two diodes and center – tapped transformer
(b) By Using four diodes (the bridge rectifier)
(a) Using two diodes
 In this circuit both halves of the a.c. cycles are transmitted but in the same direction. One way of
achieving this is to have a transformer whose output has a Centre tap, that is, its output can be
taken at two points one being half the other
Mechanism
 In the positive half-cycle, point A is positive with respect to O. Diode D1 conducts but diode D2 is
reverse-biased. The current passes through D1, C, R and back to O
 In the negative half-cycle, point B is positive with respect to O. Diode D 2 conducts but diode D1 is
reverse- biased. The current passes through D2, C, R and back to O
Alternatively (other way of expressing this)

Mechanism
 During the first half cycle, diode D1 is forward biased while D2 is reverse biased. Hence current
flows through AD1BCA
 During the second half cycle, diode D2 will now be forward biased while D1 reversed biased .Thus
current flows through DD2BCD.
N.B
 In both half cycles, the direction of flow of current through the resistor is the same. The
resultant output will therefore take the form shown below
(b) Using four diodes (bridge rectifier)

 A bridge rectifier uses four diodes such that in each half cycle two diodes are forward biased and
the remaining two are reversed biased (see the fig. below)
Mechanism
 During the first half cycle, the diodes D1 and D3 are forward biased while D2 and D4 are reversed
biased. Current thus flows through diode D1 and D3 via the resistor R.
 During the second half cycle, diodes D1 and D3 are now reversed biased while D2 and D4 are
forward biased. Current thus flows through D2 and D4 via the resistor R
N.B
 In both half cycles current flows through the resistor R in one direction only.ie from end A to B.
This kind of rectifier can be used with very high voltage
 In general, the full wave rectifier gives a stronger and smoothened output than the half – wave
rectifier. If a capacitor is connected across the resistor, the rectified output is smoothened. The
capacitor is therefore used in this case to smoothen the output of the transformer
 A step-down transformer is used to bring the peak voltage to the desired level. The output of the
step-down transformer is an AC waveform with the desired voltage.

Advantages of the bridge rectification
 A smaller transformer can be used, because there is no need for centre – tapping
 It is suitable for high voltage regulation
Disadvantage of the bridge rectifiers
 High cost of making. Since it uses four diodes
 The value of the diodes used should be precise, else there will be an error in rectification
Advantages of center tapped full wave rectifier
 Output and efficiency are high because an AC supply delivers power during the both half
cycles
Disadvantages of center tapped full wave rectifier
 It is difficult to locate the center on the secondary winding for the tapping
 The diode used must be capable of bearing high peak inverse voltage (PIV). This is
because PIV coming across each diode is twice the maximum voltage across the half of the
secondary winding
Class Assignment – 5:4
1. Sketch a simple full – wave rectification using two diodes and an alternating current power
source.
2. How is Zener diode and Avalenche diode differ?
3. What is the function of a Diode in a Rectifier Circuit?
ANS; Diode is known to permit current in the forwarding bias conditions and further blocks the
current in the reverse bias condition. In other words, diode allows the flow of current in one
direction. This characteristic of the diode helps it to serve as a Rectifier by converting Alternating
Current to DC source.
4. State the most important application of a semiconductor diode.
ANS; One of the most important applications of a semiconductor diode is the rectification of AC
power to DC power. Diodes can help the construction of different types of rectifier circuits.
5. Sketch a circuit diagram of a current half wave rectifier using junction diodes, explaining how it
functions
6. Outline any two application of junction diodes
Transistors
 Transistor –Is a semiconductor device for amplifying, controlling, and generating electrical
signals.
 OR; Transistor – Is a semiconductor device used to amplify or switch electronic signals and
electrical power
Types of Transistors
 Field-effect transistors (FETs)
 Bipolar transistors (BJT)
Field-Effect Transistor (Unipolar transistor)
 It is a type of transistor which uses an electric field to control the flow of current. It requires only
one charge carrier to operate (eg N–channel FET or P–channel FET are used for
conduction)
 The three terminals of FET are source, gate and drain
 Examples of FET’s are MOSFET, JFET etc
 Are used in low noise amplifier, buffer amplifier and analog switch
N.B: In this section (according to our level) we will only consider bipolar transistors
Bipolar Junction Transistor (BJT)
 Is a type of transistor that uses both electrons and holes as charge carriers. It is a three-
terminal device that acts as electrically controlled switch or as amplifier controls.
 It consists of a pair of p -n junction diodes that are joined back-to-back (sandwich form). The
leads (regions) are labeled as base (B), collector (C) and emitter (E) (See the fig below)
Terminals of Transistor
 There are three terminals namely emitter (E), collector (C) and base (B)
Emitter (E)
 Is a terminal used to supplies (remove /push) charge carriers to Collector
 It is the negative lead (region)
Collector (C)
 Is a terminal used to receive charge carriers repelled from emitter terminal
 It is the positive lead (region)
 The maximum possible current obtained at the output (collector) is called Saturation current
Base (B)
 Base is a terminal between emitter terminal and collector terminal
 It is used to control the flow of charge carriers from E to C or C to E
N B:
Emitter
 It is left hand section (or region) of the transistor and its main function is to supply majority charge
carriers (electrons in case of NPN transistors and holes in case of P-N-P transistors) to the base.
 The emitter is always forward biased with respect to base so that it is able to supply majority
charge carriers to the base. The emitter is heavily doped so that it may be able to inject a large
number of charge carriers. It is of moderate size in order to maintain heavy doping without diluting
it or mesh formation in it.
Base
 It is the middle section of the transistor and is very lightly doped to reduce the recombination within
the base so as to increase collector current and is very thin in comparison to either emitter or
collector so that it may pass most of the injected charge carriers to the collector.
 The base forms two circuits, the input circuit with the emitter and the output circuit with the
collector. The emitter-base circuit is in forward biased and offered the low resistance to the circuit.
The collector-base junction is in reverse bias and offers the higher resistance to the circuit.
 The base of the transistor is lightly doped and very thin due to which it offers the majority charge
carrier to the base.

Collector
 The right hand section which collects the major portion of the majority charge carrier supplied by
the emitter is called a collector.
 Collector is always reverse biased so as to remove the charge carriers away from its junction with
the base.
 Its main function is to remove the majority charges from its junction with the base. The collector
section of the transistor is moderately doped, but larger in size so that it can collect most of the
charge carrier supplied by the emitter.
 In most of the transistor terminals, the collector region is made physically larger than emitter
region because collector is to dissipate much power. Due to this difference, collector and emitter
are not interchangeable. However, for sake of convenience, it is customary to show emitter and
collector to be of equal size.
 As regards the symbols, arrowhead is always at the emitter. The direction indicates
the conventional direction of current flow (from emitter to base in case of P-N-P transistor and from
base to emitter in case of NPN transistor).
 Generally, no arrow head is marked for collector since its reverse leakage currents is always
opposite to the direction of emitter current.
Types of Bipolar Transistors
 n-p-n transistor
 p-n-p transistor
NPN Transistor
 Is a type of transistor in which one p–type material is doped with two n–type materials
 The diagram and symbol of npn transistor is shown in the figure below
 The outward arrow shows that the direction of current in npn transistor is from the collector
through the base to the emitter ( NPN → Never Points iN)
Construction of NPN Transistor
 The construction of NPN transistor is shown in the figure below. The emitter–base junction is
connected in forward biased while the collector–base junction in reverse biased

Operation of NPN Transistor
 The forward biased is applied across the emitter –base junction while the reverse biased is applied
across the collector–base junction.(See the fig below)
 The emitter is heavily doped. When the forward bias is applied across the emitter, the majority
charge carriers (electrons) move towards the base. This causes the emitter current IE .The
electrons enter into the P–type material and combine with the holes
 Since the base is thin and lightly doped. Thus only a few electrons are combined with holes and
the remaining (most of electrons) are moved towards the collector to constitute the base current IB.
This base current enters into the collector region
 The reversed bias potential of the collector region applies the high attractive force on the electrons
reaching the collector junction. Thus attract or collect the electrons at the collector
 The whole of the emitter current is entered into the base. Thus, we can say that the emitter current
is the sum of the collector or the base current, i.e,. (IE = IC + IB)
N.B
 The collector current in any transistor is less than the emitter current because of the
recombination of holes and electrons occurring in the base area
 In order for a transistor to work, the emitter should always be connected in forward biased while
Collector is always connected in reverse biased
 The main difference between PNP and NPN transistor is that, the current conduction in NPN
carried by electrons while the charge carriers in PNP are carried by holes
PNP Transistor
 Is a type of transistor in which one n–type material is doped with two p–type materials
 The diagram and symbol of pnp transistor is shown in the figure below
 The inward arrow shows that the direction of current in pnp transistor is from the emitter to
collector (PNP → Points iN Permanently)
Construction of PNP Transistor
 The construction of PNP transistor is shown in the figure below. The emitter–base junction is
connected in forward biased while the collector–base junction in reverse biased

 The emitter in forward biased attracts the electrons towards the battery and hence constitutes the
current to flow from emitter to collector
 The base of the transistor is always kept positive with respect to the collector so that the hole
from the collector junction cannot enter into the base. And the base–emitter is kept in forward
due to which the holes from the emitter region enter into the base and then into the collector
region by crossing the depletion layer
Working of PNP Transistor
 The emitter base junction is connected in forward biased due to which the emitter pushes the
holes in the base region. These holes constitute the emitter current
 When these holes move into the base, they combine with electrons.
 Since the base of the transistor is thin and very lightly doped .Hence only a few holes
combine with the electrons and the most (remaining) are moved towards the collector space
charge layer. Hence develops the base current (See the fig below)
 The collector base region is connected in reverse biased. The holes which collect around the
depletion region when coming under the impact of negative polarity attracted by the collector.
This develops the collector current. The complete emitter current flows through the collector
current IC
 Thus, we can say that the emitter current is the sum of the collector or the base current
(IE = IC + IB)
Difference between PNP and NPN transistors

PNP Transistor NPN Transistor
It consists of an N–type sandwiched by two P– It consists of an P–type sandwiched by two N–
type semiconductor type semiconductor
It has holes as majority charge carriers It has electrons as majority charge carriers
It is slower than NPN because holes are slower It is faster than PNP because electrons are
than electrons faster than holes
Less preferred than NPN Most preferred than PNP (most used)
Both collector and base are negative with The collector is positive with respect to both
respect to emitter emitter and base
Why always NPN most used rather than PNP?
 This is because the mobility of electrons in N type material is more than the mobility of holes in
P type material
 Addition reason: Silicon is used to make N type semiconductors. Since it is found abundantly
in nature
Uses of Transistors
 They are used in virtually all electronic devices such as calculators, televisions, radios,
computers, etc.
 Transistors are used in switching circuits, amplifier circuits, digital logic integrated circuits,
current sources circuits, oscillator circuits, voltage regulator circuits, power supply circuits and
in any circuit that uses small signals to control large currents.
Application of Transistor
As an amplifier (electronic amplifier)
 The major application of a transistor is as a current amplifier.
 A transistor can be used to amplify ('magnify') current changes because a small change in
base current produces a large change in collector current.
 A simple transistor amplifier circuit is shown in Figure 1 below
 The graph in Figure 2 below shows the relationship between the base current and the collector
current. From the graph, we can conclude that, the collector current is directly proportional to
the base current.
 Since the small change in the base current IB results in a big change in the collector current, IC,
𝑰
the transistor therefore function as a current amplifier. The ratio 𝑪 is called the amplification
𝑰𝑩
𝑰𝑪
factor ie,.. Amplification Factor, 𝜷 = 𝜷 =
𝑰𝑩
 Figure below shows another amplification circuit. In this case however, the base current is
varying because of the small alternating voltage produced by the microphone.

 The small changes in base current cause much larger changes in collector current. The
collector circuit includes an earphone through which you would hear an amplified version of the
original sound.
 The input capacitor passes on current changes from the microphone but blocks the steady
current which might otherwise flow through the microphone from the potential divider. Such a
current would upset the biasing effect of the potential divider.
Alternatively;
 In the sound system, there is a huge application of transistor. The microphone is a transducer
which converts our voice or sound wave to an electronic signal. As the sound wave has not a
constant value, the magnitude of the sound wave changes with time according to our voice. As
a result, the output of the microphone also changes with time or the magnitude of producing an
electronic signal from the microphone is changing with time.
 Now the output of the microphone is given to the transistor as an input. The changing of the
magnitude of the electronic signal creates changes in the input of the transistor and we know
that if there are changes in the input of the transistor there will be a large change in the output
of the transistor. Thus the transistor amplifies the electronic signal (low magnitude) of the
microphone into high magnitude electronic signal.
As an automatic switch (electronic switch)
 Transistor can be used as automatic switches.

 In the diagram above, the bulb is off when the collector current is off or very small. It is
switched on when the collector current become large.
 We have learned that in a transistor, the collector current is controlled by the base current, or
the base voltage.
 The greater the base voltage is, the greater the base current, and hence the greater the
collector current.
 Therefore the bulb can be switched on and off by varying the voltage supplied to the base.
 The voltage across the base can be controlled a potential divider.
 According to the potential divider rule, the voltages across the resistor R 1 and R2 are given by
the following equations:
𝑹𝟏 𝑹𝟐
𝑽𝟏 = , 𝑽𝟐 =
𝑹𝟏 + 𝑹𝟐 𝑹𝟏 + 𝑹𝟐
 Therefore, by varying the resistance of R1 and R2, we can control the voltage across the base
V2, and hence switch the bulb on and off.
Alternatively;
 We can use a transistor as a light operated switch. As you see in the below figure the base
circuit of the transistor is connected to the battery through a Light Depended Resistor (LDR).
 So when the LDR is placed at darkness the resistance of the LDR will be high therefore there
will be no current flow through the base of the transistor but when the LDR is placed at a
lighted area the resistance of the LDR will be low and there will be a flow of current in the base
of the transistor the transistor gets on or it will act as ON switch.
Transistor as Regulator/Amplifier/Active Mode
Electronic amplifier
Electronic amplifier is the circuit that increases the amplitude (intensity) of a given input
OR; Electronic amplifier – is the magnification of input signal
Types of electronic Amplifiers
 Single-stage amplifier
 Multi-stage amplifier
NB:
o Relationship between the input and output of an amplifier is called the transfer function
o The magnitude of the transfer function is referred to as the gain
o Amplifiers commonly used in radio and television transmitters and receivers, stereo
equipment, microcomputers and digital musical instruments
o Transistors are commonly used as amplifying elements
o In this section we will consider Single-Stage Amplifiers Only

Single-Stage Amplifier
 Is the type of amplifier which consists of only one amplifying device
 It consists of transistor (amplification stage) which is connected to a load resistor through which a
load current flows
Types of Single-Stage Amplifiers
 Common- emitter (CE) amplifiers
 Common-collector (CC) amplifiers
 Common-base (CB) amplifiers
Common-Emitter Amplifier
 Here the emitter is used as the common negative terminal for the input base signal and the output
load. In other words, the emitter terminal becomes the reference terminal to both the input and
output stages (meaning common to both the base and collector terminals).
 The base terminal of the transistor serves as the input, the collector as the output, and the emitter
is common to both. The emitter-base junction is forward-biased by power supply VBB while the
collector-base junction is reverse-biased by power supply VCC
 Common emitter amplifier is the most commonly used transistor configuration. It can be seen in
Fig. below for npn transistor
Mechanism
 The input signal, VIN is fed to the base-emitter circuit and the amplified signal (the output signal,
VOUT) is tapped from the collector terminal with respect to the ground emitter circuit
 C1 and C2 are coupling capacitors to provide direct current isolation at the input and output of
the amplifier respectively.
Common-Collector Amplifier
 The Common Collector Amplifier is another type of bipolar junction transistor, (BJT)
configuration where the input signal is applied to the base terminal and the output signal
taken from the emitter terminal. Thus the collector terminal is common to both the input and
output circuits. This type of configuration is called Common Collector, (CC) because the collector
terminal is effectively “grounded” or “earthed” through the power supply.
 The input signal is provided through the base-collector circuit and the out signal is received
through the emitter-collector circuit. Emitter Base junction has been forward biased through
VEE battery whereas Collector Base junction reverse-biased through battery VCC.

Mechanism
 The input signal is fed to the base-collector circuit while the output signal is tapped from the
emitter terminal with respect to the ground
 C1 and C2 are coupling capacitors to provide direct current isolation at the input and output of
the amplifier respectively
Common-Base Amplifier
 In this circuit, the transistor is fitted in such a manner that the base is common or ground for both
input and output circuits
 In diagram below, a single-stage amplifier circuit with an NPN transistor has been demonstrated.
When input supplies a-c signals to the emitter-base junction, the output is received from the
collector-base circuit.
 This means that the emitter terminal serves as the input, the collector as the output and the base
is common to both. The emitter-base junction is forward-biased by the power supply VEE while
the collector base junction is reverse-biased by VCC
Mechanism
o The input signal is fed to the emitter-base circuit while the output signal is tapped from the
collector-base circuit
o C1 and C2 are coupling capacitors to provide direct current isolation at the input and output of the
amplifier
Information Signals
 Are current or voltage variations (waveforms) through which information is relayed in electronic
circuits
Types of Information Signals

 Analogue signals
 Digital signals

Analogue Signals
 Are electrical signals that convey or store information by means of variation in a continuous wave
form
 Electrical signals may represent information by changing factors such as their voltage, current,
frequency or total charge. The information is converted from some physical form (such as sound,
light, temperature, pressure) to an electrical signal by a device known as a transducer
Transducer: Is a device that converts an input signal of one form into an output signal of another form
OR; Transducer –Is a device which converts a physical variation such as temperature, pressure or
sound to an electrical signal
OR Is a device which converts energy from one form to another
Digital Signals
 Are electrical signals that convey or store information by means of variation in a non-
continuous wave form
 Digital signals have only two amplitude levels, usually called nodes. This means the values
can only be given in one of two ways. The values may be specified, for Example, as 1 or 0,
TRUE or FALSE, and HIGH or LOW
 Digital signals are often derived from analogue signals
 The main advantage of digital signals over analogue signals is that the signal level or value
need not be precise
 It can be approximated within a fixed number of digits or bits
 The process of approximating the precise value within a fixed number of digits is called
quantization
 Signal can be distorted during transmission can still read correctly

1. In the working of a transistor, the emitter-base (EB) junction is forward biased while collector-base
(CB) junction is reverse biased. Why?
2. The diagram below shows a circuit in which important components A and B are removed
Answer the following questions

(a) What does A and B represents?
(b) Describe briefly the purpose of component A and B
(c) Draw a well labeled circuit diagram for the circuit above
3. Use the sketch below to answer the following:
(i) What does each letter represent?

(ii) What type of a device does the sketch represent?
(iii) Write down the current relation for the device.
(iv) Give two common uses of the device.
4. Why the width of the base region of a transistor is kept very small compared to other regions?
1. Why transistor is called current controlled device?
ANS: Because, the output voltage, current or power is controlled by the input current in a
transistor
2. Explain why an ordinary junction transistor is called bipolar?
ANS: Because, the transistor operation is carried out by two types of charges carriers
(majority and minority carriers)
3. What is the significance of the arrow –head in the transistor symbol?
ANS: Is to show the conventional direction of current flow.(From emitter – to – base in case of
p-n-p transistor and from base – to – emitter in case of n – p –n transistor)
N.B: Arrow head is always marked on the emitter and not for collector, since collector always
reverses its leakage current opposite to the direction of emitter current
4. Discuss the need for biasing the transistor.
ANS: For normal operation, base–emitter junction should be forward biased and the collector
base Junction reverse biased
5. What are the differences between a semiconductor and an insulator in terms of their conductivity
6. Which of the transistor currents is always the largest? Which is always the smallest? Which two
currents are relatively close?

ANS: The emitter current IE is always the largest one. The base current IB is always the smallest
one .The collector current IC and emitter current IE are relatively close in magnitude
7. Why collector is made larger than emitter and base?
ANS: Collector is made physically larger than emitter and base because collector is to
dissipate much power
8. Why silicon type transistors are more often used than germanium type? ANS: This is
because:
(i) At room temperature, Silicon crystal has fewer free electrons than Germanium crystal. This
implies that Silicon will have much smaller collector cut off current than Germanium
(ii) The variation of collector cut off current with temperature is less in Silicon compared to
Germanium
(iii) The structure of Germanium crystals will be destroyed at higher temperature while Silicon
crystal are not easily damaged by excess heat
9. Why the width of the base region of a transistor is kept very small compared to other region?
10. Why emitter is always forward biased?
ANS: Emitter is always forward biased with respect to base so as to supply the majority charge
carriers to the base.
11. Why collector is always reverse biased w.r.t base?
12. A diode has a certain characteristic when operating. Explain this characteristic.
ANS: The main operating characteristic of a diode is that it allows current in one direction
and blocks current in the opposite direction.
13. Distinguish between semiconductors and conductors and give one example for each
14. What must the conditions be for a LED to emit light?
ANS: A LED emits light when the diode is forward biased allowing current to flow.
15. Transistors have two main functions, what are they? ANS: Amplification and switching.
16. Define doping.
17. What are the differences between a conductor, semiconductor and insulator in terms of their
energy levels?
18. Your provided with a diode, a resistor R an a.c source of low voltage and connecting wires ,
Sketch the circuit diagram for a half – wave rectifier and indicate the terminals where the output
voltage vo may be connected
ANS:
19. What is meant by Donor impurity in semiconductors?

20. Explain how intrinsic semiconductor can be changed into a transistor
21. Mention two types of : (a) Semiconductors (b) Diode
22. What is the difference between analogue and digital signals?
23. (a) What is the difference between PNP and NPN transistors?
(b) Draw their circuit symbols, label them and describe each connection
24. The semiconductor diode can be used as a rectifier as used in the circuit below

(i) What does the term rectification means?
(ii) The rectification described by the circuit above is half wave rectification. Sketch its
waveform which would be seen on a suitably adjusted CRO and explain why the output
voltage is so rectified
25. The output power of a signal is 50 W and the input power is 0.1 W .Calculate the power gain
26. What is an IC?
27. State the majority carriers for a p – type semi conductors
28. Explain how doping produces an n – type semiconductor
29. Study the circuit diagrams in the figure below carefully. Which of the two circuits will light a bulb?
30. Name two semiconductors which are widely used in electronics

31. Explain why semiconductor solid state diodes are fast replacing the vacuum type diodes in many
applications
32. (a) Give an illustration of a p – n junction diode and its symbol
(b) How does a junction diode work?
33. How is an intrinsic semiconductor different from an extrinsic semiconductor? .Explain how an
extrinsic semiconductor is constructed?
34. Define the following terms (a) Transistor (b) Doping (c) Rectification
35. Draw the circuit diagram of the (a) half wave rectification (b) Full wave rectifier(use 2 diodes)

Chapter – 6:
Elementary Astronomy
 The word astronomy is derived from two Greek words: astron for “star” and Nomo’s for
“law”.
 Therefore; Astronomy is the study of the universe and celestial bodies.
OR
 Astronomy is the branch of science that deals with the study of the Origin, evolution,
composition, distance and the motion of all bodies and scattered matters in the universe.
 People who are involved in astronomy are known as astronomers.
 Universe is all of the space and everything in it. Also; it can be defined as Universe is the
totality of space and time together with matter and energy.
The Origin of the Universe:

According to science:
According to Science, the origin of the universe comes into two ideas: ie,.
(a) The big bang theory (b) The steady state theory
(a) The big bang theory
 The most widely accepted theory for the origin of our Universe is that it started with a ‘Big
Bang’ about 13.8 billion years ago. This theory suggests that all matter and energy in the
universe was at a point of infinite density and temperature. It then expanded rapidly, and
eventually stars, galaxies and planets formed.
 This expansion was the beginning of time and continues to this day. The Big Bang theory is
supported by evidence that space is expanding, including the red shift of light from distant
galaxies and the existence of cosmic background radiation in all directions.
 It is thought the Earth was formed around 4.6 billion years ago from dust and gas left after the Sun
formed.
 As the Earth gradually cooled, creating conditions in which life was possible, living things
appeared on the new planet Earth.
 However, what happened right at the start of the Universe remains an unsolved mystery
 Over the next billion years, gravity acted on the clouds of expanding gases. Gradually, the force of
gravity pulled the expanding clouds of gases into large clumps, which condensed to form stars
and galaxies. Some of the most distant objects seen in the Universe are galaxies which formed a
few billion years after the Big Bang.
 Now the Universe continues to expand and evolve. New stars are formed out of clouds of
gas in the Milky Way and other galaxies. Our Sun is about 4.6 billion years old.
NB:
 The big bang theory is supported by the following evidences
(i) The Red shift evidence

It describes the phenomenon whereby the wavelength of light from a source increases as it
travels through spacetime, hence observed as being 'shifted' to the red end of the
spectrum (as red light has the longest wavelength in the visible spectrum). Using these
red-shift observations, we can determine that galaxies are moving away from us with
increasing recessional velocity, indicating that the universe is expanding. If this is the case,
there must have been a point in time at which the universe began expanding, when all
matter and energy was converged upon a single point (called a singularity): this is the
fundamental principle on which the Big Bang theory is based.
(ii) The discoveries of the CMBR (Cosmic Microwave Background Radiation)
 Is the discoveries of remains of the thermal energy from the Big Bang, spread thinly
across the whole Universe.
 You can't see the CMB with your naked eye, but it is everywhere in the universe. It is
invisible to humans because it is so cold, just about -270°C.
 The big bang theory was first put by Georges Lemaître and then improved by Edwin P.
Hubble in 1920S
(b) The steady state theory
 In this theory, believes that the universe has always existed. It says that the universe is infinity
old; it has no birth date and will never end. This theory believed that the universe is endless in
time and space. The theory cannot explain how the universe was made
 Also, it explains that, the universe is always expanding but maintaining a constant average
density, with matter being continuously created to form new stars and galaxies at the same rate
that old ones become unobservable as a consequence of their increasing distance and velocity of
recession.
 The steady state idea is supported by the red shift evidence, but not by the CMBR. After the
discovery of the CMBR, the Steady State theory lost support and is no longer considered likely. (it
currently is only followed by few)
 The steady state theory was first put forward in 1948 by British scientists Sir Hermann
Bondi, Thomas Gold, and Sir Fred Hoyle
According to religions:
 Interestingly, when evidence of the Big Bang was first discovered in the late 1920's, many
scientists rejected the idea because they thought it smacked of Religion. If the universe had a
beginning they felt, then it must have had a creator. But that would be unscientific. At the time,
the prevailing view was that the universe had existed in much the same state forever and that it
therefore had no beginning. Now, let’s see explanations from some few religions about the
origin of the universe;
A. According to ISLAM
 Muslims regard the existence of the universe as proof for the existence of Allah, the Creator. They
also believe that the Qur'an is a divine revelation from Allah and so cannot be questioned.
However, it is possible to interpret the Qur'an in different ways.
 Passages relating to creation occur in the Qur'an in different places, such as: "Verily in the
heavens and the earth are signs for those who believe. And in the creation of yourselves,
and the fact that animals are scattered (through the earth), are signs for those of assured

faith. And in the alternation of night and day, and that fact that Allah sends down
sustenance from the sky, and revives therewith the earth after its death, and in the change
of the winds, are signs for those who are wise" (45:3-5).
 The Qur'an further states that Allah created the sun, the moon, and the planets, each with their
own individual courses or orbits.
"It is He Who created the night and the day, and the sun and the moon; all (the celestial
bodies) swim along, each in its rounded course" (21:33).
Six Days (duration of creation)
 The Qur'an states that: "Allah created the heavens and the earth, and all that is between
them, in six days" (7:54).
 The verses that mention "six days" use the Arabic word "youm" (day). This word appears several
other times in the Qur'an, each denoting a different measurement of time. In one case, the
measure of a day is equated with 50,000 years (70:4), whereas another verse states that "a day in
the sight of your Lord is like 1,000 years of your reckoning" (22:47). The word "youm" is thus
understood, within the Qur'an, to be a long period of time -- an era or eon. Therefore, Muslims
interpret the description of a "six days" creation as six distinct periods or eons. The length of these
periods is not precisely defined, nor is the specific developments that took place during each
period.
Is the Big Bang theory compatible with Islam?

 Some Muslims say that the Big Bang can be seen as additional evidence of Allah's creation
and can therefore be accepted as scientific truth. However, because it does not include
reference to a designer and creator, it is at best incomplete, describing the process that Allah
used in creation.
 The Qur'an says that:
“The heavens and the earth were joined together as one unit, before We clove them
asunder.” Qur'an 21:30
 Following this big explosion,
Then He turned to the heaven while it was all smoke. He said to the heaven and the earth:
“Come (into being), willingly or unwillingly.” They said: “Here we come (into being) in
willing obeisance.” Quran– 41:11
Thus the elements and what was to become the planets and stars began to cool, come together,
and form into shape, following the natural laws that Allah established in the universe.
NB:
 Because the Earth and the Heavens above (the sun, the moon, stars, planets, galaxies, etc)
have been formed from this same ‘Smoke’. Therefore, the Earth and Heaves were one
connected entity. Then out of this homogenous ‘Smoke’ they formed and separated from
each other, as Allaah said in Quran 21:30
 Before planets and stars, modern Science has largely concluded, the Universe was probably
a cloud of dust and gas. The Quran presaged that conclusion in the Seventh Century, as
seen in 41:11

Expansion of the Universe
 According to many Islamic sources, Quran 51:47 refers to the expansion of the universe, a
phenomenon that has been made known to us in the recent century.
"The heavens, We have built them with power. And verily, We are expanding it" (51:47).
 There has been some historical debate among Muslim scholars about the precise meaning of this
verse, since knowledge of the universe's expansion was only recently discovered.
NB: Most Muslims believe that if there are any disagreements between the two theories, the
teachings found in the Qur'an are correct. The words of Allah are superior to the words of
human scientists.
B. What accounts of the origins of the universe are there in Christianity?

 According to Christian belief, God created the universe. There are two stories of how God created
it which are found at the beginning of the book of Genesis in the Bible. Some Christians
regard Genesis 1 and Genesis 2 as two totally separate stories that have a similar meaning.
Others see the two chapters as part of one continuous story.
Summary of Genesis 1:
 In the beginning - God started creation
 The first day - light was created
 The second day - the sky was created
 The third day - dry land, seas, plants and trees were created
 The fourth day - the Sun, Moon and stars were created
 The fifth day - creatures that live in the sea and creatures that fly were created
 The sixth day - animals that live on the land and finally humans, made in the image of God were
created
 By day seven, God finished his work of creation and rested, making the seventh day a special
holy day.
In Genesis 2, some people think that the story goes on to give more detail about the creation of
humans, seen as two individuals, Adam and Eve.
Importance of Astronomy
 Measurement of time
Duration of the day, month and year were determined by using position and phases of the sun,
moon and stars
 Development of calendars.
Were used to predict seasons for agriculture by studying position of stars in space
 Navigation on land and sea uses the knowledge of astronomy
 Used in space exploration
 It helps us to know the origin of the universe and hence study and prepare for the upcoming
events in the universe
 It promotes the improvement in science and technology due to the need for the study of
the universe

Galaxies
 A galaxy is a huge collection of gas, dust, and billions of stars and their solar systems, and dark
matter, all held together by gravity.
 Galaxies differ from each other in shape, size, colour and composition. There are three types of
galaxies that we find in the universe, ie,.. elliptical galaxies, spiral galaxies and irregular
galaxies
(i) Elliptical Galaxies
 These type of galaxies are like flattened balls of old stars and contain very little gas. It also
includes the most massive galaxies containing a trillion stars.
(ii) Spiral Galaxies
 Spiral galaxies have a flattened shape. They have a bulge in the centre composed of old stars
surrounded by a disk of young stars and are arranged in spiral arms.
(iii) Irregular Galaxies
 As its name suggests, Irregular Galaxies have no particular shape. There are billions of
galaxies in the universe, the centre of the galaxy releases a huge amount of heat,
radiation, radio waves and x-rays.
Milky Way Galaxy

 Milky Way Galaxy includes the sun, earth, and our solar system.
 It contains dust particles, huge clouds, and gases that lie throughout it and depths of
interstellar space.
 Nearly all of the stars visible in the night sky are within our galaxy, the Milky Way.
 The Milky Way is about 1,000,000,000,000,000,000 km (about 100,000 light years) across.
Stars
 A star is a large celestial body made up of hot gases known as plasma held together by gravity.
 Plasma refers to an ionized gas in which a certain proportion of electrons are free rather than
bound to an atom or molecules.
 Stars radiate energy derived from the thermonuclear reactions in the interior region.
 The sun is the closest star to the earth at a mean distance of 149.60 million kilometers
 This distance is known as Astronomical Unit (AU) and is used to measure distances across the
solar system. [whereby; 1AU = 1.4960×1011m]
 Light year Is the distance that light travels in one year, or about 6 trillion miles [Light Moves about
a distance of 186,000 miles per second (3 x 108 m/s)]
Star formation
 Stars are formed from a collection of interstellar nebula (gas and dust) that has collapsed down
from a giant molecular cloud
 There are lots of stars in the universe, but the Sun is the closest one to Earth, and it's the only
one which gives energy in our solar system. It is the center of our solar system.
1. Explain the term astronomy and state its importance
2. Explain the composition of the universe
3. Briefly explain how astronomy gave rise to the twelve months of the year
4. Mention and describe briefly the galaxy to which our solar system belongs
5. What is the shape of the galaxy described in question 4 above

Constellations
 Constellations: Are small groups of bright stars that form patterns in the night sky which
resemble familiar with animals and objects on the earth.
OR
 Constellations: are groups of stars in the night sky that can form an outline, pattern, or particular
shape to which human being assign significance.
 Some of known constellations are: LEO, IRON, SCORPIO, URSA MAJOR, URSA MINOR,
CORPUS, CANIS MAJOR, PISCES, TAURUS, CANCER, GEMIN, ARIES, ANDROMEDA,
HERCULES, ORION, PUPPIS, SOUTHER CROSS, SAGITTARIUS, etc..
 There are about 88 known constellations.
Identification of Constellations
 Constellations may be identified based on their shape (morphology), position (location) in the sky
or with respect to a neighbor constellation, the number of stars in the pattern and the time of
visibility over the year
 Some of the known constellations are discussed below
Canis Major
 It contains Sirius (the brightest star in the night sky), known as the “dog star”
 In Latin its name means “the greater dog” following the hunter Orion, across the southern skies of
winter
Orion
 Possibly the most famous constellation in the night sky and the most visible constellation in the
sky. Due to its location in the night sky, it can be seen throughout the world. (ie,.. it seen in the
evening sky during winter in the Northern hemisphere and during summer in Southern
hemisphere)
 Orion got its name after a hunter in Greek Mythology who was thought to be the son of the God
Poseidon. Orion was thought to be a giant and very handsome Hunter.
Cancer
 It is a crab like constellation that looks like an upside – down letter Y and it's the faintest
(dimmest) of the 12 constellations of the zodiac.
Leo (Lion – like in shape):

 Leo contains several bright stars making it one of the most easily recognisable constellations in
the night sky. It is visible in both Northern and Southern hemispheres
Ursa Major (Great Bear):
 It is one of the most well known constellations and the third largest one. It is visible in the northern
hemisphere all year around meaning it is circumpolar.
 Its brightest stars form the Big Dipper asterism, one of the most recognizable shapes in the sky,
 It has groups of seven relatively bright stars
Puppis
 It is a pattern of nine stars right next to the Canis Major.
 The brightest star in this constellation is known as Zeta Puppis
Gemini
 It is one of the constellations in the zodiac. Its name originates from Latin word Gemini which
means twins. It is located northeast of the Orion constellation

Consider the figures below showing some of the constellations
NB:
People near the North Pole can see the constellations that are to the north of Earth in space. People
near the South Pole can see the constellations that are to the south. People who live in between can
see some of both, depending on how close they are to the equator.
Types of Constellations
 Circumpolar constellations
 Seasonal constellations
 Zodiac constellations
Circumpolar Constellations
 Are seen all of the year round in the night sky for observers in high northern or high southern
latitudes because of the rotation of the Earth
 Ursa Major (the Great Bear), Ursa Minor, (the Little Bear), Draco (the Dragon), Cepheus (the
King), and Cassiopeia (the Queen) are examples of circumpolar constellations.
Seasonal Constellations
 Seasonal constellations are the constellations that appear at some time of the year and are not
seen at other times of the year.
 In Tanzania and in central Africa are close to the equator so we do not see any circumpolar stars
or circumpolar constellations. Hence In Tanzania night sky we see only seasonal constellations
 Examples of seasonal constellations are Scorpius, Leo, and Orion are seasonal constellations
Zodiac Constellations
 The 12 Zodiac constellations are the constellations that lie along the apparent path of the sun,
meaning that the sun passes through these constellations over a period of 12 months.
Everyone is born during a Zodiac month and is thought to carry specific traits based on their
zodiac constellations
 The 12 Zodiac constellations are: Aries, Taurus, Gemini, Cancer, Leo, Virgo, Libra,
Scorpius, Sagittarius
Zodiacal Light
 Is very faint cone of light in the sky, visible in the east just before sunrise and in the west just
after sunset
 It is probably caused by the reflection of sunlight from cosmic dust in the plane of the ecliptic
Significance (importance) of Constellations

The study of the constellation is important since they are used by the man from ancient times up to the
present.
(i) Religion
 The first use for Constellations was probably religious. People thought that the gods lived in
the heavens and that they created them. Many cultures believed that the positions of the
stars were their god's way of telling stories. So it seemed natural to recognize patterns in
the sky, give them names, and tell stories about them.
 We inherited the names for our constellations from the Greeks. And they named the
constellations after their mythological heroes and legends. So behind every constellation,
there is a story.
 For example, to the ancient Greeks, Orion was a great hunter. He was the son of
Neptune (god of the sea). But the same stars were considered to depict Osiris (god of the
deceased) by the Egyptians.
 Each different culture developed its own interpretation.
(ii) Nomads
Nomads used constellations in travelling with their herds from one place to another, searching
for pasture
(iii) Agriculture:
In Ancient times, constellations were used to create and track the calendar so they knew when
to plant crops and harvest them
(iv) Curiosity of studying nature
Constellations as other celestial bodies, trigger humankind to explore more about the universe
(v) Navigation:
 Constellations were also used for navigation and to help sailors travel across oceans. Once
you find Ursa Major, you can easily spot the Northern Star (Polaris) and by using the height
of the Northern Star, you could figure out your latitude.
 For example; Ancient sailors used the stars to help guide them while they were at sea.
Just like Phoenicians looked to the sun’s movement across the heaven to tell them their
direction.

1. Explain how stars are formed
2. Distinguish between Zodiac and zodiacal light.
3. Briefly explain the meaning of constellation
4. Explain the importance of constellations to humankind
The Sun
 The Sun is the star at the center of the Solar System whose mass is approximately
2.0x1030kg
 It is about 4.6 billion years old – the same as Earth and other planets that formed within our solar
system
 The Sun takes 250 million years to orbit the Milky Way Galaxy
 Earth and all other objects in our solar system orbit around the Sun due to gravity
 The Sun contains over 98% of all mass in the solar system and so exerts a strong gravitational
pull. Like other stars, the Sun is a dense ball of gas that creates energy through nuclear fusion
reactions in the core, creating helium atoms from hydrogen atoms.
 The Sun radiates different forms of energy, including ultraviolet, infrared, and light energy, out
into space. Light and heat energy from the Sun warm our planet and make life possible.
Structure of the Sun

 The structure of the Sun consists of the following layer: the core, the radiative zone, the
convective zone, the photosphere, the chromosphere, transition region and the corona.
 The Sun’s layers are different from each other, and each plays a part in producing the energy that
the Sun ultimately emits. (see fig; below)
The Core:
 It is the innermost part of the sun. Inside the core, nuclear energy is being released. The core
is approximately 20% of the size of the solar interior and is thought to have a temperature of
approximately 15 million K, making it the hottest part of the Sun. Nuclear fusion reactions create
energy within the core resulting to gamma rays and charge less particles called neutrinos
 It is about 200,000km
The Radiative Zone:

 Above the core is a region known as the radiative zone—named for the primary mode of
transporting energy across it.
 The light generated in the core is transported through the radiative zone very slowly, since
the high density of matter in this region means a photon cannot travel too far without
encountering a particle, causing it to change direction and lose some energy.
 This zone is about 300,000km
The Convective Zone:
 The convective zone is the outermost layer of the solar interior.
 It is a thick layer approximately 200,000 kilometers deep that transports energy from the edge of
the radiative zone to the surface through giant convection cells, similar to a pot of boiling oatmeal.
 The plasma at the bottom of the convective zone is extremely hot, and it bubbles to the
surface where it loses its heat to space. Once the plasma cools, it sinks back to the bottom
of the convective zone.

The Solar Photosphere
 The Photosphere has a thickness of about 500 km, and all the visible light from the Sun comes
from this layer
 This layer contains the Sunspots which are cooler and darker points. They are cooler because
strong magnetic field loops around them prevent the heat from reaching the surface.
 The effective temperature on the outer side of the photosphere is 6000°C.
 The photosphere has several different colors; oranges, yellow and reds, giving it a grainy
appearance.
The Chromosphere:
 The chromosphere is a thin layer of plasma that lies between the Sun's visible surface (the
photosphere) and the corona (the Sun's upper atmosphere). It extends for at least 2,000 km above
the surface.
 Its rosy red color is only apparent during eclipses.
 It is relatively a thin layer of burning gases.
 The temperature of the chromosphere range from 4000k to 10,000 K.
Transition Region
 The increase in temperature does not stop with the chromosphere. Above it is a region in the solar
atmosphere where the temperature changes from 10,000 K (typical of the chromosphere) to
nearly a million degrees.
 The hottest part of the solar atmosphere, which has a temperature of a million degrees or more, is
called the corona.
 Appropriately, the part of the Sun where the rapid temperature rise occurs is called
the transition region. It is probably only a few tens of kilometers thick.
The Corona:
 The outermost part of the Sun’s atmosphere is called the corona. Like the chromosphere,
the corona was first observed during total eclipses.
 The Sun’s corona extends millions of kilometres into space and is most easily seen during
a total solar eclipse.
Importance of the sun;
Life as we know would not be possible without the heat and light of the sun. This is due to the following
reasons
 The Sun is very important in the plant’s growth. The Sun helps the plants to make their own food
by the photosynthesis process.
 The Sun is very necessary for other living organisms because it provides us with light for vision and
to do our work. The Sun provides us with the heat to warm our bodies.
 The Sun is used in heating water and warming houses by the solar heater which changes the solar
energy of the Sun into heat energy. The heat energy is used in warming houses and heating water.
 The Sun is very important in the formation of clouds, rain, and winds. When the sun evaporates the
water in the seas, the lakes and the oceans, water vapour is formed. and the clouds are formed.
When the water vapour rises in the sky, it cools and condenses forming the clouds.
 The Sun‘s heat causes the difference in the temperature in some areas, So the winds are formed.
The clouds move by the effect of the winds and when the volume of the water drops in the clouds
increase and the air can’t carry them, so the rain falls.
 The sun can heal inflammation and can help with inflammatory skin conditions such as psoriasis,
eczema, and acne. Sunlight has been associated with improving autoimmune diseases such as
arthritis and inflammatory bowel disease.
 It is advisable to expose the children to the Sun rays for suitable periods of time as the Sun emits
ultraviolet rays that help in the formation of vitamin ” D ” which is necessary for bone growth.
Therefore, the Sun is very important and we cannot live on Earth without it.
The Solar System

 The solar system is the collection of heavenly bodies that revolve around the sun.
 The Solar System composed of dwarf planets, eight planets and their moons, as well as
millions of asteroids, comets and meteoroids.
 The planet’s rotation around the sun is maintained by the gravitational attraction between the
sun and the other celestial bodies
Theories of the solar system

Geocentric Theory (Earth centered)
 Is the theory which considers that the Earth is at the centre of the universe and other heavenly
bodies such as the Sun and other planets to be orbiting around it
 It was based on religious beliefs, observations and common-sense.
There are two major observations that were used in developing this model:
 The Sun appears to revolve around the Earth once per day when observing from anywhere on
Earth.
 An earthbound observer sees no movement of Earth because it feels solid, stable and stationary.

Heliocentric Theory (Sun centered)
 Is the astronomical model in which the Earth and other celestial bodies revolve around the Sun at
the center of the universe
 It was put forward by Nicolaus Corpenicus to replace the Geocentric Theory
Some observation made by astronomers in Heliocentric theory

 Rotation of the Earth about its own axis and its revolution around the sun.
 Variations in brightness of Venus and Mars
 Clarification for the positions of Venus and Mars with respect to the Sun
 Logical estimation of the size of the Sun with respect to that of the Earth
Although heliocentric theory is currently the basic theory that is adopted to explain the solar
system, but the theory has a few shortfalls, which include:
 The sun was thought to be the center of the universe but it is only the center of the solar
system
 Orbits of the planets were thought to have circular shapes, but nowadays they are known to
have elliptical shapes.
 The relative positions of the stars seemed to remain the same despite the Earth’s changing
view points as it moved around the sun
1. Explain two theories used to describe the structure of the solar system
2. Which of the following part of the Sun is visible to humans?
A. Photosphere B. Corona C. Chromospheres D. Core [A]
3. Which of the following part of the Sun is visible at the time of the eclipse?
A. Photosphere B. Corona C. Chromosphere D. Core [B]
4. Assume the Sun suddenly disappears. State any three demerits to humankind based on this
disappearance.
5. What is a solar system made of?
6. Do stars emit light only during the night?
ANS; No, the stars emit light throughout the day but due to the brightness of the sun, the light of
the stars cannot be seen.
Planets
 A planet is a major (large) object which is in its orbit around a star (sun).
 The planets revolve around the sun. They are held in orbit by the gravitational pull of the sun.
 Planets do not give their own light, but rather reflect the sun’s light.
 These planets are
(i) Mercury
 It is the closest planet to the sun
 It gets more direct heat, but even it isn’t the hottest planet (4270 C)
 It is the smallest planet in the solar system
 It has no moons, no rings and an atmosphere
(ii) Venus
 Is the second planet from the sun and has no moon
 It is also known as morning star or evening star
 It is the hottest planet in the solar system (4820 C)
 It has very thick atmosphere 90 times that of the earth
(iii) Earth
 Is the third planet from the sun and largest terrestrial planet
 Is the only planet to host living beings and the only one known to have liquid water on
its surface
 It has atmosphere which supports life
 It is the only known planet to have current geological activity
 It has a radius of 6371 km and its distance is 1.0 AU from the sun
 It has one large moon
(iv) Mars
 Is the fourth planet from the sun
 It is reddish planet. The red color comes from iron oxide or rust in the soil
 It experiences frequent planet – wide wind storms
 It’s colder than earth. The surface temperature ranges from -1130 C to 00 C
(v) Jupiter
 Is the fifth planet from the sun
 Is the largest planet in the solar system
 It has 63 moons and a faint ring system
(vi) Saturn
 Is the sixth planet from the Sun. It is also a gas giant planet
 It has the rings that orbit the planets in a thin band about a mile thick
 Its radius is about 9.5 times that of the Earth.
(vii) Uranus.
 It is the seventh planet from the Sun
 It has a diameter of about 50,723 km
 It is made of a large atmosphere of methane with a dense core of frozen methane.
 It has a faint ring system and 27 moons in its orbit
 It has a radius four times that of the earth
(viii) Neptune
 Is the eighth planets from the sun
 It has a radius four times that of the earth as Uranus
 It has the atmosphere made of methane
 Its surface temperature is about -2140C
 It has 13 moons and a faint ring system orbit the planet
NB:
(i) All of these planets excepts the Earth, have names from Greek or Roman mythology

(a) Mercury means god of commerce because it moves so quickly across the sky
(b) Venus means goddess of love and beauty due to beautiful sight in the sky
(c) Mars means god of war due to its red color
(d) Jupiter means King of the gods (The Chief god of the Romans) due to its biggest size
in the solar system
(e) Saturn means god of agriculture,
(f) Uranus (the ancient Greek deity of the heavens ) means the earliest supreme god
(g) Neptune means god of the sea due to its beautiful blue color
(h) Pluto means god underworld because it’s so far away from the Sun
(ii) Mercury is the closest planet to the sun but not hotter than Venus, Why?
 This is because any heat that mercury receives from the sun is quickly lost back into space
because it does not have any atmosphere to trap and hold heat
 Similarly Venus is the hottest due to presence of very thick atmosphere of carbon dioxide. This
atmosphere makes the surface of Venus hotter because heat does not escape back into space
(Greenhouse effect)
(iii) Venus’ thick clouds reflect sunlight, making it the brightest object in the sky beside the Sun and
the Moon. Because the orbit of Venus is inside Earth’s orbit, Venus always appears close to
the Sun. When Venus rises just before the Sun rises, the bright object is called the morning
star. When it sets just after the Sun sets, it is the evening star. (see the figure below)
Interior structure of the planets

 The terrestrial planets consist mainly of rocky and metallic materials while the interior structure
of Jovian planets are mainly gases and other elements
Types of planets
 The planets in the solar system are divided into two types namely:-
(i) Terrestrial planets (innermost planets)
(ii) Jovian planets (Outer planets / Gas giants)
 Jovian planets: The outer planets of our solar system: Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, and Neptune.
Because these planets have similar characteristics, they were named after their mythological
namesake Jupiter, which is also known as Jove.
 Terrestrial planets: The inner planets of our solar system: Mercury, Venus, Earth, and Mars.
Because these planets have similar characteristics, they were named after the planet Earth,
whose Latin name is Terra.

The difference between the two types of planets
Terrestrial planets Jovian planets

Are the planets which are made of solid Are the planets which are made of gaseous
surfaces surfaces or ice
Examples are Mercury, Venus, Earth and Examples are Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus,
Mars Neptune
They are smaller in size compared to Jovian They are larger in size compared to
planets terrestrial planets
They are closer to the sun They are far away from the sun
They have few number of moons They have many number of moons
They are denser than Jovian planets They are less dense
Characteristics of a celestial body be a Planet
(i) It should orbit a star.
(ii) It should be massive enough so that its own gravity causes it to assume a spherical shape.
(iii) It should clear the neighborhood around its orbit.
Dwarf Planet
 Is a celestial body orbiting the Sun that is massive enough to be rounded by its own gravity but
has not cleared its neighboring region and hasn’t satellite.
 Pluto is an example of dwarf planet
Difference between Stars and Planets
Stars Planets
Emit their own light Do not emit their own light
Twinkle at night. Do not twinkle at night.
Appear to be moving from east to west. Planets move around the sun from west to east.
Their surface temperatures depend on their
Their surface temperatures are usually very high.
distances from the sun.
Countless in number. There are eight planets in the solar system.
Very big in size as compared to planets but they
appear small because they are very far away Very small in size as compared to stars.
from the earth.
Are in gaseous form Are in solid form
Satellite
 A satellite is defined as a natural celestial object that revolves in a certain orbit around a planet.
 A satellite can be regarded as a part of the solar system itself.
Types of Satellite
1. Natural Satellite
 Natural satellite is the natural celestial in which revolves around the planet. Example, moon
2. Artificial Satellite
 Artificial satellite is the man made satellite and spacecraft that orbit the planet.
Uses of the earth Satellites
 The moon leads to ocean tides
 Man – made satellite used to reflect radio waves for communication
Other celestial bodies include;
Asteroids (minor planets)
 Asteroid is a large rocky body in space that revolve around the sun
OR
 Asteroid is an astronomical body smaller than planets that orbit the sun
 Asteroids are of different sizes and shapes
 Asteroids are mostly small Solar system bodies composed mainly of rocky and metallic non-
volatile minerals. They lie between mars and Jupiter
Meteors
 Are asteroids which enter the earth’s atmosphere and burn completely before reaching the
earth’s surface
 Are also called shooting stars
Meteorites
 Are meteors that survive the passage through the earth’s and reach the ground
 OR A meteorite is a piece of rock or metal that has fallen to the earth’s surface from outer
space as a meteor
 In Tanzania a 16 ton piece of meteorite found at Mbozi Mbeya called Mbozi meteorite
Comets
 Comet: Is a small icy celestial body that when passing close to the sun heat up and emit gas
displaying a visible atmosphere and a tail
OR
 Is a small icy celestial body that revolves around the sun
 They can often be seen by naked eyes. They stop glowing once the gaseous materials are all
burnt off or when they are once again far away from the sun
Meteoroid
 Is a smaller body than asteroid that moves in the solar system that would become a meteor if it
entered the earth’s atmosphere
1. Mercury is the closest planet to the sun but not hotter than Venus, Why?
2. Why is Pluto no longer regarded as a planet?
3. State the difference between rocky terrestrial and Jovian planets
4. Meteors are not visible during the day. Explain the Reason.
ANS; The brightness of a meteor is extremely small compared to that of the sun, therefore, it is not
seen during the day time.
5. With the aid of a diagram, explain when the Venus is termed as morning star and evening star
6. Why stars twinkle at night?
ANS: Stars are so distant such that they appear as pinpoints of light in the night sky, even
when viewed through a telescope.
Because all the light is coming from a single point, its path is highly susceptible to atmospheric
interference
Gravitational Force
 Gravitational force is the attractive force existing between any two objects that have masses
Newton’s Law of Universal Gravitation
The law States that
“Any two bodies in the universe attract each other with a force that is directly proportional to the
product of their masses and inversely proportional to the square of the distance between them”

Consider the fig. below
 According to the universal law of gravitation as stated above, it follows that;

𝒎𝟏 𝒎𝟐 𝒎𝟏 𝒎𝟐
𝑭∝ → 𝑭=𝒌 , 𝒘𝒉𝒆𝒓𝒆𝒃𝒚; 𝒌 = 𝑮
𝒓𝟐 𝒓𝟐
𝑮(𝒎𝟏 𝒎𝟐 )
Therefore, the gravitational force is given by F =
𝒓𝟐
 Whereby: 𝑮 is the universal gravitation constant , 𝒎𝟏 is the mass of the first body, 𝒎𝟐 is the
mass of the second body and 𝒓 is the distance between the two bodies
Acceleration due to gravity, 𝒈:
 When an object is placed within the Earth’s gravity, it experiences a gravitational force towards
the center of the Earth. This force causes the object to accelerate towards the Earth’s center
with an acceleration known as acceleration due to gravity, g
 Since the gravitational force is inversely proportional to the square of the distance from the
center of the earth, and we know that the distance from the poles to the center of the earth is
less than the distance from the equator to the center of the earth,
 Therefore; the acceleration due to gravity is greater at the poles than at the equator
𝑮𝑴 𝑬
 And the acceleration due to gravity for an object on the earth’s surface is given by 𝒈 =
𝑹𝟐𝑬
 Whereby; G = gravitational constant, 𝑀𝐸 is the mass of the Earth and 𝑅𝐸 is the radius of the
Earth
 Acceleration due to gravity varies from one place to another
 For example; Gravity on the Moon is less than that of the Earth (ie,,. the moon is 1/6 times the
gravity on the Earth). This is because Moon is less massive than Earth.
NB:
 Gravity Is the force that attracts a body towards the centre of the Earth
 This is the force that holds us on the ground and causes objects to fall back to the ground after
being thrown up in the air
 The measure of the force of gravity on an object on the earth’s surface is called the weight
 Gravitation Is the force of attraction which acts between two bodies in the universe
1. The New Horizons spacecraft visited the minor planet Pluto in 2015. Newton’s law of universal
gravitation is used to calculate the force between two bodies, for example Pluto and the New
Horizons spacecraft. State the factors which affect the size of the gravitational force between two
bodies.
2. A powerful rocket is required to leave the surface of the earth. A less powerful rocket is required to
leave the surface of the moon. Explain why
3. Why do we feel with less weight on the equator than at the North Pole?
4. A piece of geological mineral whose dimensions are 2m x 4m x 8m found on the moon weighs
𝑭
36N. Determine its weight and density when brought on the Earth. [A: F= 𝒎𝒈 = 𝑴 × 𝒈𝑬 =216
𝒈𝒎
𝒎 𝟐𝟏.𝟔
N, 𝝆 = = = 𝟎. 𝟑𝟑𝟖 kg/m3]
𝒗 𝟐×𝟒×𝟖

5. An astronaut of mass 120 kg is on the surface of the moon, where the acceleration due to gravity
is 1.6 m/s2. What is the weight of the astronaut on the surface of the moon? [ANS: W=192 N]
Earth’s Moon
 Moon is a natural satellite that moves in a circular orbit around the earth, held on orbit by
gravitational force.
Properties of Earth’s Moon
 The gravity on the Moon is only one-sixth as strong as it is on the Earth. An astronaut can jump
six times as high on the Moon as on Earth!
 It takes 27.3 days to revolve around the earth. This period called sidereal month
 It has a diameter of 3476 km and It has a mass of 7.35 x 1022kg
 The same side of the Moon always faces Earth and so that side of the Moon is what we always see
in the night sky. The Moon makes no light of its own, but instead only reflects light from the Sun.
 The Moon has no atmosphere. Since an atmosphere moderates temperature, the Moon’s
average surface temperature during the day is approximately 225°F but drops to minus 243°F at
night. The coldest temperatures, around minus 397°F, occur in craters in the permanently shaded
south polar basin. These are among the coldest temperatures recorded in the entire solar system.
 It has non molten iron core so its haven’t magnetism
 Iron core is surrounded by a rocky mantle and crust
 It revolves in an anticlockwise direction around the earth
N.B
(i) Perigee: Is the moon’s position when it is nearest the earth. Perigee is 356,000 km
(ii) Apogee: Is the moon’s position when it is furthest from the earth Apogee is 406,000 km
(iii) Proxigee (Closest Perigee): Is the moon’s position when it is usually close to the earth
Surface features of the moon

There are two primary types of terrain on the moon, these include the following
 Lunar highlands
 Maria
Lunar Highlands (Terrae)

 Are bright zones on the surface of the moon
 A lunar highland is the bright area viewed with unaided eye. It consists of;
(a) Craters caused by impact of meteorites. The young craters are often surrounded by lines of splash
material
(b) Mountains rise up to 5km high
Maria
 Maria is an Italian word Means “Sea” since that’s what the ancients thought they were. But the
Maria are not water but solid, flat areas of basaltic lava.
 Maria is the dark region on the surface of the moon
 It is caused by hug impact craters that were later flooded with molten lava.
 Most of Maria is covered with regolith, a mixture of fine dust and rocky debris produced by
meteor impact
Ocean tides
 Are periodic rises and falls of large bodies of water
 When the sea is closer to land, it is called high tide and when the sea is further away, it is
called low tide.
 There are two high tides and two low tides each day.
 High and low tides are caused by the gravitational pull of the Moon, which pulls water
across Earth.
 Tides energy: Is the rising and falling of the ocean level
How Ocean tides Occurs
 Due to different in gravitational force the earth pulls the moon to keep it in orbit also the moon
pulls the earth and the sun pulls the earth to keep it in orbit also the earth pull the sun. This
gravitational interaction tends to pull earth’s fluid (gas and liquid especially in ocean) results in
rising and falling of the ocean level. As the earth rotates on its axis two tides occur each day
Types of Ocean Tides

 Spring tides
 Neap tides
Spring Ocean Tides
 These tides occur during the new moon and full moon phases when the Sun, Moon and Earth
are aligned in the same line, the collective gravitation pull of the sun and moon on earth's water
strengthens to form a high tide known as spring tide.
 On beaches this can be seen when the water comes further up the shore than it usually does
 The Spring tides are called Proxigean spring ocean tides

 Are rare and unusually high spring tides which occur when the moon is both unusually close to the
earth and the new moon phase
 Spring tides occur twice a month
Neap Ocean Tides

 Neap tides occur when the gravitational forces of the moon and the sun are perpendicular to
one another (with respect to the earth)
 Neap tides occur during quarter moons (ie,.. takes place after the first and third quarters of the
moon). At this time, the sun and the moon are pulling at right angles to each other causing their
gravitational forces to cancel each other.

 This means that on a neap tide, the water doesn't rise or fall to its usual height. A high tide will
be less high and a low tide will be less low, decreasing the difference between them.(ie,.. They
are weaker tides)
See the graph showing spring and neap tide
Advantage of tides
 During high tides the water level in the harbor rises, This enable bigger ships to move into harbor
and unloaded
 High tides help in fishing. More fish come closer to the shore during the high tide. This enables the
fishermen to get plentiful catch
 The high tides clear the sea shore from garbage, etc
 High tides are used for generating tidal electricity
1. Why does the Moon change its shape daily?
ANS; since moon doesn't emit (give off) light itself, then the 'moonlight' we see is actually the
sun's light reflected off the lunar surface. So, as the Moon orbits the Earth, the Sun lights up
different parts of it, making it seem as if the moon is changing shape.
2. Explain why we see the same side of the moon
ANS; We always see the same side of the moon because the period of rotation of the moon on its
axis is equal to the period of its revolution around the earth, so we only see the side that faces us
and this side faces at us all the time.
3. What is tide?
4. Explain how tides are formed
5. Differentiate between neap and strong tide
1. What is solar system?
2. How many known planets are there in our solar system? Name them.
3. Briefly explain how astronomy gave rise to the 12 months of the year
4. Why is Pluto not a planet as it used to be?
5. (a) Which one is the largest planet in our solar system? (ANS: Jupiter)
(b)Which planets in the solar system have satellites?
6. What is a milk way
7. What are the real names of objects in the sky which are commonly known by the following
names?
(i) An evening star (ii) A morning star (iii) A shooting star
8. Can humans breathe normally in space as they can on Earth? (Give reason)
9. Why Venus is hotter than Mercury, although Mercury is very closer to the Sun than Venus?
10. State reasons why an astronaut in space
(i) Needs a special space suit to prevent blood from boiling
(ii) Can float without falling
(iii) Uses small jets of gas in his maneuvers(movements) instead of swimming like fish in water
11. What planet is famous for its big red spot on it
12. What planet is famous for the beautiful rings that surround it?
13. Differentiate between spring and neap tides
14. The distance of Jupiter from the sun is 7.80 x 10 8 km and one year of Jupiter is equivalent to 12
earth years. Calculate the
(i) The distance of its path in one year (ANS: d = 4.903 x 109 km)
(ii) Speed of the planet in km per hour (ANS: v = 46.6 x 103 km/hr)
15. (a) How a star differs from a planet
(i) Name two objects in space which are the earth’s nearest neighbors
(ii) What planet is known as the red planet?
(iii) What is the hottest planet in our solar system?
(iv) What is the name of the force holding us to the earth?
16. What is the name of Saturn’s largest moon? (ANS: Titan)
17. How do the planets stay in orbit around the sun?
18. Who was the first person to walk on the moon? (ANS: Neil Armstrong - 1969)
19. Olympus Mons is large volcanic mountain on which planet? (ANS: Mars)
20. The earth appears to be stationary, but it is always in motion. Calculate the unnoticed speed of a
man along the equator in km/h due to:
(a) Rotational motion of the earth about its axis
(b) Revolution of the earth around the sun (Take 1 year = 365 days)
21. Define star and give the name of the one closest to the earth
22. Mercury planet is 58 x 106 km from the sun and it takes 88 days to complete one orbit around the
sun .Calculate the speed of the planet in km/hr to 3 significant figures. (ANS: 1.73 x 105 km/hr)
23. (a) Name two largest planets in the solar system
(b) Name two brightest planets in the solar system
24. State the following terms (a) Heliocentric theory (b) Geocentric theory
25. A communication satellite appears to be stationary over one point on the earth’s surface when it is
moving in a circular orbit of radius 42,000 km. Find its speed in km/hr given that it must complete
one orbit in 24 hours (v = 11 x 103 m/s)

Chapter – 7: Geophysics
Geophysics: Is a branch of science which deals with the composition, properties and behaviors of the
earth
Interior Structure of the Earth
The Interior earth structure is divided into three zones namely; Core, Mantle and Crust (see the figure
below)
Earth's Crust
 The crust is the outer solid layer of the earth.
 The earth’s crust ranges from 5 km – 70 km
 It is divided into two layers namely continental crust and oceanic crust
Continental Crust (under the land)

 Continental crust is thick (25 km – 70 km) and light because it is made of rocks with a low
density (about 2 – 2.8 tones per cubic meter).
 It is composed mainly by granites and sedimentary rocks.
 Land mass and mountains are located at continental crust.
Oceanic Crust (under the sea)
 Oceanic crust is basaltic with high density (about 3 – 3.1 tonnes per cubic metre).
 It is thin ( 6 – 11km) and heavy because it is made of rocks (volcanic rocks) that have a high
density
 It covers two third (2/3) of the earth’s surface
NB:
 The low density of the thick continental crust allows it to "float" in high relief on the much higher
density mantle below
 Mohorovicic discontinuity(Moho) is the boundary that separates the crust and mantle

Earth's Mantle
 Earth's Mantle is starting from Moho and extends to a depth of 2900km below the earth surface
up to its boundary with the earth’s core.
 Gutenberg Discontinuity is the boundary between the mantle and the core
N B:
 Mantle contains about 70% of the earth’s mass
 It is made by plastic rocks (both in solid and molten state)
 Upper part of mantle has a temperature of about 870 0C
 Lower part of mantle has a temperature of about 22000C
 The lower limit of brittle behavior is the boundary between the upper and lower mantle
 This steady increase of temperature with depth is known as the geothermal gradient
 The heat energy is the source of force that causes continental movement like volcanism and
earthquakes
Earth's Core
 Earth's Core is the innermost part of the earth.
 It extends from Gutenberg discontinuity to earth’s geometric center.
 It consists of two distinct regions which are the outer core and the inner core
Outer Core
 The outer core is the second largest layer and composed of liquid of molten nickel and iron
known as magma. It is about 2200 km thick
 The magma surrounds the inner core and creates the earth’s magnetic field
The inner Core

 The inner core is the hottest part of the earth. Its surface temperature is estimated to be
approximately 5700 K(54300 C) which is as hot as the surface of the sun
 It is made of solid iron and nickel that are under so much pressure they cannot melt
 It is 1200 km thick (radius) and heavy radioactive elements within the core generate the intense
heat as they decay
 Inner core is a solid even though its temperature is higher than the outer core. This is because
it is composed of very dense materials – like iron and nickel alloys. The materials are
solid due to the high pressure at the depth of more than 5000 km below the earth’s
surface.
Tectonic Plates
 Tectonic plates are the huge pieces of cracked earth’s crust and mantle parts which float over
semi-molten rock.
 Also is called lithospheric plate. Tectonic plates are in slow motion.This movement means
continents are moving apart and toward each other. This process in which continents move is
called continental drift.
Boundary
 Boundary is the line where two tectonic plates meet
Types of Boundary
 Destructive/ converging boundary
 Constructive/diverging boundary
 Conservative boundary
Destructive (Convergent) Boundary

 When two plates come together, it is known as a convergent boundary. The impact of the
colliding plates can cause the edges of one or both plates to buckle up into a mountain ranges or
one of the plates may bend down into a deep seafloor trench. A chain of volcanoes often forms
parallel to convergent plate boundaries and powerful earthquakes are common along these
boundaries. The Pacific Ring of Fire is an example of a convergent plate boundary.
 At convergent plate boundaries, oceanic crust is often forced down into the mantle where it begins
to melt. Magma rises into and through the other plate, solidifying into granite, the rock that makes
up the continents. Thus, at convergent boundaries, continental crust is created and oceanic crust is
destroyed.
Constructive (Divergent) Boundary

 Constructive (or divergent) boundaries occur when two plates are moving away from each other.
At these boundaries, new crust is generated as magma rises to the surface and solidifies. This is
how oceanic crust is formed at mid-ocean ridges. As the plates move apart, magma rises to fill the

gap and solidifies to form new oceanic crust. This process can also lead to the formation of rift
valleys and underwater mountain ranges.
 The Mid-Atlantic Ridge is an example of divergent plate boundaries.
Conservative (Transform) Boundary

 Is the kind of boundary in which two plates slide moving each other in opposite or the same
direction
 The tectonic plates do not move past each other smoothly. There will be a buildup of friction until
they suddenly move causing earthquakes. This process is known as strike-slip faulting
 Transform boundaries, such as the San Andreas Fault in California, are examples of conservative
plate boundaries. These boundaries are also referred to as "conservative" because the plates
themselves are not destroyed, but instead move along the boundary.
Volcanoes
 Volcanoes are places where molten rock called magma leaks out through a hole or a crack in the
earth’s crust
Causes of Volcanoes
 Volcanoes are caused by movement of molten rock and heat energy inside the earth. These
movements are called subterranean movements
 Most volcanoes form along constructive and destructive boundaries and few form far from plate
boundaries
 Magma that reached the earth’s surface is called lava
Volcanoes at destructive boundaries

 When ocean plate plunges under another plate, the ocean plate rubs against the plate above it and
gets hot. Rock melts resulting magma under the upper plate. Magma forces away through weak
points in the crust
Volcanoes at Constructive boundaries
 At the mid-oceanic ridges, two tectonic plates diverge from one another. For example, the Mid-
Atlantic Ridge, has examples of volcanoes caused by divergent tectonic plates pulling apart
Volcanoes at far from Plate Boundaries

 This eruption occurs when mantle is hotter than normal. The magma formed is forced toward
earth’s surface. For Example, Nyamalagira volcano located at Congo. This kind of volcanoes are
called Hot-sport volcanoes
Types of Volcanoes
 Fissure volcanoes
 Central volcanoes
Fissure Volcanoes
 Fissure volcanoes are kinds of volcanoes which occur along cracks in and between tectonic plates.
Central Volcanoes
 Central volcanoes are a single vertical main vent through which magma reaches the earth’s
surface.
 It is a cone shaped, builds up from successive layers of lava and ash
 The process by which magma is forced from interior of the earth through a vent in the earth crust is
called Vulcanicity
Classification of Volcanoes
Active Volcanoes
 Active volcanoes are those that erupt regularly in recent times.
 Example, Mt. Nyiragongo–Congo, Santa Maria–Guatemala and Ol Doinyo Lengai–Tz
Dormant Volcanoes
 Are those that have erupted in historical times but are now quiet but can erupt again
 Example, Mt. Kilimanjaro in Tanzania and Mt. Fuji in Japan
Extinct Volcanoes
 Are those which have not erupted in human history, probably never erupt again
 Example Mt. Thielsen in Oregon in the US
Effects of Volcanoes
Negative effects of volcanoes
 Destruction property and loss of human life : Eruptions occurring close to human settlements
may spill and destroy lives and property
 Environmental Pollution : Ash discharged very high into the stratosphere can have negative
consequences on the ozone layer
 Lahars: Ash and mud can mix with rain and melting snow, forming lahars. Lahars are mudflows
flowing at very fast pace
 Acidic rain: Gas emissions from volcanoes are a natural contributor to acidic rain
 Accident: Ash thrown into the air by eruptions can present a hazard to aircraft, especially jet
aircraft where the particles can be melted by the high operating temperature.
Positive effects of volcanoes

o Landscape formation: Volcanoes lead to formation of mountains ,islands , plateaus and valley
o Tourism: Provide extraordinary scenery, so beautiful and natural that they attract tourists to the
area, bringing in some economic value.
o Geothermal energy: Places close to volcanic activities tend to have higher potential for
geothermal energy, which can be an advantage to the towns and cities
o Soil: Ash and lava breakdown become soil that are rich in nutrients, and become good areas for
crop planting activities
o Mineral: it brings valuable mineral to the earth’s surface

1. Explain how volcano takes place
2. What is the difference between magma and lava?
3. Give one example each of an active volcano and a dormant volcano.
4. Give one example each of an active volcano and a dormant volcano.
5. What is the difference between dormant volcano and an extinct volcano?
6. Describe the two causes of volcanic eruptions.
ANS; The two causes of volcanic eruptions are-
(i) Heat and Pressure inside the Earth
Temperature and pressure both increase from the surface towards the centre of the earth. Rocks
are bad conductors of heat. So the earth’s heat does not escape on its own. Instead it melts the
rocks and builds up great pressure. The pressure forces the heat to find an escape route through
fissures and cracks in the rocks
(ii) Plate Tectonics
Most volcanic eruptions take place near plate margins. When these plates slide past each other or
collide against each other due to intense heat inside the earth's core, their edges produce faults
along the lines of weakness. It is along these plate boundaries that the crust is weakened and
through which the hot magma gushes out leading to volcanic eruptions.
7. Describe the two types of volcanoes, giving an example of each type.
8. Give a geographical reason for each of the following:
(i) Many volcanoes are found along plate boundaries.
(ii) Volcanic mountains are the most diverse mountains in the world.
(iii) Hot springs have medicinal properties to cure skin diseases.
ANS;
(i) Many volcanoes are found along plate boundaries because when tectonic plates slide past
each other or collide against each other due to intense heat inside the earth's core, their
edges produce faults along the lines of weakness. It is along these plate boundaries that the
crust is weakened and through which the hot magma gushes out leading to volcanic
eruptions.
(ii) Volcanic mountains are the most diverse mountains in the world because there are great
differences in volcanic eruptions as well as materials they throw up.
(iii) Hot springs have medicinal properties to cure skin diseases since they are a rich source of
sulphur.
9. Write any three destructive effects of volcanoes.
10. Suppose you are living in an area known for volcanic eruptions. One day, when you were sitting in
your balcony, you suddenly noticed a volcano erupting at a distance. State what happened
thereafter.
ANS;
One day, when I was sitting in my balcony, I suddenly noticed a volcano erupting at a distance. It
was a horrifying sight.
 I saw a plume of ash rising from the volcano. It was a thick, dark cloud that blocked out the
sun.
 Bright orange lava sprouted out of the volcano and started flowing down the side of the
volcano.
 There were also explosions of ash and rock from the volcano, which created a loud booming
sound and sent debris flying through the air.
Earthquakes
 Earthquakes are the rumblings, shaking or rolling of the earth's surface.
 The study of earthquakes and seismic waves that move through and around the earth is known
as “Seismology”
 Scientist who studies earthquakes and seismic waves is called seismologist
Causes of Earthquakes
 Movements of tectonic plates
 Volcanic eruptions
How earthquake occur?

 Earthquakes are usually caused when rock underground suddenly breaks along a fault. This
sudden release of energy causes the seismic waves that make the ground shake.
 When two blocks of rock (plates) are rubbing against each other, they stick a little , after a while
the rocks break ,and the earthquake occurs
NB:
Hypocenter(Focus) is the point within the earth where an earthquake originates
Wave energy released by earthquakes is called seismic waves
Epicenter Is the point on the earth’s surface directly above where an earthquake occurs and
spread
Seismology
 Is the study of earthquakes and seismic waves that move through and around the Earth.
 A seismologist is a scientist who studies earthquakes and seismic waves.
Seismic Waves
 Are mechanical waves through which earthquake energy is transmitted and released
OR
 Is the energy released by earthquakes from hypocenter

Causes of Seismic Waves
 Seismic waves are caused by the sudden movement of materials within the Earth, such as
slip along a fault during an earthquake. Volcanic eruptions, explosions, landslides, avalanches,
and even rushing rivers can also cause seismic waves.
 Seismic waves travel through and around the Earth and can be recorded with seismometers.
Types of Seismic Waves

There are two main types of seismic waves namely:-
 Body waves: Are the waves which can travel through the earth’s inner layers
 Surface waves: Are the waves which can only move along the surface of the planet like ripples
on water
Types of body waves
 There are two types of body waves namely, P-waves (Primary waves) and S-waves
(Secondary waves).
 Earthquakes release these waves and they are used to study the internal structure of the Earth
because they travel through the Earth at different speeds and are affected by different materials in
the Earth.
Primary Waves (P waves)
 P-waves are faster. They travel at about 6 to 7 kilometers (about 4 miles) per second. Primary
waves are so named because they are the first waves to reach a seismometer (or to reach the
surface)
 Its motion is the same as that of a sound wave in that, as it spreads out, it alternately pushes
(compresses) and pulls (dilates) the rock. These P waves are felt as a sudden jolt (ie,.. P-waves
squeeze and release rocks as they travel. The material returns to its original size and shape after
the P-wave goes by. For this reason, P-waves are not the most damaging earthquake waves)
 It travels through the Earth's core and through both solid rock, such as Granite Mountains, and
liquid material, such as volcanic magma and the water of the oceans.
Secondary waves (S waves)
 Are seismic waves produced after primary waves and which are felt as a series of side to side
tremors

 When S wave propagates, it shears the rock sideways at right angles to the direction of travel. If
a liquid is sheared sideways or twisted, it will not spring back; hence S waves cannot propagate
in the liquid parts of the earth, such as oceans and lakes.
 S – Waves are slower than P-waves. They are the second waves to reach a seismometer. S-
waves move up and down. They change the rock’s shape as they travel. S-waves are about half
as fast as P-waves, at about 3.5 km (2 miles) per second. S-waves can only move through solids.
This is because liquids and gases don’t resist changing shape.
Difference between S Waves and P Waves
P – Wave S – Wave
The first wave to hit seismographs The second wave to hit seismographs
They are compression waves (longitudinal waves) They are shear waves (transverse waves)
Can move through solids and liquids and gases Can only move through solids
Shake the medium in the direction in which they Shake the medium in the direction perpendicular
are propagating to which they are moving
Surface Waves
 Surface waves travel along the ground outward from an earthquake’s epicenter. Surface waves
are the slowest of all seismic waves. They travel at 2.5 km (1.5 miles) per second.
 There are two types of surface waves which are Love waves that move side-to-side, much
like a snake and Rayleigh waves that produce a rolling motion as they move up and
backward.
 Surface waves cause objects to fall and rise. They also cause objects to sway back and forth.
These motions cause damage to rigid structures during an earthquake.
Love Waves
 Are the waves that travel by a transverse motion of particles that is parallel to the ground
surface
 They make the ground shifting from one side to another
 The surface waves do damage to surface structure such as buildings and hydroelectric power
plants
 Love waves generally travel faster than Rayleigh waves

Rayleigh
 Rayleigh are seismic surface waves which create a rolling movement and makes the ground to
move up and down
NB:
 Surface waves travel more slowly than body waves (P and S)
 Love waves (do not propagate through water) can affect surface water only insofar as the sides of
lakes and ocean bays pushing water sideways like the sides of a vibrating tank
 Rayleigh waves propagates through water due to vertical components of their motion
Earthquake Scales
 The nature of an earthquakes described in terms of their magnitude and intensity
Earthquakes Magnitude
 The magnitude of an earthquake Is a measure of the energy it releases.
 It is usually measured on the Richter scale.
 The Richter scale is based on the amplitude of the largest seismic wave recorded for an
earthquake, no matter what type of wave was the strongest
 The Richter scale magnitudes are based on a logarithmic scale (base 10)
 The scale has no upper limit
 The small magnitude expressed in negative numbers while large magnitude expressed in
positive numbers
Earthquakes Intensity
 The intensity of an earthquake Is a measure of its strength based on the changes it causes
to the landscape.
 The intensity of an earthquake is usually measured on the Modified Mercalli scale. The scale
is calibrated from 1 to 12. On this scale, level 1 is a minor tremor that CAUSES NO DAMAGE
whereas level 12 causes TOTAL DEVASTATION.
 Earthquake can only have one magnitude but, its intensity reduces as the seismic waves
spread out from the Hypocenter
NB;
 Richter scale is an instrument that is used to measure the absolute intensity of an earthquake
with mathematical precision. It measures the power of an earthquake on a scale of 1 to 9.
 The intensity of an earthquake is measured by using instruments like Richter scale and
Mercalli scale.
Seismograph
 Is an instrument used to record ground movements caused by earthquakes.
 The seismograph records both the magnitude and the intensity of the earthquake.

Types of Seismograph
o Simple pendulum Seismograph
o Inverted pendulum: Seismograph
Recording the Pendulum Motion

 The recording of the motion of the pendulum can be done through Optical, mechanical or electronic
methods
Devastating Effects of Earthquakes

Damage to buildings
 High magnitude earthquakes can lead to a complete collapse of buildings.
 Debris from collapsing buildings is the main danger in the course of an earthquake because the
falling effects of huge, heavy objects can be deadly to humans.
 High magnitude earthquakes result in the shattering of mirrors and windows, which also present
danger to humans.
Fires outbreak
 Fires, often associated with broken electrical and gas lines, is one of the common side effects of
earthquakes. Earthquake fires start when electrical and gas lines are dislodged due to the earth’s
shaking.
 Gas is set free as gas lines are broken and a spark will start a firestorm. To complicate things
water lines are broken and so there is no water to extinguish the fire.
 Example; the San Francisco earthquake of 1906 caused 90% of damage by fire.
Damage to infrastructure
 Earthquakes can cause electricity lines to fall. This is dangerous because the exposed live wires
can electrocute humans or start fires. Major earthquakes can cause rupturing of roads, gas lines,
and water pipelines.
 Broken gas lines can cause gas to escape. Escaping gas can result in explosions and fires, which
may be difficult to contain.
Landslides and rockslides

 When an earthquake occurs, large rocks and sections of earth located uphill can be dislodged,
consequently, rolling rapidly down into the valleys.
 Landslides and rockslides can cause destruction and death to the people living downstream.
Can result in floods

 High magnitude earthquakes can instigate cracking of dam walls, collapsing in the long run. This
would send raging waters into nearby areas leading to massive flooding.
Earthquakes can trigger tsunamis

 A tsunami is a series of long high sea tremors sparked by an earthquake or volcanic eruptions
under the sea. A tsunami can wipe out an entire surrounding coastal area population.
 A typical example is the March 11, 2011, earthquake and tsunami that struck the coast of Japan
leaving more than 18,000 people dead in its wake.
Leads to liquefaction
 Liquefaction is a phenomenon where the soil becomes saturated and loses its strength. When
sediments consisting of high water content are subjected to constant trembling, water pressure
held in the sediment pores slowly increases.
 Ultimately, the sediments lose almost all cohesive strength and start acting like liquids. Buildings
and other structures built on top of this liquefied soil overturn or sink into the ground.
 Earthquakes are responsible for most of the liquefaction occurring across the world. A typical
example of the liquefaction phenomenon is the earthquake of 1692 in Jamaica that resulted in the
devastation of the town of Port Royal.
Backward rivers:
 Tilting ground can also make rivers change their course. This can result in the creation of
earthquake lakes that cover huge tracts of previously settled land
Loss of Life:
 People in areas where an earthquake has stricken may get buried under buildings and soil or get
hurt or even get killed when items fall on them
Earthquakes Impact on the Economy

 One of the negative effects of earthquakes is that they affect the economy.
 Earthquakes, like all-natural disasters, disrupt business operations, ruin assets, and injure or kill
people. All of these factors, when combined, invariably result in financial losses.
 During the twentieth century alone, more than 1200 global earthquakes cost more than $10 billion
in economic damage.
Positive effects of Earthquakes

Earthquakes form Natural Springs
 One of the positive effects of earthquakes is that they form natural springs. One of the most
significant effects of earthquakes is the formation of faults.
 The subsurface flow of water, oil, and natural gas are influenced by these faults. When there is an
earthquake, rocks are shifted. Underground fluid conduits are created or restructured as a result of
this displacement. As a result of fault movement, liquids can either percolate deeper into the
ground or resurface as springs.
Earthquakes form Mineral Resources

 Also they form mineral resources. Earthquakes have a beneficial effect on underground mineral
extraction. Mineral deposits frequently form underground as it is. When molten rocks (magma) cool
or minerals in underground water crystallize, they form.
 As faulting occurs, mineral deposits may clump together or become exposed. Mineral-rich fissures
known as veins are important sources of precious metals such as gold, silver, and platinum. As a
result, earthquakes make these mineral deposits relatively inexpensive to mine.
Earthquakes create Hills, Coastal Terraces and Mountain Ranges

 Moreover; they create terraces and mountain ranges. The natural landform that we observe today
was produced by earthquakes that occurred over millennia.
 During earthquakes, the ground is raised, broken, and faulted. These processes result in the
formation of hills, coastal terraces, and mountain ranges. Seismic activity, for example, can be
seen in the magnificent coastal terraces of Capo Vaticano in western Calabria, Italy.
Earthquake helps Monitor the inside of Earth

 Likewise; they help monitor the inside of the Earth. Earthquakes benefit us in terms of research
and comprehension. Seismic waves and faults can help us figure out what’s going on beneath the
surface. Tremors around volcanoes, for example, indicate that they are about to erupt.

 Similarly, we can map the Earth’s internal structure by measuring the time it takes seismic waves
to travel through it. Experts also look into areas on active faults that haven’t seen an earthquake in
a long time. Seismic gaps, as they are known, have the greatest potential for future large
earthquakes. As a result, more accurate forecasting and community planning are now possible.
Earthquake Warning Signs

 Thermal indicator:
Few months before the earthquake, the average temperature of particular area increasing. On the
day of the earthquake, the temperature of a place is about 5 to 9 degrees Celsius above the
average normal temperature for that day.
 Water indicator: About one or three days before an earthquake, there is
1. Sudden rise or fall in water levels in wells. The rise can be as high as one meter. The well
water may turn muddy
2. At times a fountain appears inside the well. Sometimes a fountain may appear in the
ground. This normally happens a few hours before the quake
3. There is also a sudden and rapid increase or decrease of water flow in the rivers. This
happens about one to two days before the quake
 Seismo electromagnetic indicator:
When temperature raises results geomagnetic field to reduce which affects the propagation of
electromagnetic waves (radio, television and telephone). This is a very reliable indicator. It is
usually recorded about 10 to 20 hours before the quake.
 Animal indicator: Between 10 and 20 hours before the occurrence of an earthquake, the entire
animal kingdom becomes highly disturbed and restless.
 Human indicator:
Sensitive patients in hospitals become highly disturbed before an earthquake. They exhibit a
sudden rise in blood pressure, heart trouble, headache, migraine and respiratory disorders. Indeed,
the number of outpatients in hospitals increases by five to seven times, some 10 to 20 hours before
the quake
Precaution taken during an earthquake

In most situations, you can protect yourself if you immediately:
 DROP down onto your hands and knees before the earthquake knocks you down. This position
protects you from falling but allows you to still move if necessary.
 COVER your head and neck (and your entire body if possible) underneath a sturdy table or desk.
If there is no shelter nearby, get down near an interior wall or next to low-lying furniture that won’t
fall on you, and cover your head and neck with your arms and hands.
 HOLD ON to your shelter (or to your head and neck) until the shaking stops. Be prepared to
move with your shelter if the shaking shifts it around. (i.e,.. see the figure below)

The following are precautions taken during the earthquake
 If you are indoors during an earthquake, drop, cover and hold on. Get under a desk, table or
bench. Hold on to one of the legs and cover your eyes. If there is no table or desk nearby, sit down
against an interior wall.
 Pick a safe place where things will not fall on you
 Wait in your safe place until the shaking stops, then check to see if you are hurt
 Move carefully and watch out for things that have fallen or broken, creating hazards. Be ready for
additional earthquakes called aftershocks
 Be on the lookout for fires. Fire is the most common earthquake-related hazard due to damaged
gas and electrical lines.
 If you’re outside, move away from buildings which can collapse. Stay in an open area where there
are no trees, buildings or power lines.
 If you’re driving when an earthquake strikes, pull over to a large open area that’s not under trees or
power lines. Set the parking brake. Stay in the vehicle.
 If you’re at school, work, or any shopping area don’t take the elevator. Take the stairs.
Similarities between earthquakes and volcanoes

 They are both caused by movement of molten rock and heat deep inside the earth
 They mostly occur near tectonic boundaries
Differences between volcanoes and earthquakes
Although there are similarities between volcanoes and earthquakes, there are also significant
differences which include the following.
 Volcanoes form at Earth’s surface whereas earthquakes originate from deeper within the crust.
 Volcanoes are also features of planetary surfaces whereas earthquakes are just events though
they are associated with certain features such as faults.
 Volcanoes are formed by release of gas and magma. Earthquakes are caused by movement along
a fault.
 Volcanoes lead to the formation of new rock whereas earthquakes simply cause waves which
disturb the rock.
 Volcanoes can produce significant debris through ashfalls, mudslides, and the formation of
features such as ignimbrites. Earthquakes typically will not directly produce significant debris, but
debris will result from the disturbances caused by the earthquake.
 It is possible to predict a volcanic eruption a few weeks to a few days in advance, though the exact
time of the eruption can’t be predicted with any accuracy. The likelihood of an earthquake can be
predicted, but it is not possible to determine any timeframe of when the earthquake will take place,
just how likely it is to happen at some point in the future.
1. What hazards are associated with earthquake?
2. Explain how an earthquake takes place?
ANS; An earthquake is caused by a sudden slip on a fault. The tectonic plates are always slowly
moving, but they get stuck at their edges due to friction. When the stress on the edge overcomes
the friction, there is an earthquake that releases energy in waves that travel through the earth's
crust and cause the shaking that we feel
3. Compare and contrast P – waves and S – waves
4. Describe the motions of surface waves.
5. Give a geographical reason for each of the following:
(i) Most earthquakes occur on account of plate movements.
(ii) Primary waves are the first earthquake waves to be recorded on a seismogram.
(iii) Volcanic activity and earthquakes occur in the same belt.
Answer
(i) Most earthquakes occur on account of plate movements because when two plates slip past
each other or collide against each other, their edges produce faults along the lines of
weakness.
(ii) Primary waves are the first earthquake waves to be recorded on a seismogram because they
travel at the greatest speed and can pass through solids, liquids and gases.
(iii) Volcanic activity and earthquakes occur in the same belt because earthquakes and volcanoes
are formed along faults between tectonic plates, where the crust is weakest.
6. Can an earthquake cause a volcanic eruption and vice versa? Explain
7. State two natural causes of an earthquake.
8. What are known as seismic Focus and Epicenter with respect to an earthquake?
9. The destructive effects of an earthquake are far more than its constructive effects. Give reasons
to support your answer.
10. How is the intensity of an earthquake measured?
11. How is the intensity of an earthquake measured?
12. Prevention is better than cure.' How does this statement apply to earthquakes? Give
reasons to support your answer.
13. Imagine you were sitting in the balcony of a seaside resort, when you suddenly noticed
waves rising high in the sky. Suddenly there was a surge in the height of the waves and
they turned into a tsunami. What could have caused this tsunami and what were its
consequences.
Structure and composition of the atmosphere

 Atmosphere refers to the layer of gases and dust that surrounds Earth and is held in place by
Earth’s gravitational attraction (gravity).
 In our case, the Earth’s atmosphere is divided into several layers and contains the gases
necessary for life to exist.
 In addition, our atmosphere absorbs ultraviolet radiation from the Sun, reduces the thermal
oscillation between day and night, and acts as an effective shield to deflect meteors and other
space debris.
 Its composition is based on 78% nitrogen, which is essential for plant life; 21% oxygen, which is
necessary for breathing; and the remaining 1% is made up of the other gases,
including neon, argon, methane, hydrogen, carbon dioxide and water vapour, which is
responsible for meteorological phenomena.
 The Earth's atmosphere contains several different layers that can be defined according to air
temperature or chemical composition.
 The diagram below displays some of these layers in an average atmosphere

 Therefore, from the figure above The atmosphere can be split into distinguishable layers, called
the Troposphere, the Stratosphere, the Mesosphere Thermosphere and Exosphere.
 These zones are identifiable because of their characteristics properties in relation to temperature
and pressure.
Troposphere Region
 Troposphere region is the region nearest to the earth.
 It extends to an altitude of up to 10 km above the poles and 20 km above the equator.
 This region is the densest part of the atmosphere. It contains 80% by mass of the atmosphere. It
contains most of the atmosphere’s water vapor
 The temperature in this region decreases with altitude at an average rate of 6°C/km. The reason
is that the troposphere's gases absorb very little of the incoming solar radiation. Instead,
the ground absorbs this radiation and then heats the tropospheric air by conduction and
convection.
 Air molecules can travel to the top of the troposphere and back down again in just a few days. This
mixing encourages changing weather
 Boundary separates the troposphere and the stratosphere is called the tropopause
 The tropopause is important to pilots for a number of reasons.
(i) First, it represents the upper limit of the troposphere, which is the layer of the Earth's
atmosphere where most weather occurs. Clouds and rain are formed within this region.
(ii) Pilots need to be aware of the location and height of the tropopause in order to avoid
dangerous weather conditions and turbulence.
(iii) Also, the tropopause is a stable layer of the atmosphere that can provide smooth flying
conditions for aircraft. (For example, school flights, as well as private flights in
general, always remain in the troposphere)
Stratosphere Region
 Stratosphere Is a region that starts from the tropopause and extends to about 50 km high.
 This layer is more stable, drier and less dense compared to the troposphere.
 The temperature in the stratosphere slowly increases with altitude
 Temperature increase due to the presence of the ozone layer (Ozonosphere) which absorbs
ultraviolet rays from the sun that would otherwise reach the earth’s surface. This radiation is
harmful to both animal and plant life on earth.
 The ozone layer lies in the middle of the stratosphere between 20 and 30 km. Ozone (O3) is a
triatomic form of oxygen.
 The stable air of the stratosphere also prevents large storms from extending much beyond the
tropopause
 Planes (commercial aircrafts) also fly in the lower stratosphere to avoid the turbulence which is
common in the troposphere. As stratosphere has a higher altitude, the air in this layer is dry and
few clouds are found which provides a smoother ride.
 Troposphere and stratosphere are collectively known as the lower atmosphere
 Boundary separates the stratosphere and the other layer is called stratopause
Mesosphere Region
 Mesosphere is region that starts just above the stratosphere and extends to 85 km high
 Temperature at this layer decreases with altitude. The lowest temperature of the atmosphere (-
90°C) occurs within this region
 Mesosphere is the layer in which most meteors burn while entering the earth’s atmosphere
 Boundary separates the mesosphere and the thermosphere is called mesopause
Thermosphere Region
 Thermosphere Is region that starts just above the mesosphere and extends up to 690 km high
 Temperature increases with increase in altitude due to the sun’s heat
 The temperature in this region can go as high as 1, 727°C
 Chemical reactions occur much faster here than on the surface of the earth.
 This layer is also known as the upper atmosphere
 The lower part of the thermosphere, from 80 to 550 km above the earth’s surface, called
ionosphere
 This region containing a high concentration of charged particles called ions and free electrons
 The large number of free electrons in the ionosphere allow the propagation of electromagnetic
waves
 Ionosphere also absorbs dangerous radiation. The radiation absorbed in the ionosphere includes
hard and soft X-rays and extreme ultraviolet (EUV) radiation.
Importance of Ionosphere
 The ionosphere plays an important role in communications. Radio waves can be reflected off
the ionosphere allowing radio communications over long distances
Exosphere Region
 Exosphere region is the outermost region of the atmosphere
 Atmospheric gas pressure is very low. Light atoms such as hydrogen and helium may acquire
sufficient energy to escape the earth’s gravitational pull
 The upper part of the exosphere is called magnetosphere. The motion of ions in this region is
strongly constrained by the presence of the earth’s magnetic field
 It is the region where satellites orbit the earth
 It extends from the top of the thermosphere up to 10,000 km.
Importance of the Atmosphere
 The troposphere controls the climate and ultimately determines the quality of life on the earth
 The troposphere is important for life on the earth. The layer contains gases which include
o Oxygen which is used for respiration by animals
o Carbon dioxide which is used by plants in photosynthesis
o Nitrogen found in this layer also provides an inactive environment for many chemical
processes to take place
o Gases also support many important chemical processes such as combustion, weathering
and oxidation
 The stratosphere prevents harmful ultraviolet radiation from reaching the earth
 The mesosphere, thermosphere and exosphere also prevent harmful radiation such as cosmic rays
from reaching the earth’s surface
 Communication is also made possible by some layers of the atmosphere, specifically the
ionosphere
1. Explain by giving reason why stratosphere is better for planes flying than troposphere?
2. Why do pilots prefer to travel in the stratosphere rather than in the troposphere?
3. Why it is important for a captain of an aircraft to know the height of the troposphere?
4. What would be the effect of Ozone Layer depletion?
5. List the natural causes of Ozone Layer depletion.
ANS; The natural causes of ozone layer depletion are volcanic eruptions and solar flares.
6. Briefly explain the importance of the stratosphere to living things on the Earth’s surface
7. Mention any two functions of the atmosphere.
Answer
Two functions of the atmosphere are-
 It protects the Earth from the harmful ultraviolet and infrared rays of the Sun.
 It helps in retaining the necessary warmth on the Earth.
8. Briefly explain the importance of the large number of free electrons in the Ionosphere
9. Give a reason for each of the following:
(i) We find it difficult to breathe when we climb mountains.
(ii) The atmosphere is the most dynamic entity.
(iii) All the weather phenomena take place in the troposphere.
Answer
(i) We find it difficult to breathe when we climb mountains because the layers of atmosphere
become thinner at high altitudes. This means that there is less pressure to push the air into
the lungs and a lower percentage of Oxygen in the air. This makes it harder to breath.
(ii) The atmosphere is the most dynamic entity because of its composition. Large masses of air
are being moved up and down and across the surface of the Earth.
(iii) The troposphere is characterised by regular decrease in temperature with altitude. This
decrease in temperature is known as normal lapse rate. The average decrease is 1°C for
every 166 metre altitude gain. This temperature variation is responsible for many turbulences
which result in all weather phenomena taking place in the troposphere.
10. Describe the structure of the atmosphere
11. Explain the factors responsible for depletion of Ozone in atmosphere.
Greenhouse Effect
 Greenhouse effect – Is the process in which the emission of radiation by the atmosphere warms
the earth’s surface
OR
 Greenhouse effect –Is the process that occurs when gases in Earth’s atmosphere trap thermal
radiation that is emitted from the Earth’s surface and re – radiates it back to the Earth’s surface
How Greenhouse effect occurs

 When a planet’s surface is heated by sunlight it emits radiation which is absorbed by the
greenhouse gases in the atmosphere. The atmosphere reflects back thermal radiation in all
directions to the earth’s surface. Over time, this increases the planet’s temperature due to
presence of greenhouse gases
Sources of Greenhouse Effect
Earth’s greenhouse gases trap heat in the atmosphere and warm the planet. The main gases
responsible for the greenhouse effect include
 Water vapor
 Ozone layer
 Carbon dioxide
 Methane
 Chlorofluorocarbons
 Nitrous Oxide (Dinitrogen Oxide)
Carbon Dioxide (CO2)
 Carbon dioxide is the main greenhouse gas. The gas contributes over 50% of the greenhouse
effect.
The following are some of the sources of carbon dioxide
o Clearing and burning of vegetation (deforestation)
o Burning of fossil fuels (coal, oil and natural gas)
Methane (CH4)
 Is one of the trace gases in the atmosphere that is considered to play a major role in the
greenhouse effect
 The main source of methane is;
(i) Agricultural activities. It is released from wetlands, such as rice fields and from animals,
particularly cud-chewing animals like cows.
(ii) Mining of coal and oil (Fossil methane emission during the exploration and transport of
fossil fuels)
(iii) Biomass burning (Forest fires, charcoal combustion and firewood burning)
(iv) Anaerobic decomposition of organic waste in landfills
Note: Methane molecules have a lifetime of 10 years in the atmosphere
Nitrous Oxide (Dinitrogen Oxide – N2O)
 Is the third most important GHG for the enhanced greenhouse effect after CO2 and CH4
 Nitrous oxide is produced from both natural and human-made processes.
Human activities includes
 Combustion of fossil fuels in vehicles and power stations
 Use of nitrogenous fertilizers
 Burning of vegetation
 Animal waste.

Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs)
 Chlorofluorocarbons are organic compounds made up of chlorine, fluorine and carbon.
 The sources of CFCs in the atmosphere include fridges, air conditioners, sprays and aerosols
 CFCs are extremely effective greenhouse gases. A CFC molecule is 10 000 times more effective
in trapping heat than a carbon dioxide molecule
Global Warming
 Global warming is the increase of the average temperatures near or on the earth’s surface
caused by greenhouse gases
 OR; Global warming is the increase in temperature near or on the surface of the earth resulting
into greenhouse effect
Causes of global warming
 Global warming is mainly caused by greenhouse gases
Man-made Causes of Global Warming
 Deforestation. Plants are the main source of oxygen. They take in carbon dioxide and release
oxygen thereby maintaining environmental balance. Forests are being depleted for many
domestic and commercial purposes. This has led to an environmental imbalance, thereby giving
rise to global warming.
 Use of Vehicles. The use of vehicles, even for a very short distance results in various gaseous
emissions. Vehicles burn fossil fuels which emit a large amount of carbon dioxide and other
toxins into the atmosphere resulting in a temperature increase.
 Chlorofluorocarbon. With the excessive use of air conditioners and refrigerators, humans have
been adding CFCs into the environment which affects the atmospheric ozone layer. The ozone
layer protects the earth surface from the harmful ultraviolet rays emitted by the sun. The CFCs
have led to ozone layer depletion making way for the ultraviolet rays, thereby increasing the
temperature of the earth.
 Industrial Development. With the advent of industrialization, the temperature of the earth has
been increasing rapidly. The harmful emissions from the factories add to the increasing
temperature of the earth. In 2013, the Intergovernmental Panel for Climate Change reported that
the increase in the global temperature between 1880 and 2012 has been 0.9 degrees Celsius.
The increase is 1.1 degrees Celsius when compared to the pre-industrial mean temperature.
 Agriculture. Various farming activities produce carbon dioxide and methane gas. These add to
the greenhouse gases in the atmosphere and increase the temperature of the earth.
 Overpopulation. An increase in population means more people breathing. This leads to an
increase in the level of carbon dioxide, the primary gas causing global warming, in the
atmosphere.
Natural Causes of Global Warming
 Volcanoes. Volcanoes are one of the largest natural contributors to global warming. The ash
and smoke emitted during volcanic eruptions goes out into the atmosphere and affects the
climate.
 Water Vapour. Water vapour is a kind of greenhouse gas. Due to the increase in the earth’s
temperature, more water gets evaporated from the water bodies and stays in the atmosphere
adding to global warming.
 Melting Permafrost. Permafrost is frozen soil that has environmental gases trapped in it for
several years and is present below Earth’s surface. It is present in glaciers. As the permafrost
melts, it releases the gases back into the atmosphere, increasing Earth’s temperature.

 Forest Blazes. Forest blazes or forest fires emit a large amount of carbon-containing smoke.
These gases are released into the atmosphere and increase the earth’s temperature resulting in
global warming.
How Global warming occurs?
 A Global warming occurs when green house gases collect in the atmosphere and absorb sunlight
and solar radiation that have bounced off the earth’s surface
 Normally this radiation would escape into space – but these pollutants in the atmosphere , trap
the heat and cause the planet to get hotter (Greenhouse effect)
Effects of Global Warming
 Global warming has led to an incredible increase in earth’s temperature. Since 1880, the
earth’s temperature has increased by ~1degrees. This has resulted in an increase in the melting of
glaciers, which have led to an increase in the sea level. This could have devastating effects on
coastal regions.
 Climate Change. Global warming has led to a change in climatic conditions. There are droughts at
some places and floods at some. This climatic imbalance is the result of global warming.
 Destroying of agriculture and fisheries. This is due to forests, farms and cities will face
troublesome new pests, heat waves, heavy downpours and increased flooding.
 Melting glaciers, snowmelt and severe droughts will cause more dramatic water shortages and
increase the risk of wildfires
 Loss of Natural Habitat. A global shift in the climate leads to the loss of habitats of several plants
and animals. In this case, the animals need to migrate from their natural habitat and many of them
even become extinct. This is yet another major impact of global warming on biodiversity.
 Diseases outbreaks. Asthma, allergies and other infectious diseases will become more common
due to increased growth of pollen – producing ragweed, higher levels of air pollution and the
spread of conditions favorable to pathogens and mosquitoes
 High Mortality Rates. Due to an increase in floods, tsunamis and other natural calamities, the
average death toll usually increases. Also, such events can bring about the spread of diseases that
can hamper human life.
Solutions to minimize Global warming
 Reduce the use of fossil fuels by using public transport which will minimize the number of vehicles
in the roads
 Use of fuel-efficient cars
 Use of renewable sources of energy such as solar and wind.
 Afforestation. Replant trees that would absorb carbon dioxide
 Countries to make a policy of minimizing the emission of greenhouse gases. Example, Kyoto
protocol

1. Explain how global warming occur
2. State two effects of ozone depletion.
(i) Harmful ultra-violet rays will reach the earth and cause damage.
(ii) Humans, animals and plants will be adversely affected by the harmful effects of ultra violet
radiations.
3. Explain at least three effects of global warming
4. Explain at least three measures that can be taken to control global warming
5. How can planting trees reduce the amount of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere

6. What do CFCs stand for? What is the role of CFC in global warming?
ANS;
CFCs stand for chlorofluorocarbons. Ozone layer is responsible for protecting the surface of the
earth from the sun’s harmful radiations. CFCs destroy the ozone layer of the atmosphere. This
makes the way for the ultraviolet rays to reach the earth, thus, increasing the temperature which
leads to global warming.
7. How does global warming affect climate change?
ANS;
The change in climatic conditions is a result of global warming. The burning of fossil fuels, cutting
down of trees etc. causes the temperature of the earth to increase. High temperature changes the
weather patterns, causing the dry areas to get drier and wet areas to get wetter. Thus, increasing
the frequency of disasters like floods, droughts etc.
8. How can we control global warming?
ANS;
The release of carbon dioxide and other greenhouse gases into the atmosphere is the major cause
of global warming. It can be reduced by setting a high price of carbon, increasing the biofuels
production from organic waste, use of renewable energy like solar and wind power, safeguarding
forests and improving energy efficiency and vehicle fuel economy.
9. Explain why radiation originating from the Earth is termed as long wave radiation
1. (a) Define the term earthquake

(b) Briefly explain the meaning of the following terms as used on earthquake
(i) Hypocenter (ii) Epicenter
2. (i)What is global warming?
(ii)Name four gases that contribute to global warming and give one source of each
3. (i) Mention two merits and two demerits of volcanoes
(ii) Briefly explain two hazards associated with earth quakes
4. Explain how convection currents in the mantle lead to plate movement.
ANS;
 Convection currents are caused by the movement of hot and cold materials within the
Earth's mantle. These currents can be thought of as a type of "conveyor belt" that
transports heat from the interior of the Earth to the surface. As the hot material rises, it
cools and becomes denser, causing it to sink back down towards the interior.
 This constant circulation of hot and cold material creates a driving force that can push the
Earth's tectonic plates. In turn, this movement of the plates leads to the creation of
earthquakes, volcanoes, and mountain ranges.
5. What is meant by the following terms as used in geophysics
(i) Magma (ii)Tsunami

REFERENCES
 Cambridge IGCSE, Physics Second Edition

 Cambridge IGCSE, Physics Third Edition
 Edexcel International GCSE (9-1), Physics Student Book
 Mastering Physics 1st Edition, H.J.P.Keighley, F.R McKIM, A.Clarck, M.J.Harrison
 National Examinations Council of Tanzania (NECTA),Past papers:1992 - 2020
 Physics for CSEE Volume – 4, Geofrey M Idebe (2022)
 Physics for Cambridge IGCSE Revision Guide
 Physics form 4 Students’ Book (Tanzania Institute of Education)
 Principles of Physics
 Physics for Zanzibar Secondary Schools Book 4 (Oxford, University Press)
 Ordinary Level Physics: (A.F Abbott)
 Selina Concise Physics, I.C.S.E Part I for Class IX
 Selina Concise Physics, I.C.S.E Part II for Class X
 Work out Physics O level and GCSE
 https://www.britannica.com (Encyclopedia Britannica)
 https://www.wikipedia.org
 https://www. physicsclassroom.com
 https://www.bbc.co.uk
 https.//starchild.gsfc.nasa.gov
 https.//www.passmyexams.co.uk

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CLASSICAL NOTES FOR CSEE – 2024

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All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in

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Class Activity – 1:1

ANS: Amplitude, A = 0.5m Period, T = 0.2 Frequency = 5Hz

Using this information and the information on the diagram find

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ANS: A = 0.03m, Wavelength = 0.08 m

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Types of Wave motion

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Class Activity – 1:2

Applications of Reflection of Waves

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Applications of Refraction of Waves

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MWL GEOFREY M IDEBE (+255688 082 089 – MWANZA,TANZANIA) Page 15

Construction and working of ripple tank

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Class Activity – 1:3

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MWL GEOFREY M IDEBE (+255688 082 089 – MWANZA,TANZANIA) Page 20

Effect of Direction of Wind

Effect of Moist or Relative Humidity

Effect of Density of Air

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The Human Ear

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The Outer Ear

The Inner Ear

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The accoustics of buildings

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Conditions for Hearing Echo Distinctly

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From the figure above;

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Class Activity – 1:4

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Musical sounds and noise

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Categories of musical instruments

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Consider the diagrams below

For 1st overtone (2nd harmonic)

∴ 𝟏𝒔𝒕 𝒐𝒗𝒆𝒓𝒕𝒐𝒏𝒆 ( 𝟐𝒏𝒅 𝒉𝒂𝒓𝒎𝒐𝒏𝒊𝒄), 𝒇𝟏 = 𝟐𝒇𝟎

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∴ 𝟐𝒏𝒅 𝒐𝒗𝒆𝒓𝒕𝒐𝒏𝒆 (𝟑𝒓𝒅 𝒉𝒂𝒓𝒎𝒐𝒏𝒊𝒄), 𝒇𝟐 = 𝟑𝒇𝟎

Generally the 𝒏𝒕𝒉 overtone of a stationary wave is given by

Class Activity – 1:6

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