Theories of Human Behavior and the Social Environment (MSWK531)

Chapter Four
The Psychosocial Person: Stress, Coping and Adaptation
Chapter Objectives
At the end of the chapter, students are expected to:
- Understand what stress means.
- Describe different types of psychological stress
- Explain the relationship between stress and crisis
- Explain PTSD; its causes, symptoms and ways of treatment
- Identify positive and negative stress coping strategies

4.1. The Concept of Stress

We use the term “stress” in our daily conversation. Though we all talk so much about stress but
it often is not clear what stress really is all about. We are well aware with some terms which are
used synonymously for stress. These terms are strain, conflict, burnout, depression and pressure.

Many people consider stress as something that happens to them, an event such as a harm or
encouragement. Whereas others think stress is what happens to our bodies, psyche and our
behavior in response to an event. When something happens to us, we as a reflex action start
evaluating the situation mentally. We try to come to a decision, if it is threatening to us, how we
need to deal with the situation and what skills and strategies we can use. If we come to
conclusions that the demands of the situation overshadow the skills we have, then we label the
circumstances as “stressful” and need to react it with the classic “stress response”. If we trust
that our coping skills prevail over the demands of the situation, then we do not see it as
“stressful”.

Some situations in life are stress-provoking, but they are our thoughts about situations that
determine whether they are a problem to us or not. How we look it and perceive a stress-
inducing event and how we react to it determines its impact on our health. If we respond in a
negative way our health and happiness suffer. When we understand ourselves and our reactions
to stress-provoking situations, we can learn to handle stress more effectively.

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 Meaning and Definitions of Stress

Stress may be understood as a state of tension experienced by individuals facing extraordinary
demands, constraints or opportunities. The pressures of modern life, coupled with the demands
of a job, can lead to emotional imbalances that are collectively labeled as ‘stress’. However,
stress is not always unpleasant. Stress is the spice of life and the absence of stress makes life
dull, monotonous and spiritless.

While no definition of stress has been universally accepted, three common classes of definition
are as follows:
1. Stress is a stimulus, an environmental event, usually a threat, that affects the body in
complex ways; in this interpretation, stress is referred to as a “stressor”, one that evokes
complex reactions of the various systems of the body.
2. Stress is a bodily reaction to stressors; consequently, complex interaction of systems of
the body can result in deleterious consequences to those systems and organs to the point
of a person becoming “stressed +out”; and serious illness can follow. This class fits Hans
Selye’s definition of stress as the nonspecific response of the body to any demand. The
demands, Hans Selye (1978/1956) held, can be positive ones (Eustress) or negative ones
(Distress).
3. Stress is an interactive one between environmental events (stressors) and bodily
reactions such that stressors affect systems of the body and the resulting behavior feeds
back to affect the environmental stressors. However, they can also lead in complex ways
to a variety of mental or physical problems.

To a scientist, stress is any action or situation that places special physical or psychological
demands upon a person, anything that can unbalance his individual equilibrium. And while the
physiological response to such a demand is surprisingly uniform, the forms of stress are
innumerable. Stress may be unconscious like the noise of a city or the daily chore of driving a
car. Perhaps the one incontestable statement that can be made about stress is that it belongs to
everyone to businessmen and professors, to mother and their children, to factory workers.

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Stress is part of the fabric of life. Nothing can isolate stress from human beings as is evident
from various researches and studies. Stress can be managed but not simply done away with.
Today, widely accepted ideas about stress are challenged by new research, and conclusions once
firmly established may be turned completely around. The latest evidence suggested (Ogden
Tanner, 1979) reveals, some stress is necessary to the well being and a lack can be harmful.
Stress definitely causes some serious ailments. Severe stress makes people accident-prone. At
one time or another, most people experience stress.

The term stress has been used to describe a variety of negative feelings and reactions that
accompany threatening or challenging situations. However, not all stress reactions are negative.
A certain amount of stress is actually necessary for survival. For example, birth is one of the
most stressful experiences of life. The high level of hormones released during birth, which are
also involved in the stress response, are believed to prepare the newborn infant to adapt to the
challenges of life outside the womb. These biological responses to stress make the newborn
more alert, promoting the bonding process and, by extension, the child's physical survival. The
stress reaction maximizes the expenditure of energy which helps prepare the body to meet a
threatening or challenging situation and the individual tends to mobilize a great deal of effort in
order to deal with the event. Both the sympathetic/adrenal and pituitary/adrenal systems become
activated in response to stress. The sympathetic system is a fast-acting system that allows us to
respond to the immediate demands of the situation by activating and increasing arousal. The
pituitary/adrenal system is slower-acting and prolongs the aroused state. However, while a
certain amount of stress is necessary for survival; prolonged stress can affect health adversely
(Bernard & Krupat, 1994).

Stress has generally been viewed as a set of neurological and physiological reactions that serves
an adaptive function (Franken, 1994). Traditionally, stress research has been oriented toward
studies involving the body's reaction to stress and the cognitive processes that influence the
perception of stress. However, social perspectives of the stress response have noted that different
people experiencing similar life conditions are not necessarily affected in the same manner
(Pearlin, 1982). Research into the societal and cultural influences of stress make it necessary to
reexamine how stress is defined and studied.

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Stress can also be understood as an individual’s response to a disturbing factor in the

environment, and consequence of such reaction. Stress involves interaction of the person and
environment. To quote a definition: “Stress is an adaptive response to an external situation that
results in physical, psychological and /or behavioral deviations for organizational participants”
(Fred Luthans, 1998). The physical or psychological demands from the environment that cause
stress are called stressors. They create stress or the potential for stress when an individual
perceives them as representing a demand that may exceed that person’s ability to respond. How
an individual experiences stress depends on:
(i) the person’s perception of the situation,
(ii) the person’s past experience,
(iii) the presence or absence of social support, and
(iv) individual differences with regard to stress reactions.

Stress can manifest itself in both a positive way and a negative way. Stress is said to be positive
when situation offers an opportunity to one to gain something. Eustress is the term used to
describe positive stress. It is negative when stress is associated with heart-disease, alcoholism,
drug abuse, marital breakdowns, absenteeism, child abuse and a host of other social, physical,
organizational and emotional problems. Stress is associated with constraints and demands. The
former prevents an individual from doing what he or she desires. The later refers to the loss of
something desired. Constraints and demands can lead to potential stress. When they are coupled
with uncertainty of outcome and importance of outcome, potential stress becomes actual stress.
To understand and clarify the meaning of stress, it is useful to state what does not constitute
stress:
I. Stress is not simply anxiety or nervous tension.
II. Stress need not always be damaging.
III. Stress is not always due to overwork but may also result from having too little to do.
IV. Stress cannot be avoided.
V. Stress is body’s biological response mechanisms but the body has limited capacity to
respond to stressors.

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4.1.1. Categories of Psychological Stress

Stress management can be complicated and confusing because there are different types
of stress — acute stress, episodic acute stress, and chronic stress — each with its own
characteristics, symptoms, duration and treatment approaches.
A. Acute stress
Acute stress is the most common form of stress. It comes from demands and pressures of the
recent past and anticipated demands and pressures of the near future. Acute stress is thrilling and
exciting in small doses, but too much is exhausting. A fast run down a challenging ski slope, for
example, is exhilarating early in the day. That same ski run late in the day is taxing and wearing.
Skiing beyond your limits can lead to falls and broken bones. By the same token, overdoing on
short-term stress can lead to psychological distress, tension headaches, upset stomach and other
symptoms.

Fortunately, acute stress symptoms are recognized by most people. It's a laundry list of what has
gone awry in their lives: the auto accident that crumpled the car fender, the loss of an important
contract, a deadline they are rushing to meet, their child's occasional problems at school and so
on. Because it is short term, acute stress does not have enough time to do the extensive damage
associated with long-term stress. The most common symptoms are:
- Emotional distress — some combination of anger or irritability, anxiety and depression,
the three stress emotions.
- Muscular problems including tension headache, back pain, jaw pain and the muscular
tensions that lead to pulled muscles and tendon and ligament problems.
- Stomach, gut and bowel problems such as heartburn, acid stomach, flatulence, diarrhea,
constipation and irritable bowel syndrome.
- Transient over arousal leads to elevation in blood pressure, rapid heartbeat, sweaty palms,
heart palpitations, dizziness, migraine headaches, cold hands or feet, shortness of breath
and chest pain.
Acute stress can crop up in anyone's life, and it is highly treatable and manageable.
B. Episodic Acute Stress
There are those who suffer acute stress frequently, whose lives are so disordered that they are in
chaos and crisis. They are always in a rush, but always late. If something can go wrong, it does.

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They take on too much, have too many irons in the fire, and cannot organize the slew of self-
inflicted demands and pressures clamoring for their attention. They seem perpetually in the
clutches of acute stress.

It is common for people with acute stress reactions to be over aroused, short-tempered, irritable,
anxious and tense. Often, they describe themselves as having "a lot of nervous energy." Always
in a hurry, they tend to be abrupt, and sometimes their irritability comes across as hostility.
Interpersonal relationships deteriorate rapidly when others respond with real hostility. The
workplace becomes a very stressful place for them.

Another form of episodic acute stress comes from ceaseless worry. "Worry warts" see disaster
around every corner and pessimistically forecast catastrophe in every situation. The world is a
dangerous, unrewarding, punitive place where something awful is always about to happen. These
people also tend to be over aroused and tense, but are more anxious and depressed than angry
and hostile. The symptoms of episodic acute stress are the symptoms of extended over arousal:
persistent tension headaches, migraines, hypertension, chest pain and heart disease. Treating
episodic acute stress requires intervention on a number of levels, generally requiring professional
help, which may take many months.

Often, lifestyle and personality issues are so ingrained and habitual with these individuals that
they see nothing wrong with the way they conduct their lives. They blame other people and
external events. Frequently, they see their lifestyle, their patterns of interacting with others, and
their ways of perceiving the world as part and parcel of who and what they are. Sufferers can be
fiercely resistant to change. Only the promise of relief from pain and discomfort of their
symptoms can keep them in treatment and on track in their recovery program.

C. Chronic Stress
While acute stress can be thrilling and exciting, chronic stress is not. This is the grinding stress
that wears people away day after day, year after year. Chronic stress destroys bodies, minds and
lives. It wreaks havoc through long-term attrition. It is the stress of poverty, of dysfunctional
families, of being trapped in an unhappy marriage or in a despised job or career.

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Chronic stress comes when a person never sees a way out of a miserable situation. It is the stress
of unrelenting demands and pressures for seemingly interminable periods of time. With no hope,
the individual gives up searching for solutions.

Some chronic stresses stem from traumatic, early childhood experiences that become internalized
and remain forever painful and present. Some experiences profoundly affect personality. A view
of the world, or a belief system, is created that causes unending stress for the individual (e.g., the
world is a threatening place, people will find out you are a pretender, you must be perfect at all
times). When personality or deep-seated convictions and beliefs must be reformulated, recovery
requires active self-examination, often with professional help. The worst aspect of chronic stress
is that people get used to it. They forget it is there. People are immediately aware of acute stress
because it is new; they ignore chronic stress because it is old, familiar, and sometimes, almost
comfortable.

Chronic stress kills through suicide, violence, heart attack, stroke and, perhaps, even cancer.
People wear down to a final, fatal breakdown. Because physical and mental resources are
depleted through long-term attrition, the symptoms of chronic stress are difficult to treat and may
require extended medical as well as behavioral treatment and stress management.

 Common Stressors
Categories Examples
Daily Activities Child care; Car trouble; Household duties; Losing/forgetting something.
Oversleeping; Traffic jams; Waiting; Cooking.
Environmental Noise; Crime; Pollution; Overcrowding; Traffic; Weather.
Family Arguments; Child leaving/returning home; Discussion; Lack of
communication; Elder care; Illness, injury, surgery; Marriage; Move;
Parenting; Divorce/separation; Pregnancy; Adoption; Sexual problems; In-
law problems; Substance abuse.
Financial Change in financial status; Fixed income; Paying alimony; Filing
bankruptcy; Taxes; Debt; Retirement income.

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Health Arthritis; Poor hearing/vision; Headaches; Illness, injury, diseases;

Medication problems; Impaired mobility; Obesity; Chronic pain; Sleep
disorders.
Work Downsizing/merger; Commute; Being fired/laid off; Unpleasant work
environment; Static position; Increased responsibilities; Retirement;
Promotion; New job; Inadequate training; Trouble with boss/co-workers;
Little recognition; Excessive workload.

4.1.2. Stress and Crisis

'Crisis' is one of those notoriously difficult concepts which abound in the social sciences.
Because of its wide usage the term lacks precision and specificity; so that even those who work
in the area of crisis intervention and research are reluctant to commit themselves to a single
definition. A crisis is any event that is going to lead to an unstable and dangerous situation
affecting an individual, community, or the whole society. It is the situation of complex system
(family, economy, society) when the system functions poorly, an immediate decision is
necessary, but the causes of the dysfunction are not immediately identified. Among others the
main characteristics of a crisis include: it is unexpected, it creates uncertainty and; it is seen as a
threat to important goals.
 The Relationship between Crisis and Stress
It may be illuminating to look at the parallel development of another term which is closely
related to the concept of crisis — stress. Research into 'physiological stress' has progressed
continuously. Physiological stress involves automatic homeostatic mechanisms activated by
noxious stimuli, and more is now known about stressful agents in terms of time, intensity and so
on. However, the same precision has not been achieved in the area of 'psychological stress'. The
distinction between physiological and psychological stress is confused however.

Lazarus distinguishes between two kinds of stress by using the term 'threat' to refer to
psychological stress. This implies that the individual appraises a stimulus as potentially harmful,
so that it is an anticipatory response involving cognition; whereas physiological stress is a
response to present harm. The use of the term is still imprecise since there is a continual

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confusion between stimulus, non-specific response and rather specific response states under the
general rubric of 'stress reaction'.

It must be considered whether or not it is useful to distinguish between crisis and stress. A
review by Howard and Scott (26) suggests that, as applied to the individual organism, there is an
exact parallel in usage. However, these authors go on to make a four-way classification of
stressors based on those which are seen as being in an external or internal perceptual field from
the point of view of the observer, and those which are symbolic or non-symbolic stresses. They
offer a problem-solving model for crisis, assuming that a difficult problem-solving situation is
accompanied by a tension state in the organism, which is the stress response. Caplan
distinguishes between stress and crisis temporally, since crisis is characterized by a short-term
period, while stress need not be. L. Rapoport suggests that while stress has a pathogenic
potential, crisis can be characterized by a growth-promoting potential. In spite of these attempts
to distinguish between the two terms, crisis and stress tend to be used interchangeably, although
there is some suggestion that crisis is a special and acute kind of the more general class of stress.

4.1.3. Traumatic Stress

Traumatic stress is a common term for reactive anxiety and depression, although it is not a
medical term and is not included in the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorder
(DSM). What is popularly referred as traumatic includes subtypes of anxiety, depression and
disturbance of conduct and combinations of these symptoms. It results from events that are less
threatening and distressing than the events that lead to Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD)

 Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD)

PTSD is an anxiety disorder that some people get after seeing or living through a dangerous
event. When in danger, it is natural to feel afraid. This fear triggers many split-second changes in
the body to prepare to defend against the danger or to avoid it. This “fight-or-flight” response is
a healthy reaction meant to protect a person from harm. But in PTSD, this reaction is changed or
damaged. People who have PTSD may feel stressed or frightened even when they are no longer
in danger.

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Anyone can get PTSD at any age. This includes war veterans and survivors of physical and
sexual assault, abuse, accidents, disasters, and many other serious events. Not everyone with
PTSD has been through a dangerous event. Some people get PTSD after a friend or family
member experiences danger or is harmed. The sudden, unexpected death of a loved one can also
causes PTSD.

- Symptoms of PTSD
PTSD can cause many symptoms. These symptoms can be grouped into three categories:
1. Re-experiencing Symptoms
- Flashbacks—reliving the trauma over and over, including physical symptoms like a fast
heart beat or sweating.
- Bad dreams
- Frightening thoughts.
Re-experiencing symptoms may cause problems in a person’s everyday routine. They can start
from the person’s own thoughts and feelings. Words, objects, or situations that are reminders of
the event can also trigger re-experiencing.

2. Avoidance Symptoms
- Staying away from places, events, or objects that are reminders of the experience
- Feeling emotionally numb
- Feeling strong guilt, depression, or worry
- Losing interest in activities that were enjoyable in the past
- Having trouble remembering the dangerous event.
Things that remind a person of the traumatic event can trigger avoidance symptoms. These
symptoms may cause a person to change his or her personal routine. For example, after a bad car
accident, a person who usually drives may avoid driving or riding in a car.

3. Hyperarousal Symptoms
- Being easily startled
- Feeling tense or “on edge”
- Having difficulty sleeping, and/or having angry outbursts.

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Hyperarousal symptoms are usually constant, instead of being triggered by things that remind
one of the traumatic events. They can make the person feel stressed and angry. These symptoms
may make it hard to do daily tasks, such as sleeping, eating, or concentrating. It is natural to
have some of these symptoms after a dangerous event. Sometimes people have very serious
symptoms that go away after a few weeks. This is called Acute Stress Disorder, or ASD. When
the symptoms last more than a few weeks and become an ongoing problem, they might be
PTSD. Some people with PTSD do not show any symptoms for weeks or months.

A doctor who has an experience in helping people with mental illnesses, such as a psychiatrist or
psychologist, can diagnose PTSD. The diagnosis is made after the doctor talks with the person
who has symptoms of PTSD.

To be diagnosed with PTSD, a person must have all of the following for at least 1 month:
1. At least one re-experiencing symptom
2. At least three avoidance symptoms
3. At least two hyperarousal symptoms
4. Symptoms that make it hard to go about daily life, go to school or work, be with friends,
and take care of important tasks.
- Causes of PTSD
Many factors play a part in whether a person will get PTSD. Some of these are risk factors that
make a person more likely to get PTSD. Other factors, called resilience factors, can help reduce
the risk of the disorder. Some of these risk and resilience factors are present before the trauma
and others become important during and after a traumatic event.

Risk factors for PTSD include:

- Living through dangerous events and traumas
- Having a history of mental illness
- Getting hurt
- Seeing people hurt or killed
- Feeling horror, helplessness, or extreme fear
- Having little or no social support after the event

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- Dealing with extra stress after the event, such as loss of a loved one, pain and injury, or
loss of a job or home.
Resilience factors that may reduce the risk of PTSD include:
- Seeking out support from other people, such as friends and family
- Finding a support group after a traumatic event
- Feeling good about one’s own actions in the face of danger
- Having a coping strategy, or a way of getting through the bad event and learning from it
- Being able to act and respond effectively despite feeling fear.

- Treatments for PTSD

The main treatments for people with PTSD are psychotherapy (“talk” therapy), medications, or
both. Everyone is different, so a treatment that works for one person may not work for another.
It is important for anyone with PTSD to be treated by a mental health care provider who is
experienced with PTSD. Some people with PTSD need to try different treatments to find what
works for their symptoms. If someone with PTSD is going through an ongoing trauma, such as
being in an abusive relationship, both of the problems need to be treated. Other ongoing
problems can include panic disorder, depression, substance abuse, and feeling suicidal.

1. Psychotherapy
Psychotherapy is “talk” therapy. It involves talking with a mental health professional to treat a
mental illness. Psychotherapy can occur one-on-one or in a group. Talk therapy treatment for
PTSD usually lasts 6 to 12 weeks, but can take more time. Research shows that support from
family and friends can be an important part of therapy. Many types of psychotherapy can help
people with PTSD. Some types target the symptoms of PTSD directly. Other therapies focus on
social, family, or job-related problems. The doctor or therapist may combine different therapies
depending on each person’s needs.

One helpful therapy is called cognitive behavioral therapy, or CBT. There are several parts to
CBT, including:

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- Exposure therapy
This therapy helps people face and control their fear. It exposes them to the trauma they
experienced in a safe way. It uses mental imagery, writing, or visits to the place where the event
happened. The therapist uses these tools to help people with PTSD cope with their feelings.

- Cognitive Restructuring
This therapy helps people make sense of the bad memories. Sometimes people remember the
event differently than how it happened. They may feel guilt or shame about what is not their
fault. The therapist helps people with PTSD look at what happened in a realistic way.

- Stress Inoculation Training

This therapy tries to reduce PTSD symptoms by teaching a person how to reduce anxiety. Like
cognitive restructuring, this treatment helps people look at their memories in a healthy way.
Other types of treatment can also help people with PTSD. People with PTSD should talk about
all treatment options with their therapist.
2. Medications
The U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) has approved two medications for treating adults
with PTSD: sertraline (Zoloft) and paroxetine (Paxil). Both of these medications are
antidepressants, which are also used to treat depression. They may help control PTSD symptoms
such as sadness, worry, anger, and feeling numb inside. Taking these medications may make it
easier to go through psychotherapy. Sometimes people taking these medications have side
effects. The effects can be annoying, but they usually go away. However, medications affect
everyone differently. Any side effects or unusual reactions should be reported to a doctor
immediately.

4.1. Coping and Adaptation

In psychology, coping means to invest one’s own conscious effort, to solve personal and
interpersonal problems, in order to try to master, minimize or tolerate stress and conflict. The
psychological coping mechanisms are commonly termed as coping strategies or coping skills.
The term coping generally refers to adaptive (constructive) coping strategies. That is strategies
which reduce stress. In contrast, other coping strategies may be coined as maladaptive, if they

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increase stress. Maladaptive coping is therefore also described, when looking at the outcome, as
non-coping. Furthermore, the term coping generally refers to reactive coping, i.e. the coping
response which follows the stressor. This differs from proactive coping, in which a coping
response aims to neutralize a future stressor. Subconscious or non-conscious strategies
(e.g. defense mechanisms) are generally excluded from the area of coping. The effectiveness of
the coping effort depends on the type of stress, the individual, and the circumstances. Coping
responses are partly controlled by personality (habitual traits), but also partly by the social
environment, particularly the nature of the stressful environment.

4.1.1. Coping Strategies

Coping strategies can provide tools for people who struggle with stressors. Research shows that
the primary means of coping include a number of different approaches, all aimed at improving
positive outlook:
1. Trying to be optimistic
This can be challenging for those who tend to be pessimistic, but practicing positive self-talk,
making lists of pros and cons, and keeping a journal to express feelings can help people learn to
reorder their thinking. For example, if a person is faced with a stressor and makes a negative
statement, the person should be encouraged to make a positive statement about the situation.
Writing stressors down and discussing them can help the person to focus on the situation more
realistically.
2. Using social support
Social support from family and friends can be effective in reducing stress. People often hide the
extent of their stress, but even talking about it with others can help to reduce the effects of stress.
Family and friends may be able to help the person and reduce the burdens of work, school, or
family in practical ways, such as by providing childcare or helping with tasks and supporting
lifestyle changes. Some people may benefit from organized support groups. People may also
benefit from establishing relationships with those with similar interests, such as in clubs or
message boards.
3. Using spiritual resources
Many people find solace in religion or other spiritual resources. Many religions offer fellowship
groups to help people cope with stress. Some provide support for those with financial needs or

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visits to those who are homebound. Some people find that turning to a higher power helps them
to reduce stress. On the other hand, sometimes religious beliefs may increase stress. For
example, some people believe that problems are God’s punishment while others believe that the
stressors in their life are karma, about which they can do little.
4. Maintaining control
Exercises in which people discuss a situation that caused stress, describe their initial reaction,
and then discuss possible future reactions can help people learn to maintain control by stopping
and planning instead of becoming overwhelmed. People should focus on time management so
that they get up on time, designate time and place to work/study, and minimize distractions.
Time management includes planning ahead, breaking jobs into small steps, and establishing
priorities. The first step is often in creating a chart to outline how people spend time because
people often are not accurate reporters regarding their time. For example, people who take
frequent smoking breaks may be unaware of how this impacts their ability to complete tasks.
5. Accepting the situation
In many cases, people have no control over the stressors in their lives, so they must learn to
identify those things they can control and manage those while acknowledging those outside of
their control. People can often find solutions to problems if they are clear about their own roles.

 Medications
If people have physical ailments related to stress, such as hypertension, then medications are
used to control these disorders. Medications are also sometimes used specifically to help people
deal with stress, especially if they are experiencing severe anxiety or depression. However,
medication only treats the results of stress, so medications should always be used with coping
strategies and other methods to reduce stress.

 Relaxation Techniques
People often benefit from relaxation techniques to help reduce stress. Relaxation training
produces a response that counters stress, decreasing the activity of the sympathetic and
parasympathetic nervous systems. Relaxation techniques require practice and must be used
consistently, but in the long run, they often provide the best treatment for stress. A wide range of
techniques is available, and many combine aspects of different approaches.

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4.1.2. Positive and Negative Coping Strategies

Hundreds of coping strategies have been identified. Classification of these strategies into a
broader architecture has not been agreed upon. Common distinctions are often made between
various contrasting strategies, for example: problem-focused versus emotion-focused;
engagement versus disengagement; cognitive versus behavioral. Weiten for instance, identifies
four types of coping strategies:

 Appraisal-Focused (adaptive cognitive): directed towards challenging personal

assumptions.
 Problem-Focused (adaptive behavioral): reducing or eliminating stressors.
 Emotion-Focused: changing personal emotional reactions.
 Occupation-Focused: directed towards lasting occupation(s), which generates positive
feedback

Appraisal-focused strategies occur when the person modifies the way they think, for example:
employing denial, or distancing oneself from the problem. People may alter the way they think
about a problem by altering their goals and values, such as by seeing the humor in a situation:
"some have suggested that humor may play a greater role as a stress moderator among women
than men".

People using problem-focused strategies try to deal with the cause of their problem. They do
this by finding out information on the problem and learning new skills to manage the problem.
Problem-focused coping is aimed at changing or eliminating the source of the stress. The three
problem-focused coping strategies identified by Folkman and Lazarus are: taking control,
information seeking, and evaluating the pros and cons.

Emotion-focused strategies involve:

 releasing pent-up emotions

 distracting oneself
 managing hostile feelings
 meditating
 using systematic relaxation techniques.

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Emotion-focused coping "is oriented toward managing the emotions that accompany the
perception of stress". The five emotion-focused coping strategies identified by Folkman and
Lazarus are:

 disclaiming
 escape-avoidance
 accepting responsibility or blame
 exercising self-control
 positive reappraisal.

Emotion-focused coping is a mechanism to alleviate distress by minimizing, reducing, or

preventing, the emotional components of a stressor. This mechanism can be applied through a
variety of ways, such as:

 seeking social support

 reappraising the stressor in a positive light
 accepting responsibility
 using avoidance
 exercising self-control
 distancing.

The focus of this coping mechanism is to change the meaning of the stressor or transfer attention
away from it. For example reappraising tries to find a more positive meaning of the cause of the
stress in order to reduce the emotional component of the stressor. Avoidance of the emotional
distress will distract from the negative feelings associated with the stressor.

Emotion-focused coping is well suited for stressors that seem uncontrollable (ex. a terminal
illness diagnosis, or the loss of a loved one). Some mechanisms of emotion focused coping, such
as distancing or avoidance, can have alleviating outcomes for a short period of time, however,
they can be detrimental when used over an extended period of time. Positive emotion-focused
mechanisms, such as seeking social support, and positive re-appraisal, are associated with
beneficial outcomes. Emotional approach coping is one form of emotion-focused coping in
which emotional expression and processing is used to adaptively manage a response to a stressor.

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Typically, people use a mixture of several types of coping strategies, which may change over
time. All these methods can prove useful, but some claim that those using problem-focused
coping strategies will adjust better to life. Problem-focused coping mechanisms may allow an
individual greater perceived control over their problem, whereas emotion-focused coping may
sometimes lead to a reduction in perceived control (maladaptive coping).

Lazarus "notes the connection between his idea of 'defensive reappraisals' or cognitive coping
and Freud's concept of 'ego-defenses'", coping strategies thus overlapping with a person's defense
mechanisms.

- Positive Techniques (Adaptive or Constructive Coping)

One positive coping strategy, anticipating a problem, is known as proactive coping.

Anticipation is when one reduces the stress of some difficult challenge by anticipating what it
will be like and preparing for how one is going to cope with it.

Two others are social coping, such as seeking social support from others, and meaning-focused
coping, in which the person concentrates on deriving meaning from the stressful experience.
Adequate nutrition, exercise and sleep contribute to stress management, as do physical fitness
and relaxation techniques such as progressive muscle relaxation.

Humor used as a positive coping strategy may have benefits to emotional and mental health well-
being. By having a humorous outlook on life, stressful experiences can be and are often
minimized. This coping strategy corresponds with positive emotional states and is known to be
an indicator of mental health. Physiological processes are also influenced within the exercise of
humor. For example, laughing may reduce muscle tension, increase the flow of oxygen to the
blood, exercise the cardiovascular region, and produce endorphins in the body. Using humor in
coping while processing through feelings can vary depending on life circumstance and individual
humor styles. In regards to grief and loss in life occurrences, it has been found that genuine
laughs/smiles when speaking about the loss predicted later adjustment and evoked more positive
responses from other people. It is also possible that humor would be used by people to feel a
sense of control over a more powerless situation and used as way to temporarily escape a feeling
of helplessness. Exercised humor can be a sign of positive adjustment as well as drawing support
and interaction from others around the loss.

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While dealing with stress it is important to deal with your physical, mental, and social well
being. One should maintain one's health and learn to relax if one finds oneself under stress.
Mentally it is important to think positive thoughts, value oneself, demonstrate good time
management, plan and think ahead, and express emotions. Socially one should communicate
with people and seek new activities. By following these simple strategies, one will have an easier
time responding to stresses in one's life.

 Negative Techniques (Maladaptive Coping or Non-Coping)

While adaptive coping methods improve functioning, a maladaptive coping technique will just
reduce symptoms while maintaining and strengthening the disorder. Maladaptive techniques are
more effective in the short term rather than long term coping process. Examples of maladaptive
behavior strategies include: dissociation, sensitization, safety behaviors, anxious avoidance,
and escape (including self-medication). These coping strategies interfere with the person's ability
to unlearn, or break apart, the paired association between the situation and the
associated anxiety symptoms. These are maladaptive strategies as they serve to maintain the
disorder.

- Dissociation is the ability of the mind to separate and compartmentalize thoughts,

memories, and emotions. This is often associated with post traumatic stress syndrome.
- Sensitization is when a person seeks to learn about, rehearse, and/or anticipate fearful
events in a protective effort to prevent these events from occurring in the first place.
- Safety behaviors are demonstrated when individuals with anxiety disorders come to rely
on something, or someone, as a means of coping with their excessive anxiety.
- Anxious avoidance is when a person avoids anxiety provoking situations by all means.
This is the most common strategy.
- Escape is closely related to avoidance. This technique is often demonstrated by people
who experience panic attacks or have phobias. These people want to flee the situation at
the first sign of anxiety.

 Health-Focused coping (Healthy or Unhealthy Coping Strategies)

Health-focused coping acknowledges that all strategies a person uses are aimed at reducing
distress and may initially be effective. Healthy strategies are those that are likely to help a person
cope and have no negative consequences. The coping planning framework groups these into self-
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soothing (e.g., deep breathing, coping self-talk, positive self-talk or mindfulness), relaxing or
distracting activities, social support, and seeking support from health professionals if personal
strategies are not effective. Unhealthy strategies are those that might help in the short-term, but
are likely to have negative consequences. They include negative self-talk, activities (e.g.,
emotional eating, alcohol and drugs, self-harm), social isolation and suicidal ideation.

The aim of Coping Planning is for people to know ahead of time how they will cope with the
inevitable tough times in life to increase the likelihood of them using healthy coping strategies
before using habitual unhealthy strategies. While healthy coping strategies are associated with
general wellbeing, they have a much greater influence in predicting how distressed a person feels
when things are not going well.

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