DR M.zaki Voltage Stability

Power Systems Voltage
Stability
Mohamed Zaki El-Sadek

Professor of Electrical Engineering
Electrical Engineering Department
Faculty of Engineering
Assiut University
Assiut, Egypt
Index 564
Index
A Composite 382
Acting, (fast) 275, 290, 304 Concepts 76, 136
Action 162, 422 Consequencies 38
Active 37, 52 Constants 29, 369, 441
Admissible 20 Continuous 137, 422
Admittance 36 Control 38, 180, 264, 275
Affecting 90, 165 Controller, Controlled 269,317,330
Analysis 23, 242, 250 Converter 230, 234
Angle, phase 26, 28 Cooling 138, 422
Applications 125, 173, 213 Correction 38
Arc furnace 379 Criteria, Criterion 106, 128, 407
Assiut 77, 426 Critical 128
Aswan 426 Current 142
Asynchronous 7 D
Available 90, 372 Damping 435, 439
Average 29, 54 Definitions 3, 15, 90
AVR 150, 152, 422 Depression 24, 27
B Decrease of 101, 103
Back e.m.f. 57 Dip, Dips 386
Base 367 Discharge 419
Behavior 51, 393 Distribution 16
Behind 86, 421 Drops 418
Between 100, 232, 336 Dynamic 53, 141, 399
Block-diagram 327 E
Booster 300, 423 E.m.f. 57, 275
C Effect (of, on) 45, 213, 372, 398
Cables 423 Efficiency 12, 18
Capacitor, Capacitive 347 Electromechanical 65
Causes 101, 414 Electronic 91, 104
Changer, Tap 336, 340, 361 Energy 437, 439
Characteristics 16, 127, 142, 386 Entrance 15, 16
Checking 128 Equations 33, 154
Classification 52, 90 Equivalent, Th 35
Closed – Loop 149, 325 Examples 420
Coefficients 68 F
Collapse 424, 425 Factor, (s) 38, 232, 385
Combination 322, 340, 351 Fast 136, 422
Compensation 38 Flicker 356
Compensators 42, 173, 325 Flora 52, 54
Components 184, 227 Fluorescent 51, 52, 75
566 Index
Flow 33, 172, 256, 269 Limit 11

Forms of 420 Line Global 113
Formula 53 Load
Frequency 53, 68, 389, 391 - characteristics 386
G - compensation 38
Gain 40, 45 278, 307 - components 51, 53
Generalized, General 29 - flow 33, 256, 269
Generator 212, 275, 399 - instability 101
Global 435 - node (s) 32, 35, 40
GTO 187, 191, 196 - performance 23
- reactive power 23, 36
H - representation 51, 53, 68, 70
Half 288, 305 - steady-state 430
Harmonic 145 - terminals 336, 402
Heating, Heaters 52, 95, 102 - types 52
Heavy 91, 95, 99, 102, 414 - voltage control 38
High efficiency 305 - with P/Q/V 127
HVDC 219, 229 -power factor correction 323
Hybrid 113, 160 composite - load 382
I systems- 52, 90, 179, 250
Indication 17, 18 Losses 144, 230
Induction motor 377, 385, 407 M
Inductor, Inductance 414, 416 Means 421
Infrared Mechanism 94, 96
Injecting 290, 291 Method (s) 24, 27, 29
Instability, (ies) 90, 106, 385, 420 Minimum 174
Iterative 27, 33 Model 52, 72, 78, 161, 212
Internal 430 Motor
J - behavior 393
Job 160, 197 - starting 417
Judicious 424, 425 - induction 385, 386, 414
K
Kalman
L N
L-indicator 106, 113 Nag-Hammady 426, 430, 432
Lamps 417 Natural 294
- incandescent 52, 71, 75 Network 16, 417, 425, 439
- infrared Node
Large power systems 35, 128, 426 - characteristic 16, 36, 68, 142, 386
Leakage 187 - short – circuit 32, 41, 398, 404
Leverage 45 Nominal 296, 294, 293
Light 381 Nonlinear 53
Index 564
Numerical 128 Samalout 426

O Saturated reactors 136
Ohm's law Sensitivity 39, 42, 46
On – Line 305 Short-circuit 32, 46, 398
On – Load 207, 275, 293 Slip 275
Open – Loop 148, 160 Special 421
operating systems, operation 219 Spectrum 104, 149
Optimum 279 Spread 294
- locations 174, 425, 439 Stability 1, 51, 106, 372
- network parameters Starting 400
- ratings 425 State 93, 106, 250, 386
Oscillations 142, 199 Static VAR Compensator 136
Steady-state 93, 212, 250, 386
P Substation 425, 429
Phase 14 Suffering 103
Phenomena, Phenomenon 51, 90 Susceptance 79, 293, 309, 312
Power Synchronous 212
- active 52 - condenser 136, 144
- characteristics 36, 37 - generator 161, 212
- compensation 101, 141 - motor 67, 76, 377
- factors 232, 323 System (s) 414, 419, 420, 426
- reactive 40, 142, 145, 152
- response 287, 297 T
- systems 4, 23, 35, 52 Tap-changing 336, 340
- variations 42,152 Technique 148, 322, 461, 531
Presence 42, 70 Tests 14, 68
Properties 63 Theory 38, 471
Provoke (ing) 99 Thevenen's 316
Thyristor Controlled
Q - reactor 137, 139, 140
Quadrature 300, 301 - switched capacitor 139
R Time 436
Radial 420 Torque 72, 73
Rated, Rating 234, 458, 595 Transformer 422
Reactance, Reactor 64 - booster 423
Reactive 36, 39, 40 - tap-changers 422
Regulation (or) 314, 318 Transient 408, 423, 435
Relation (s) 23, 46, 68, 232 Transmission
Relative 68 - lines 91, 96
Representation 51, 172, 212, 372 - power
Response 389, 391 Two-nodes elements 23
Result (s) 128 Two-ports
Role 314, 385 Types 52, 137
S Typical 426
564 Index
U - rated 15
Unstable, Unstability 322 - scalar 110
UPS 52, 211 - service entrance 15
Using 225, 317, 340 - steady-state 94, 106, 212, 386
Utility 65 - transient 14, 78, 93
Utilization voltage 16 - utilization 16
V W
V-curves Watt component
VAR 136, 173, 325 Wind-mill generators 52
Variable 130, 290, 309 Winding 5
Voltage Wound-rotor
- collapse 91, 309 Y
- definition 15 Y-matrix 35, 110, 113, 126
- depression 24, 27, 32 Z
- drop 414, 419 Zone 18, 426, 439
- flicker 92, 305, 356
- instability (ies) 90, 106
- load line 101
- oscillations 91, 92
- profile 18
- quality 20
- regulation 28, 48
- relations 23, 111
- requirements 304
- security 19
- sensitivity 23, 41, 42
- spread 16, 17
- stability 1, 51, 78
- stability limit 109
- standards 20
- variations 39, 52, 63
- zone 124
- admissible 20
- base 15, 17
- distribution network 16
- limitation of
- load nodes 32, 45, 398
- maximum 43
- minimum 143
- network 16, 26, 90
- nodes 39, 45
- nominal 69, 110, 128
Contents e
Contents
Chapter 1:
Power Systems Stabilities 1
1.1 Power Systems Instabilities Types 1
1.2 Conditions Leading to Voltage Collapses and Voltage 4
Instabilities
1.3 Voltage Instability Time Scales 4
1.4 Transmission System Participation in Voltage Stability 5
1.5 Generator Participation in Voltage Stability 8
1.6 Load Participation in Voltage Stability 10
1.7 Power Systems Blackouts and Failures 11
1.8 Voltage Collapse Preventive Techniques 11
1.9 Voltage Stability Classifications 12
1.10 Voltage Stability Analysis 13
1.11 System Protection Role in Voltage Stability 14
1.12 Power Systems Islanding 14
1.13 Cold Inrush Current 16
1.14 Voltage and Load Stability 18
1.15 Voltage Stability Limit 20
1.16 Voltage Security 20
1.17 Voltage Standards 20
1.18 Admissible Voltage Drops 21
Problems 21
References 22
Chapter 2:
Voltage/Powers Relations of Two Nodes Systems 23
2.1 Importance of Two Nodes Power Systems Analysis 23
2.2 Two Nodes Systems Elements 23
2.3 Complex Voltage Depression Method 24
2.4 Scalar Voltage Depression Iterative Method 27
2.5 Generalized Constants Method 29
2.6 Load Nodes Short-Circuit Power Method 32
2.7 Load-Flow Gauss Iterative Method 33
2.8 Thevenen's Equivalent of Large Power Systems at Certain
Load Nodes 35
2.9 Load Nodes Reactive Power Characteristics 36
2.10 Load Nodes Active Power Characteristics 37
2.11 Load Power Factor Correction and Load Voltage Control 38
2.12 Load Compensation Theory Principles 38
f Contents
2.13 Compensator Reactive Power sensitivity to System Nodes

Voltage Variations 39
2.14 Load Node Voltages as Affected by System Gains and
Compensator Reactive Power 40
2.13 Load Nodes Voltage Sensitivity to Received Reactive Power
and Its Dependence on Their Short-Circuit Level 41
2.14 Effects of Presence of Reactive Power Compensators on Load
Node Voltage Sensitivity to Reactive Power Variations and on
Its No-Load Voltage 42
2.15 Effects of System Gain on Load Nodes Voltage Sensitivity to
Reactive Power Variations 45
2.16 Relation of Load Nodes Voltage/Reactive Power Sensitivity
With Their Short-Circuit Levels 46
Problems 47
References 50
Chapter 3:
Load Representation for Voltage Stability Studies 51
3.1 Introduction 51
3.2 Loads Behavior 51
3.3 Load Window 51
3.4 Stiff and Soft Loads 52
3.5 Classification of Load Types 52
3.6 Traditional Load Modeling in Power Systems Studies 52
3.7 Static and Dynamic Loads 53
3.8 Linear and Nonlinear Loads 53
3.9 Load Representation by Powers/Voltage and Frequency
Formula 53
3.10 Load Representation by Characteristic Coefficients
Power/Voltage and Power/Frequency Relations 68
3.11 Loads Representation by Single Termed Polynomials 70
3.12 New Suggested Load Polynomial Models 72
3.13 Load Modeling for Transient Voltage Stability Studies 78
3.14 Conclusions 87
Problems 87
References 88
Chapter 4:
Voltage Instability Phenomena 90
4.1 General 90
4.2 Available Definitions 90
4.3 Classification of Power-Systems Stabilities 90
Contents g
4.4 Aspects of Voltage Instabilities 91

4.5 Steady-State and Transient Voltage Instability 93
4.6 Mechanism of Steady-State Voltage Instability 94
4.7 Mechanism of Transient Voltage Instability 96
4.8 Loads Provoking Voltage Instability 99
4.9 Interrelation between Load Stability and Voltage Stability 100
4.10 Causes of Voltage Instabilities 101
4.11 Consequences of Voltage Instability 102
4.12 Systems Suffering from Voltage Instability 103
Problems 104
References 105
Chapter 5:
Criteria for Detection of Steady State Voltage
Instability 106
5.1 Introduction 106
5.2 Steady-State Voltage Stability Criteria 106
5.3 Applications to Large Power Systems 125
5.4 Loads With Known P/Q/V Characteristics 127
5.5 Checking of Criteria Numerical Results by Critical Voltage
Criteria 128
5.6 Application of the Six Voltage Stability Criteria to Large
Power Systems of Fixed Loadability 128
5.7 Application of the Six Criteria to Large Power Systems Having
Variable Loadabilities 130
Problems 130
References 134
Chapter 6:
Static VAR Compensators 136
6.2 What are Static VAR Compensators 136
6.3 Types of Static VAR Compensators 137
6.4 TCR/FC Voltage / Current Characteristics 142
6.5 Need of Transformers with Static Compensators 144
6.6 SVC's Losses Evaluation 144
6.7 SVC's Harmonics Generation 145
6.8 SVC's Control Techniques 148
6.9 SVC’s Modeling for Stability Studies 161
6.10 SVC Representation in Power Flow and Voltage Stability
Studies 172
6.11 Applications of Static VAR Compensators 173
h Contents
Problems 174
References 175
Chapter 7:
Flexible AC Transmission Systems FACTS 179
7.2 What are FACTS? 179
7.3 FACTS Objectives 180
7.4 FACTS Functions and Control 180
7.5 Meaning of Flexibility of Electric Power Transmission 181
7.6 Actual and Proposed FACTS Schemes 183
7.7 Components and Principles of Operation of FACTS Schemes 184
7.8 FACTS Representation in Steady-State System Studies 212
7.9 Static Synchronous Generators Modeling 212
7.10 Future Applications of FACTS 213
7.11 FACTS Effects on Systems Stability and Security 213
7.12 Summary 214
Problems 214
References 215
Chapter 8:
HVDC Systems Operation and Control 219
8.2 Historical 219
8.3 AC and DC Transmission Systems 222
8.4 Disadvantages of DC Transmission 225
8.5 Reliability of DC Systems 225
8.6 Necessities of Using DC Transmission 225
8.7 DC Transmission System Connections 226
8.8 Two-Terminals DC Links Components 227
8.9 HVDC Systems Configurations 229
8.10 HVDC Loadability Features 230
8.11 DC to AC Losses 230
8.12 Operation of Converter Circuits 230
8.13 Relationship between AC and DC Quantities and AC Side
Power Factor 232
8.14 Converter Transformer Rating 234
8.15 Multiple Bridge Converters Operation 234
8.16 Basic Rectifier Model 235
8.17 Basic Inverter Model 237
8.18 HVDC Link Operation 239
8.19 Two-Terminal HVDC Link Control 241
8.20 Steady-State Analysis of Two-Terminal HVDC Links 242
Contents i
8.21 Per Unit System of HVDC Systems Variables 244

8.22 Analysis of Two-Terminal HVDC System in Per Unit
Quantities 244
8.23 Multi-Terminals HVDC Systems (MTDC Systems) 248
8.24 Analysis of Parallel Multi-Terminal Systems for Steady-State
in Per Unit Quantities 250
8.25 Analysis of Series MTDC Systems for Steady-State Studies in
Per Unit Quantities 254
8.26 AC/DC Load Flow for Parallel and Series MTDC Systems 256
8.27 Multi-Terminals HVDC System Solution 257
8.28 HVDC Controllability Features 260
8.29 HVDC Systems Controls 261
8.30 Controls of MTDC Systems 264
8.31 DC System Controls Representation in Steady-State Studies 266
8.32 AC/DC Load Flow with Controlled Two-Terminals HVDC
System 269
8.33 General Features of Steady State Performance of HVDC
Systems 270
Problems 272
References 273
Chapter 9:
Voltage Control in Power Systems 275
9.2 Voltage Control by Acting on Generators Excitation 275
9.3 Voltage Control by Acting on Transmission System Elements
Variables 290
9.4 Voltage Control by Acting on The Load Itself 304
9.5 Using Series Voltage Controllers 317
Problems 318
References 321
Chapter 10:
Voltage Stabilization of Unstable Loads 322
10.1 Aspects of Load Instability 322
10.2 Techniques of Voltage Stabilization of Unstable Loads 322
10.3 Improvement of the Load Power Factors 323
10.4 Using Static VAR Compensators 325
10.5 Using on Load Tap-Changing Transformer at Load Terminals 336
10.6 Using Combination of on Load Tap-Changing Transformer and
Static VAR Compensator 340
10.7 Using Series Capacitors at Load Terminals 347
j Contents
10.8 Using Combined Series Capacitors and Static VAR

Compensators at Load Terminals 351
10.9 Voltage Instabilities Due to Voltage Flickers 356
10.10 Load Voltage Stabilization by Certain Load Shedding 363
Problems 369
References 371
Chapter 11:
Load Representation Effects on Voltage Stability
Evaluation 372
11.1 Available Load Representations 372
11.2 Influence of Load Modeling on Voltage Stability Evaluation 375
11.3 Induction Motor Loads 377
11.4 Arc Furnace Load 379
11.5 Aluminum Smelter Plant Load 379
11.6 Lighting Loads 381
11.7 Practical Composite Loads 382
11.8 General Comments on Effects of Load Representation on
Voltage Stability Evaluation 383
Problems 383
References 384
Chapter 12:
Induction Motor Role in Provoking Voltage
Instability 385
12.2 Factors Governing Role of induction Motors 385
12.3 Induction Motor Characteristics During Steady-State 386
Conditions
12.4 Induction Motor Load Characteristics After Sudden Voltage
Dips 386
12.5 Motor Response to Frequency Excursions 389
12.6 Response to Ramp Frequency Variations 391
12.7 Induction Motor Behavior after Opening a Circuit of Double
Circuits Lines Feeding the Motor 393
12.8 Effect of Induction Motor Content in Load Composition 393
12.9 Quantity of Mechanical Loading 395
12.10 Nature of the Mechanical Loading 396
12.11 Inertia's of Motor Rotor and Shaft Load 396
12.12 Effect of Load Node Short-Circuit Levels 398
12.13 Contribution of Generator Dynamics 399
12.14 Induction Motor Load Starting Effects on Voltage Stability 400
Contents k
12.15 Short-Circuits Recoveries at Induction Motor Load Terminals 402

12.16 Criteria of Induction Motor Load Stability 407
Problems 411
References 411
Chapter 13:
Blackouts Preventive Measures 414
13.1 Causes of Blackouts in Power Systems 414
13.2 Triggering Voltage Instability Leading to Blackouts 420
13.3 Blackouts in Power Systems 420
13.4 Means of Voltage Stability Enhancement 421
13.5 Preventive Measures of Blackouts 423
13.6 Preventive Measures of Blackouts in a Typical Large Power
System 426
13.7 Summary 443
Problems 443
References 444
Appendix A:
Derivation of the Formula of the dZ/dVr Criterion
and the Formula of the dE/dV Criterion 446
Appendix B:
Determination of the Maximum Receiving End Power and Critical
Load Nodes Voltage for Constant Receiving End Qr 452
Appendix C:
Distribution Overhead Lines and Cables Parameters and Typical
Power Systems Data 453
Appendix D:
Required Capacitors Ratings for Improvement of Power Factors of
Electrical Equipment's and Motors 458
Index 465
Preface a
Preface
Power systems planning, operation and control are usually affected by
their stability and power quality. Traditionally this stability has concerned
synchronous machines rotors motion in synchronism during and after small
and large system disturbances. Recently, the stability of loads has been paid
the same importance and attention as it has been found inter-related to voltage
stability. Both of them affects and is effected by the other. Power systems
stability have, recently classified to the known synchronous (or inertial or
angle) stability and voltage (or load) stability.
Voltage stability concerns stable loads operation, and acceptable

voltage levels all over the network nodes (or buses). Its instability has been
classified into steady-state and transient voltage instability, according to the
time spectrum of occurrence of the phenomena. Voltage stability subject has
many aspects. Some of them are not yet completely understood. An excessive
number of papers have been written and several conferences, symposiums,
and sessions were held for discussing this subject. Only one book is written
for practical engineers and published last years. This is the first tutorial
reference book, written mainly to last year undergraduate students or to post-
graduate students. Both of researchers and practical engineers will find also a
lot of useful information which are scattered in several periodicals,
conference proceedings and technical reports gathered in one place in this
book.
Voltage instability has been observed in several forms, which was

reached to complete blackouts of power systems in several countries. Power
systems institutes such as IEEE, CIGRE, IEE and EPRI have turned great
attention to this subject. An IEEE subcommittee was formed in 1986 for its
studies. In future the subject will have a direct access to other interests such as
power system security, reliability, planning, control methods and power
system harmonics suppression. The excessive use of power electronic devices
will augment the chances of occurrence of the phenomena in the form of
voltage flicker. Electronic static VAR compensators, flexible AC transmission
systems and HVDC systems will be widely used to counteract the effect of
such devices and to improve the voltage stability situation of large systems.
This book is the effort of fifteen years teaching a course entitled

"Power systems dynamics and stability" at the Department of Electrical
Engineering, Faculty of engineering Assiut University, Assiut, Egypt.
Problems appeared by the end of all chapters were given in both exercises,
b Preface
projects and examination problems for this course during those years. The
book is subdivided into thirteen chapters and some appendices.
Chapter 1: displays voltage stability definitions and gives a review of

the subject items. Voltage security and load stability are clarified.
Chapter 2: shows the importance of the two nodes representation of
large power systems and gives the methods of analysis of such equivalent
systems. Emphasis is made to nodes voltages as function of loads powers and
reactive powers variations. Nodes sensitivities to reactive power injections are
also included. Influence of reactive power compensation on these sensitivities
are clarified.
Chapter 3: is totally devoted for presentation of complete
load/voltage/frequency characteristic equations for all known types of loads.
Behavior of loads with voltages and frequency variations are displayed. New
load models with voltage variations are presented. Models for steady state and
transient studies are given.
Chapter 4: is reserved to explanation of the voltage instability
phenomena itself. Its causes, consequences, mechanisms, physical aspects and
types. Forms of voltage instabilities, are clearly and briefly illustrated.
Identification of steady state and transient voltage instabilities is made. The
chapter explains the transient behavior of the induction motor load, which
usually provokes that phenomenon, in all conditions.
Chapter 5: presents several criteria for detection of presence of steady-
state voltage instabilities. Methods of checking of such criteria are provided.
Numerical examples are given every where in this chapter, as it is a heart
subject in the book.
Chapter 6: is reserved to give an adequate idea about static VAR
compensators: their types, construction, applications and control systems.
The recent static VAR generators are included. Recent IEEE modeling
recommendation is also presented. Simplified control networks are provided
for the actually used controllers. Simple examples showing the influence of
these compensators on network voltages are provided.
Chapter 7: is devoted to give a clear and brief idea about the more
recent Flexible AC transmission Systems (FACTS) as it forms the domain of
future in power systems analysis and control by thyristorized AC devices and
circuits. Classification, methods of operation and control of such devices are
given in this chapter. Modeling of such devices is briefly presented, together
with a flash about the actual and future applications of such recent devices.
Chapter 8: is reserved to explain the operation and control of the
HVDC systems, which are the flexible DC transmission systems known fifty
years ago. Emphasis is given to their operation as isolated links or in multi-
terminal series or parallel systems. Their influence on voltage stability is
evidenced. Once the voltage instability phenomenon has been detected,
Preface c
system voltage control and stabilization and load provoking the phenomena
and blackouts preventive methods are displayed in chapters 9,10,11,12,
and13.
Chapter 9: deals with methods of voltage control used actually in
practice. The chapter is provided with some practical examples. It was clear
that the more recent and important mean is the thyristorized static VAR
compensator. Its parameters and control elements are given for this purpose.
Chapter 10: gives in detail the more recent research results and
recommendations about voltage stability enhancement methods at load
terminal. Use of combinations of static VAR compensators, on-load tapped
transformers, series capacitors and optimum load shedding are explained.
Chapter 11: is reserved to an important subject in voltage stability
studies, that is the influence of load modeling on voltage stability evaluations.
The chapter shows clearly the importance of having load models based on
experimental results and polynomial models to specified orders for each load.
Special attention is paid to lighting loads, arc furnaces, aluminum smelter
plants, electrolytic loads and rotating motors of all types. Residential,
commercial and industrial general loads are also included.
Chapter 12: is devoted to give in detail the induction motor load role
in provoking voltage instabilities, as it is proved that it provokes this
phenomena and it is the more used loads in all applications. Influence of
voltages on motors powers and reactive powers are explained together with
influences of network frequency excursion on such powers are also given.
Criteria of induction motor load stability are briefly discussed.
Chapter 13: gives an idea about the blackouts and their preventive
measures. Causes of blackouts and counter measures for avoiding them are
explained in this chapter. As an example, a complete analysis of a certain
blackout occurred in a whole country and methods of countermeasure are
presented.
I am deeply indebted to Dr. Adel E. Hammad, of the "NOK" company,

Baden, Switzerland, for his continual support and help during my study in
Switzerland. He was the first man who turned my attention to the importance
of this subject and he offered me the chance to work with him when he was at
the "BBC" and the "ABB" companies in Baden, Switzerland. He was very
generous in offering his experience, which added to the topics and materials
of this book. Also the Electrical Engineering Department, Assiut University,
Assiut, Egypt, is acknowledged for allowing me to teach such new unfamiliar
course and to develop its new topics gradually during fifteen years, with my
undergraduate and post graduate students.
I feel that my students (in Assiut University, South Valley University,

Suez Canal University in Port Said and in Aswan High Institute of Energy)
d Preface
during all these years have effectively participated in the creation and
completion of this work. They discussed actively each part of the course with
me and solved its problems. They raised several questions, which led to
improvements of the quality of its topics and material. They are all heartily
acknowledged. The thesis of my M. Sc. and Ph. D. students has added to the
material of the book. Their contributions are included in the book and largely
appreciated.
Special thanks to my sincere students Youssef A. Mubarak and

Mohamed Roshdy Ghallab, for typing and developing the final manuscript of
the book in Aswan. Finally, my thanks go to my wife and my family for
several years of patience, and help.
Synopsis
Power Systems Voltage Stability and
Power Quality
A New Educational Textbook in Voltage Stability
and Power Quality
For Students, Researchers & Field Engineers

This book is a new tutorial book, which provides a clear detailed
explanation of voltage stability phenomena; appeared in this decade and have
led to serious blackouts in many countries. The book illustrates their causes,
consequences, mechanisms, influences on loads and networks operations, and
methods of prevention. It contains an idea about the power quality.
Simple criteria for detection of the presence of such phenomena are

given, together with the performance of important loads, which may provoke
them. Mathematical relations relating network voltages to load performance
equations are highlighted for nearly all known loads of power systems.
Emphasis are made to certain loads, which are known to or believed to
provoke such phenomena. All types of systems instabilities are highlighted.
Definitions and concerns of power quality are detailed. The interrelation of
power quality improvement and voltage stability augmentation is illustrated.
General methods of voltage control of both generators, networks nodes

and loads are displayed, with simplified mathematical relations. Techniques
of enhancement of steady-state voltage stabilities are illustrated. Advantages
and limitations of each technique are detailed. Subjects having principle
effects on power quality and voltage stability are given in detail; which are
power factor correction benefits, three-phase loads balancing, and harmonics
suppression. Static VAR compensators, HVDC system and flexible AC
transmission systems (FACTS) are given as recent means of voltage stability
enhancement and power quality improvement. Computer programs are given
for their practical applications.
An essential and unique textbook for universities students and a tool for
planners, designers, operators and control engineers of power systems.
Chapter 1 1
Chapter 1
Power Systems Stabilities

Power system stability is defined as that property of a power system that
enables it to remain in a state of operating equilibrium under normal
operating condition and regain an acceptable state of equilibrium after being
subjected to a disturbance . Power system stabilities have classified into three
distinct domains: synchronous or angle or inertia stability, voltage or load
stability and harmonic or low frequency currents stability. Although, they are
interrelated to each other, each of them can be studied separately.
Voltage instability in power systems has recently gained increasing attention.
This phenomenon is characterized by progressive fall in voltage magnitude at
a particular location and may finally spread out in the network causing a
complete system voltage collapse or a blackout .The phenomenon has been
attributed mainly to the inability of power system to meet a certain load
demand of reactive power.
Two nodes system can be used efficiently to study these phenomena. The
phenomena depend principally on load characteristics and its behavior during
transients. It can be detected by special criteria or by dynamic transient
models. Voltage stability problems can be solved by on–load tap-changing
transformers or by shunt reactors or by shunt capacitors or by series
capacitors or by static VAr compensators or by flexible AC transmission
systems (FACTS) or by combinations of them or by shedding some loads.
Presence of high voltage DC (HVDC) systems and scattered induction motors
within the AC networks can contribute largely to voltage instabilities.
Generators, network and loads voltage control techniques together with load
stabilization methods are effective means for avoiding voltage stability
problems, which can reach to complete or partial blackouts.
1.1 Power Systems Instabilities Types:

The stability of power systems was first recognized as an important problem
in 1920. Results of the first laboratory test on miniature systems were
reported in 1924 ; the first field test of the stability on a practical power
system were conducted in 1925.
Instability in a power system may be manifested in many different ways
depending on the system configuration and operation mode. Traditionally the
stability problem has been one of maintaining synchronous operation ,
Since power system rely on synchronous machines for generation of
2 Power systems Stabilities
electrical power . A necessary condition for satisfactory system operation

is that all synchronous machines remain in synchronism , colloquially , " in
Step ". This aspect of stabilities is influenced by the dynamics of
generator rotor angles ,rotor inertia, and power angle relationship .This is
why it is called "synchronous or inertia or angle stability).
Instability may also be encountered without loss of synchronism, but with low
voltage levels. For example a system consisting of a synchronous
generator feeding an induction motor load through a transmission line can
become unstable because of the collapse of load voltage .Maintenance of
synchronism is not an issue in this instance ; instead , concern is voltage
or load stability. This form of stability can also occur in the loads covering an
extensive area supplied by a large system.
The possible consequences of voltage instability in an electric power system
can reach complete failure or blackout. This situation arises when a severe
disturbance is not cleared away fast enough. Harmonic stability arises when
currents with frequencies other than 50/60 HZ flow within the network and
through generators driven by multi stage steam turbines.
1.1.1 Synchronous or Inertia or Angle Stability

Rotor angle stability is the ability of interconnected synchronous machines of
a power system to remain in synchronism. The stability problem involves the
study of electromechanical oscillations inherent in power system. For
convenience in analysis and for gaining useful insight into the nature of
stability problem, it is usual to characterize the rotor angle stability
phenomena in terms of the following two categories :
(a)Small signal (or small – disturbance) stability: is the ability of the power
system to maintain synchronism under small disturbance. Such disturbances
occur continually on the system because of small variations in loads and
generation.
(b)Transient stability: is the ability of the power system to maintain
synchronism when subject to a severe transient disturbance. The resulting
system response involves large excursion of generator rotor angels and is
influenced by the nonlinear power - angle relationship. Stability depends on
both the initial operating state of the system and severity of the disturbance.
Usually, the system is altered so that the post - disturbance steady – state
operation differs from that prior to the disturbance and the fault is assumed
to be cleared by opening of appropriate breakers to isolate the faulted
element .In some cases , high – speed reclusor may be assumed.
Chapter 1 3
1.1.2 Harmonic Stability

The system is harmonically stable when currents and voltages waves alternate
sinusoidaly with 50 or 60 HZ. Presence of currents with frequencies less than
50 or 60 HZ announce a state of harmonic instability. Harmonic instability
arises when currents with lower frequencies than the 50/60 HZ value flow in
the generator networks which can lead to sub synchronous resonance (SSR)
with turbine mass and can damage the generators shafts by torsional torques
in these shafts.
This situation is encountered with networks containing series capacitors in
long lines radial networks or with AC networks including HVDC links.
Harmonic instability may appear with frequencies of multiple of 50/60 HZ
when over voltages appear within the system due to resonance's and unstable
operation of these resonant system variables and elements.
1.1.3 Voltage Stability

Voltage stability is the ability of a power system to maintain steady
acceptable voltages at all buses in the system under normal operating
conditions and after being subjected to a disturbance A system enters a state
of voltage instability when a disturbance such as increase in load demand ,
or change in system condition causes a progressive and uncontrolled drop in
voltage .
1.1.3.1 Voltage Instability and Voltage Collapse

The main factor causing voltage instability is the inability of the power
system to meet the demand for service power .The heart of the problem is
usually the voltage drop that occurs when active and reactive power flow
through the series inductive reactance's of the transmission network.
A criterion for voltage stability is that , at a given operating conditions for
every bus in the system , the bus voltage magnitude increases as the
reactive power injection at the same bus is increased .A system is voltage
unstable if for at least one bus in the system , the bus magnitude ( V )
decreases as the reactive power injection ( Q ) at the same bus increased.
In other words, a system is voltage stable if V-Q sensitivity is negative for at
least one bus.
Progressive drop in bus voltage can also be associated with rotor angles going
out of step. For example, the gradual loss of synchronism of machines as
rotor angel between two groups of machines approach or exceed 180
degree would result in very low voltages at intermediate points in the
network .Voltage instability is essentially a local phenomenon; however, its
consequences may have widespread impact . Voltage collapse is more
complex than simple voltage instability and is usually the result of a

sequence of events accompany voltage instability leading to a low -
voltage profile in a significant part of the power system lasting long periods.
Voltage levels of 0.3 Pu to 06. Pu are experienced in practice.
1.2 Conditions Leading to Voltage Collapses and

Voltage Instabilities:
Voltage instability problem normally occur in heavily stressed systems. While
the disturbance leading to voltage instability may be initiated by a variety of
causes, the underlying problem is an inherent weakness in power system. In
addition to the strength of transmission network and power transfer levels,
the principle factors contributing to voltage instability are generator reactive
power / voltage control limits , load characteristics , characteristics of
reactive compensation devices and the action of voltage control devices such
as transformer with load tap changers (LTCs) . On the other hand increased
use of shunt capacitor banks for reactive power compensation is also
considered one of voltage instability reasons.
Voltage collapse problems are expected following major system breakup.
Intensive use of generation and load fed from weak transmission networks is
considered to be a major reason for voltage collapse. Presence of excessive
numbers of induction motors is another important cause. Installing of HVDC
links within the AC systems can form a serious source of voltage collapse,
when their controls fail or suffer from adjustments problems. All loads
drawing excessive reactive powers are sources of voltage collapses.
1.3 Voltage Instability Time Scales:

Ranging from mille -seconds to hours voltage instability takes place on the
following time scale:
1- Electromechanical transients due to (e.g. generators, regulators. induction
machine ) and power electronic devices ( e.g. rectifiers, inverters, choppers,
cycloconverters, SVC , HVDC, FACTS ) in the time range of mille-
seconds
2- Discrete switching devices, such as load tap changers and excitation
limiters acting at intervals of tens of seconds
3-Load recovery processes spanning several minutes
Transient voltage stability is often inter-linked with transient rotor angle

stability even the mechanisms are difficult to separate. Rotor angle stability as
well as voltage stability is affected by reactive power control.
Chapter 1 5
1.4 Transmission System Participation in Voltage

Stability
Voltage instability may occur in several ways .In its simple form it can be
illustrated by considering the two terminal network of Fig. (1.1) .It consists
of constant voltage source (ES) supplying a load ( ZLD ) through a series
impedance (ZLN) This is representative of a simple radial feed to load or a
load area served by a large system through transmission line . Plots of I ,
VR and PR are shown in figure (1.2) as a function of Z LN / ZLD .The
critical operating condition corresponding to maximum power is the limit
of satisfactory operation .For higher load demand, control of power by
varying load would be unstable; that is, decreasing load impedance, by
connecting parallel elements, reduces power instead of increasing it.
Whether voltage will progressively decrease and the system will become
unstable depends on the load characteristics .With a constant – impedance
static load characteristics , the system stabilizes at power and voltage levels
lower than the desired values . On the other hand with a constant – power load
characteristics, the system become unstable because of the collapse of the
load bus voltage.
From the view point of voltage stability, the relationship between P R and VR
is of interest .Figure (1.3) shows, for the power system of Figure (1.1) , curves
of the VR-PR relationship for different values of load power factor . The
locus of critical operating points is shown by the dotted line in the figure.
Normally , only the operating points below the critical points represent
satisfactory operating conditions A sudden reduction in load power factor or
increase in(QR )can thus cause the system to change from a stable operating
condition to an unsatisfactory, and possibly unstable operating condition
represented by the lower part of the V- P curve .
The influence of the reactive power characteristics at the receiving end (loads
and compensating devices) is shown in Figure (1.4) .The system is stable in
the region where the derivative dQR/ dVR is positive .The voltage stability
limit ( critical operating point ) is reached when the derivative is zero
.Instability is noticed when that derivative is negative.
The characteristics of the transmission systems as impacted by the flow of
the active and reactive powers through the highly inductive elements show
that the principle causes of voltage instability are the following:
(a)The load on the transmission lines is too high.
(b)The voltage sources are too far from the load centers.
(c)The sources voltage is too low
(d) There is insufficient load reactive compensation.
Fig. 1.1 A simple two node system for illustration of voltage stability
phenomena
Fig. 1.2 Receiving end voltage, current and power as a function of load
demand
Chapter 1 7
Fig. 1.3 VR-PR characteristics of the system with different load-power factors
Fig. 1.4 VR-QR characteristics of the system with different load-power factors
1.5 Generator Participation in Voltage Stability

Generator automatic voltage regulators (AVR's) are the most important means
of voltage control in a power system. Under normal conditions the terminal
voltages of generators are maintained constant. During conditions of low
system voltages, the reactive power demand on generators may exceed their
output limits , the terminal voltage is no longer maintained constant .The
generator field current is automatically limited by an over excitation limiter
(OXL ) .With constant field current, the point of constant voltage is behind
the synchronous reactance .This effectively increasing the network reactance
significantly, further aggravating the voltage collapse condition.
On most generators, the armature current limit is realized manually by
operators responding to alarms .The operator reduces reactive and/or active
power output to bring the armature current within safe limits. On some
generators, automatic armature current limiters with time delay are used to
limit reactive power output through the AVR.
To illustrate the impact of loss of generator voltage control capability ,
consider the system shown in Figure (1.5) . It consists of a large load supplied
radially from an infinite bus, with an intermediate generation supplying part
of the load and regulating voltage (V1)
With voltage at the intermediate bus maintained, the V – P characteristic is
shown by curve 1 in figure (1.6). When the generating unit at intermediate
point hits field current limit , the bus voltage (V 1) is no longer maintained
and the V – P characteristics is shown by curve 2. An operating condition
such as the represented by point A is considerably more stable when it is on
curve 1 than when it is on curve 2 .These results demonstrate the importance
of maintaining the voltage control capability of generators . In addition, they
show that the degree of voltage stability cannot be judged based only on how
close the bus voltage is to the normal voltage level .This situation is similar to
that which led to voltage collapse in the Brittany region of French system in
December 1965 and in November 1975 .
In order to maintain the terminal voltage of a large alternator at a specific
value, an automatic voltage regulator (AVR) is used. To control the alternator
excitation which in turn define the generator terminal voltage. Despite the
variety of voltage regulators, they all fulfill the same basic control functions.
Besides ensuring a specified steady–state voltage with daily load variations, it
is a controllable means for adjusting the output reactive power output of the
alternator which affect the voltage and synchronous stability of the system. It
can damp voltage oscillations during disturbances. Injudicious operation of
the AVR or separation of its controllers ,will cause power swings due to the
uncontrollable voltage oscillations resulting from the continual load current
variations and the system impedances.
Chapter 1 9
Fig. 1.5 Simple system for illustration of impact of loss of regulation of

intermediate bus voltage
Fig. 1.6 VR-PR characteristics of the system

1.6 Load Participation in Voltage Stability:

Load characteristics and distribution system voltage control devices are
among the key factors influencing system voltage stability. Load whose active
and reactive components vary with voltage interact with the transmission
characteristics by changing the power flow through the system .The system
voltages settle at value determined by the composite characteristics of the
transmission systems and loads .
Distribution system voltage regulators and substation transformer ULTC's
attempt to hold constant voltage at the point of consumption . When the
ULTC's reach the end of their tap range, distribution system voltage begin to
drop .The residential active and reactive loads will drop with voltage. This
will in turn reduce line loading and, hence the line reactive losses. The
industrial loads, with large components of induction motors, will change little.
However, the capacitors in the industrial area will supply less reactive power,
thereby causing a net increase in reactive load.
At voltages below 85% to 90 % of the nominal value, some induction motors
may stall and draw high reactive current. This brings the voltages down
further.
An important effect in the initiation of voltage instability is the reaction of
loads to a decrease in the voltage magnitude within the load area. The voltage
dependence of loads in a system, can give considerable actual load power
relief following a voltage depression induced by system disturbances.
Therefore, it is important to account for voltage dependence of the load.
For different load models, nonlinear static model, whose real and reactive
powers are expressed as functions of voltage are used. These are essentially
for static load components, e.g., resistive and lighting loads, and as an
approximation for dynamic load components, e.g., motor driven loads.
When a heavy load is rapidly varying and is connected at some distance along
a feeder whose voltage drop is relatively high, a voltage flicker is initiated. If
the cyclic load is driven by electric motors, encountering multiple starting and
braking operations, the voltage at the load site and beyond will experience
voltage flicker. Examples of such loads are lumber mills, pumps and power
electronic devices with repetitive switching, and arc furnaces. If residential
customers are electrically close to such a load, and both are served by through
a weak distribution feeder, customers may experience uncomfortable
flickering light, television picture jitter, and computer freezes. Voltage
fluctuations, due to random arc length of an arc furnace load during scrap
melting have typical frequencies in the range 0.5-25 HZ. Flicker of lamps
may affect human visual system. For example, voltage amplitude variation of
about 0.3% at frequency 10 HZ are sufficient to get over the mean human
perceptivity threshold. The furnace electrodes are taken from open to short
circuit resulting in "short circuit voltage depression". There is a limit for this
short circuit voltage depression beyond which no flicker occurs.
Chapter 1 11
1.7 Power Systems Blackouts and Failures:

Utilities are often no longer self sufficient in generating resources and
power must be transmitted over the interconnections in larger quantities ,
for greater distances and for longer periods of time . With this evolution of
the interconnected power system , utilities are now inextricably linked and
a severe fault on one of their system can seriously affect their neighbors .
Power system failure is defined as a condition or state of system operation
characterized by loss of system integrity involving uncontrolled islanding
(or fragmentation ) of the system and / or uncontrolled loss of large blocks
of loads .If conditions continue to worsen where the overloading of vital
facilities may cause them to be endangered an entire area may
necessitate a shutdown of the system involved , an operation referred as "
Power System Blackout" .
The effects of blackouts for instance, can be catastrophic.
Major system failures are rarely the result of a single catastrophic

disturbance causing collapse of an apparently secure system . Such failures
are usually brought about combination circumstances that stress the network
beyond its capability. Several natural disturbances ( such as a tornado ,
severe storm , or freezing rain , equipment malfunction, human error, and
inadequate design ) combine to weaken the power system and eventually
lead to its breakdown . This may result in cascading outages that must be
contained within a small part of the system if a major blackout is to be
prevented.
In recent years ,analysis of major blackouts and failures of power systems
showed that voltage instability had been responsible for several blackouts
such as:
- New York pool disturbance OF September 22,1970 , Florida system
disturbance of December 28,1982 , French system disturbance of
December 19,1978 and January 12, 1987 , Northern Belgium system
disturbance of august 4, 1982, Swedish system disturbance of December
27,1983 , Japanese system disturbance of July 23, 1987, North American
system disturbance of July 2,1996 ,Egyptian power system 1979, April 24,
1990.,North American system disturbance of July 2003,Italian system
winter of 2004,Greek system winter 2004,and
Jordanian system in August 9, 2004.
1.8 Voltage Collapse Preventive Techniques:

Voltage collapse may be prevented by action of power transformers, which
are equipped with on load tap changers. This is only true for situations where
the voltage collapse occurs over along period of time in the order of the
minutes to hours. The time response of the mechanical tap changers is,
however, very slow to cope with the fast transient voltage collapse
phenomena associated with load devices and power electronic controlled
loads especially those of major induction motor content .
The injection of fast variable reactive power near the load centers can prevent
voltage collapse or instability. This can be achieved by shunt capacitors or
reactors, static Var compensators (SVC), thyristor controlled series capacitors
(TCSC), combinations of these elements, flexible AC transmission systems
(FACTS), which can act almost instantaneously within 2 cycles or less. The
need for analyzing the long – term dynamic response following major upsets
and ensuring proper coordination of protection and control systems is also
being recognized for voltage collapse avoidance.
1.9 Voltage Stability Classifications:

Voltage stability is classified into two categories: Large disturbance
voltage stability and small disturbance voltage stability. These
subdivisions are essentially decoupled phenomena that must be examined by
using steady - state analysis.
(a) Large - disturbance voltage stability : is concerned with system's

ability to control voltages following large disturbances such as system
faults , loss of load , or loss of generation .Determination of this form
of stability requires the examination of the dynamic performance of the
system over a period of time sufficient to capture the interaction of such
devices such as ULTCs and generator fields current limiter Large
disturbance voltage stability can be studied by using nonlinear time -
domain simulations which include proper modeling . Large disturbance
voltage stability may be further subdivided into transient and long – term
time frames.
Dynamic voltage control in power transmission network is governed by
the phenomenon of transient voltage stability. Such a transient
phenomenon should be distinguished from the classical ( mid and long –
term ) forms of voltage stability where the effects of transformer on
load tap changes , generator excitation limiters and static load
characteristics are predominant
(b) Small disturbance voltage stability: is concerned a system's ability
to control voltage following small perturbations, such as gradual change in
load. This form of stability can be effectively studied with steady - state
approaches that use linearization of the system dynamic equations at a
given operating point or using load flow analysis programs results.
Chapter 1 13
1.10 Voltage Stability Analysis

Following a disturbance, the system voltages often do not return to the
original level. Therefore, It is necessary to define the region of voltage level
which can be considered acceptable. The system is then said to have finite
stability within the specified region of voltage level.
The analysis of voltage stability for a given system state involves the
examination of two aspects:
1.10.1 Proximity to Voltage Instability:
Distance to instability may be measured in terms of physical quantities ,
such as load levels active power flow through a critical interface , and
reactive power reserve .Consideration must be given to possible
contingencies ( line outages , loss of a generating unit or reactive power
source , ect ). Critical voltage values and maximum powers can be used in this
analysis. Perfurcation techniques can be used in analyzing those problems.
1.10.2 Voltage Stability Criteria:

System dynamics influencing voltage stability are usually slow. Therefore ,
many aspects of the problem can be effectively analyzed by using static
methods .Criteria based on load flow results can be quite sufficient to detect
the voltage stability situations. Several criteria are adopted to examine the
voltage stability state in quasi steady-state conditions. Qualitative and
quantitative criteria are adopted.
1.10.3 Time Simulations Analysis

Dynamic analysis are useful for detailed study of specific voltage collapse
situation , coordination of protection and controls , and testing of remedial
measures . Dynamic simulation also examines whether and how the steady –
state equilibrium point will be reached.
One of the important aspects of transient voltage stability analysis , then , is
the evaluation of the performance of the protective systems during the
transient period , particularly the performance of relaying used for
protection of transmission lines and generators . How and why does
instability occur , what are the key factors contributing to instability , what
are the voltage week areas and what measures are most effective in
improving voltage stability .
On the other hand, if the system is unstable we need to know how it separates
and whether the point of separation is acceptable. Special relaying may be
required to cause separation as desired.
With time domain simulations, appropriate dynamic modeling with
differential equations of system components behaviors is to be included to
capture the events and their chronology leading to voltage instability.
1.11 System Protection Role in Voltage Stability

As transmission system becomes more heavily loaded, the risk of voltage
instability increases. Protective relays operation play a significant part in
system voltage collapse, and relay engineers need to understand the increased
threat to reliable relay performance with voltage collapses.
Whenever there is system disturbance and voltage drops to a certain pre-

selected level for a certain pre-selected time period , then selected loads
may be shed . The intention is that when load is dropped from a disturbed
system, the voltage recovers to normal levels. This requires coordination
between protection engineers and system planners , who together can
determine the amount of load and time delay required without affecting
system security .Load shedding is often initiated in steps to avoid over
shedding.
Voltage relays are used to sense all voltage depressing, regardless of cause.
Some techniques can be used to improve the ability of under voltage relay
to discriminate between conditions which require load shedding and
conditions that do not require load shedding. Under voltage can affect other
protection items on the power system.
Generator backup protection with impedance relays or voltage controlled or
restrained over current relay have caused unnecessary generator tripping
during stressed system conditions. Relay setting require consideration of
maximum reactive load under steady state operation with subsequent system
disturbances. Thus, these setting require stability type studies rather than the
conventional short circuit studies.
In addition , generator over excitation and rotor overload protection ,
generator auxiliaries protection , backup line protection with long reach
settings , and voltage controlled over current protection applied on
distribution systems all over affected by low voltage conditions . This could
result in undesired relay operations, which could further aggravate voltage
stability or result in unintentional load shedding. These possibilities must be
accounted for by protection engineers and may require system studies, both
transient and steady state.
1.12 Power Systems Islanding:

Occasionally, an unusual combination of circumstances and events causes a
portion of the interconnected system to separate completely and form one or
more electrical" Islands". The initiating event is usually a contingency more
severe than those covered by the normal design criteria. The events triggered
as a consequence of the initiating event , by stressing the system further ,
cause uncontrolled cascading outages .Wide variation of frequency ( from
58 to 63 HZ ) and voltage ( from 50% to 120 % of predisturbance value )
Chapter 1 15
may exist during the ensuing system conditions .The system can thus
deteriorate to the extreme states, the result being the loss of significant
portions of system load. Generally, the actions of control and protective
system dominate the system response during these conditions. The situation is
often aggravated by poorly coordinated protection and control systems.
1.12.1 Systems Response to Islanding Conditions

The system response to an islanding condition is basically a sustained
frequency transient .Therefore , the speed control and subsequent response
of prime mover and energy supply system play a major role in determining
the nature of the system dynamic performance . Often, the situation is
compounded by high - or low – voltage conditions.
1.12.2 Under Generated Islands:

In an island with total initial generation less than the total load , the
frequency will decline , if there is sufficient spinning reserve within the
island , the system frequency returns , in a few seconds , to a near normal
value . If sufficient generation with the ability to rapidly increase output is
not available , the frequency can reach levels that could lead tripping of the
thermal generating units by under frequency protective relay , thus
aggravating the situation further . Therefore under frequency load -
shedding schemes employed to reduce the connected load to a level that
can be satisfactory supplied by the available generation . Consequently, in
under generated island, the initial transient is dependent on the response of
spinning generation reserve and load – shedding relaying. The minimum
value of frequency is reached in a few seconds. The system frequency
response beyond this point depends on the prime mover characteristics.
Frequency variations affect load powers and reactive powers together with
lines and equipments reactance's, which is reflected in voltage levels
variations. The system performance is also influenced by the reactive power
balance within the island. A significant mismatch in the total reactive power
generated and absorbed could lead to high or low voltage conditions.
Generator over/ under excitation limits and controls may be activated.
1.12.3 Over Generated Island:
In an island with an initial excess generation, the frequency will rise and the
speed- governing system will respond by reducing the mechanical power
generated by turbines, the power plants, in effect experience "partial load
rejection". The ability to stabilize without loss of load depends on the ability
of the power plants to sustain a partial rejection.
The system performance is also influenced by the reactive power balance
within the island. A significant mismatch in the total reactive power generated
and absorbed could lead to high or low voltage conditions .Generator over/
under excitation limits and controls may be activated. In extreme situation,

the response of protective relays could lead to the tripping of generating units.
Variations especially decrease in power supply voltage and frequency can
degrade the performance of power plant auxiliaries driven by induction
motors. For example, pump associated with circulating water, condensate,
heater drain, and feed water are driven by induction motors. Degraded
performance of these pumps may lead to loss of condenser vacuum, high
turbine exhaust temperature, and insufficient feed water .Many nuclear plants
are, therefore, equipped with under voltage and under frequency relays to trip
the plant at low voltage and at low frequencies. Power plants motors
commonly use electromagnetic contractors and relays in the starting and
protection circuits. The response of these contractors and relays to severe or
long voltage dips could disconnect the motors. Frequency increases influence
load powers and lines impedances and nodes voltages. This will contribute to
voltage collapses or voltage instabilities.
1.13 Cold Inrush Current
1.13.1 What is Cold Inrush Current?

When Switching on solid state equipment such as computers , copiers , and
electronic ballasts found in lighting system , as well as magnetic devices
like motors , drives and core & coil ballasts , peak inrush current be
several orders of magnitude greater than the circuit's steady state current
will be drawn. It can be as high as 20 times normal operating current.
Usually this inrush current is reduced after 10 ms , but could take up to 30
to 40 cycles until the current is at a normal value . Switching power
supplies produce high inrush current at turn on resulting from filter capacitor
impedance. These large filter capacitors act like a short circuit ,
producing an immediate inrush surge current with a fast rise time
1.13.2 Inrush Currents Effects:

Inrush current can affect electrical components such as tripping circuit
breakers and fuses. During startup, momentary connect bouncing in
switches or relay may cause the contacts to become pitted due to arcing
between the contact points . This surge in current can also cause serious
damage , such as welding switching contacts together. It can cause heavy
demand of reactive power and voltage problems at starting of network
energizing. Starting of equipments and motors which require high starting
currents than the normal values may suffer problems and failures.
Chapter 1 17
1.13.3 Inrush Current Measurement:

Measuring this high startup current is important to determine the proper
corrective equipment to install, such as surge limiters, soft start devices or
simply increasing wire sizes. Special equipments are required.
1.13.4 Inrush Current Control Circuit
Voltage is raised gradually from zero to full supply voltage by control circuits
such that shown in fig (1.7)(a).
Fig. 1.7 (a) An inrush current control circuit configuration

(b) Inrush current control circuit output voltage response
The electronic circuit shown in the figure(1.7(a)) regulates the inrush current
that arises upon initial application of voltage to capacitors .This inrush
current control circuit is intended principally to be incorporated into an
electronic instrument in which capacitors are used to filter out current
harmonics and noise that would otherwise be impressed on the instrument
power supply bus .In the absence of a circuit like this one , voltage would be
applied to the capacitors abruptly - typically by closing a relay ; the resulting
high inrush current could disrupt the power supply bus and thereby also
adversely affect the operations of other instruments connected to the same
bus.
The task of that circuit is as follows: shortly after turn-on , the inrush current
control circuit causes the voltage on the instrument bus to ramp
approximately linearly up to the full power supply potential , so that the
inrush current is constrained to be an approximately square pulse of
controlled amplitude .In more detail ,the sequence of events is the following:
Before power is applied , all capacitors are discharged .Upon initial
application of power to the input terminals Q 1 becomes turned on , and C1
starts to charge through R1 .The turn on of Q1 causes the charging of C2 to
full power supply voltage .When C1 becomes turned off; this allows C2 to
discharge partially .When the potential on the left side of C 2 threshold
voltage of Q2, the output voltage begins to ramp up toward the full supply
voltage, following initial application of power as shows fig (1.7)(b).
1.13.5 Loads Inrush Currents Periods and Their Ratio's

to Steady State Rated Currents:
The different types of load and their special inrush current are the two
important factors to the switching frequency of the relay; in addition, they
also greatly affect the contact welding, particularly the inrush current. When
choosing the relays, the current under steady condition and the inrush current
should be taken into consideration, and a range that is safety enough should
be granted.
The different types of load and their corresponding inrush current to steady
state normal currents and the period after which the inrush current disappear
and the currents go to their normal rated values are given in table (1.1)
1.14 Voltage and Load Stability:

Usually specifications define the allowed voltage variations for transmission,
distribution and utilization systems (or loads). Voltages, which violate these
limits, are called unstable voltages. The voltage state is denoted (voltage
instability). Voltage violation may occur in the form of permanent voltage
drops or voltage collapse or voltage oscillations or voltage flickers or both.
When the loads operate faraway from their designed performance or with
lower efficiencies than designed values, the applied voltage is said to be
“unstable voltage”.
Chapter 1 19
Table (1.1) Loads inrush currents periods and their ratio's to steady state
values.
Type of load Inrush Current /Rated Period of inrush current

current I/io
Resistive Steady State Current --------
Solenoid 10~20 times the steady 0.07 to 0.1 second
state current
Motor (**) 5~10 times the steady 0.2 to 0.5 second
state current
Incandescent 5~15 times the steady Approx 1/3 second
Lamp state current
Mercury Lamp 3 times the steady
only (*) state current
Sodium vapor 1~3 times the steady
Lamp only (*) state current
Capacitive 20~40 times the steady ½ to 2 cycles (1/120 to
state current 1/30 seconds)
Transformer 5~10 times the steady
state current
Fluorescent lamp 5 to 10 times the steady 10 seconds or less
state current
Electromagnetic 3 times the steady state 1 to 2 cycles (1/60 to
Contact current 1/30 seconds)
Capacitive load 20 ~40 times 1/2 to 2 cycles (1/120

to 1/30 seconds)
Discharge lamp 20 ~40 times

circuits
(*) When the discharge tube, transformers, choke coil, capacitors, ect…
are combined in common in discharge lamp circuits ,the inrush current
may be 20 to 40 times, especially if the power supply impedance is low in
the high power factor type
(**) Conditions become harsher if plugging or including is performed
since state transitions are repeated.
Aspects of voltage instability are: some motors may fail to support the load
torques and can go to stand-still, lighting discharge lamps may experience
blackouts production will decrease, etc. Also loads are then said to be
"unstable loads". From load point of view voltage stability has been defined
in terms of the ability to maintain voltage so that when load increased, load
power will increase, i.e. both power and voltage being controllable, at
different voltage levels.
1.15 Voltage Stability Limit:
For the simplest case of resistive load and a source reactance, we find that
load power increases as its conductance increases until load conductance
equals source susceptance and then decreases as its conductance is further
increased. This defines the power limit. The system voltage will be unstable
beyond that limit. Thus it seems legitimate to call the critical point a stability
limit as well as a power limit. In this simple case the voltage is still
controllable by varying load conductance. In order to increase the voltage
stability limit, the voltage at the load should be maintained by reactive power
compensation if the load bus has no nearby generation.
1.16 Voltage Security:
Voltage security may be defined as the ability not only to operate stable but
also to remain stable following any reasonably credible system disturbance.
Security may be measured either by the increase in load that can be supported,
or by the increase in system impedance through which the load can be
supplied, or by the severity of a temporary major disturbance (e.g. critical
clearing time for a fault) that can be withstood without exceeding the limit of
voltage stability. All of these measures of margin can be calculated but cannot
be measured directly on an operating system. However, an indirect measure
that can be observed is the sensitivity of voltage to the continual changes in
load (dV/dP). As mentioned before, the critical value of (dV/dP) for a
satisfactory margin may vary for different load and system operating
characteristics, and so must be calibrated for the particular system and
operating point in question. The behavior of system voltage is often a very
good indicator of the approach to the boundary of secure operation. As the
limits of voltage stability are approached, voltage may become not only very
sensitive to small changes in load but also more difficult to control.
1.17 Voltage Standards:
There are several standards for voltage magnitudes allover the world. German
VDE standards are:
Low voltages: (D.C): 110, 220, 440 volts
Chapter 1 21
Low voltages: (AC): 125, 220, 380, 500 volts

High voltages: 1, 3, 6, 10, 15, 20, 30 kV
Ultra High voltages: 60, 110, 220, 380 kV
British standard differs by 0.1 from German standards. They are 1.1, 3.3, 6.6,
11, 22, 33 and 66 kV.
Egyptian standards are:
 220/380 volts for low voltage
 11kV, 22kV for distribution in towns and villages
 33kV, 66kV for transmission inter-administrative centers
 132kV, 220kV, 500kV for UHV transmission
1.18 Admissible Voltage Drops:
German standards give some limits for admissible voltage drops. They
are 3.5% for 220/380 V AC distribution network, 5% for 6kV AC network
and (5-10)% for 33kV AC networks and 10% for voltages over 66 kV.
However the latter limit changes from country to another, but 10% is an
ultimate limit.
Problems
1.1 What is the relation between voltage and load stability?
1.2 What are the types of power systems stabilities?
1.3 Compare between voltage collapse and voltage instability?
1.4 What are the contributions of generators, transmission system
configurations and load types on voltage stability?
1.5 What are the effects of tap-changing transformers, static Var
compensators, FACTS, HVDC systems in voltage stabilization?
1.6 Define: Voltage security –Voltage stability limits- cold
inrush currents-Admissible voltage drops –voltage standards?
1.7 What are the effects of the inrush currents on voltage
stability?
ًًًً1.8 What are loads inrush currents periods and their ratio's to
steady state rated currents?
1.9 What is meant by power system islanding?

References
[1] B.M. Weedy, B.R. Cox, "Voltage Stability of Radial Power Links", Proc.
of IEE ,London, Vol. 115,No. 4, April 1968,pp528-536.
[2] B.M. Weedy, "Electric Power Systems", Book ,3rd Edition ,New York,
John – Wiley and Sons 1979.chap.8.
[3] C. Concordia, ”Voltage Instability”, Electric Power Energy Systems, May
1989,pp 14-20.
[4] C.W. Taylor, “Power System Voltage Stability”, Book, Mc. Graw Hill,
New York, 1993.
[5] P. Kunder, "Power System Stability and Control", Book, Mc Graw – Hill,
New York, 1994, Chaps.7, 12
[6] W.I. Rashid, “Voltage Stability Enhancement in Power Systems”, Ph.D.
Thesis, Suez Canal University, Port Said, Egypt, 1997.
[7] F.Bouring –G. Testud, B.Heilbronn, J.Versulle, "Present Practices and
Trends on the French Power System to Prevent Voltage Collapse" IEEE Trans
on Power Systems, Vol. 8, No. 3 August 1993. PP778-778.
[8] S.Abe. ,Fukunaga, Isono, B.Kondo, "Power System Voltage Stability"
IEEE Trans on PAS, Vol -101.Oct. 1982, PP3830-3840.
[9]C.C.Lui and F.F Wu.," Steady –State Voltage Stability Regions of Power
Systems"System and Control Letters,Vol. 6, June.1985,PP 23-31.
[10]A.E.Hammad , M. Z. EL-Sadek , "Prevention of Transient Voltage
Instabilities Due to Induction Motor Loads by Static VAR Compensators "
IEEE Trans on Power Systems , Vol 4 , Aug .1989 ,PP 1182-1190.
[11] F. El-Kady, " A Survey of Major Blackouts and Failures of Power
Systems" , Review Paper, Egyptian Universities High Council , Cairo, Egypt,
1997.
[12] M.Z. El-Sadek, “Preventive Measures for Voltage Collapses and Voltage
Failures in the Egyptian Power System ”, Electric Power Systems Research
Journal ,No.44 , 1998, pp 203-211 .
Chapter 2 32
Chapter 2
Voltage/Powers Relations
of Two Nodes Systems
Voltage/powers relations of two nodes equivalent power systems are
presented in several methods based on different mathematical models. The
voltages are given as functions in load active power, load reactive power and
transmission system parameters. Characteristics of two nodes equivalent
power systems receiving end voltages and their behavior at certain generating
end voltages as function of load powers are detailed. Emphasis are made on
maximum transmitted power relations and their corresponding critical
voltages. Compensators gains and system gains influences on load nodes
voltages sensitivity to load reactive power variations are illustrated, taking
into consideration various load nodes short circuit powers levels. Shapes of
load lines with and without compensators are finally displayed.
2.1 Importance of Two Nodes Power Systems Analysis:

As the voltage stability problem is mainly a load stability aspect, the
load node voltage relations attribute a special importance. Two nodes power
system can represent satisfactory the load node performance in all its
situations encountered in practices, which are:
(a) It can represent any isolated load fed from a generation station through a
short transmission link.
(b) Or, It can represent a load fed from an infinite power system through
any feeder, which is the case of most loads.
(c) Or, It can represent any load node within a large multi-machines power
system having thousands of lines, any number of nodes and generators,
using a Thevenen’s equivalent of that large system at the concerned load
node, after its separation.
2.2 Two Nodes Systems Elements:

Two nodes system is shown fig. (2.1). The voltages of this system are
Vs and Vr. Vs will represent the generator internal voltage or the infinite
network constant voltage or the Thevenen’s voltage of the large system seen
by the load node upon separation of that load. Vr is the load node voltage. The
link between the two nodes will be represented by a simple impedance
Zs=Rs+jXs which refers to the series impedance of a short-line or feeder or to
32 Voltage/Powers Relations of Two Nodes Systems
the Thevenen’s equivalent impedance at the load node. Two port generalized
constants model can be used to represent the former cases or to represent
medium and long lines in series with transformers provided with tap-
changers.
Vs Vr
Rs Xs
Vs Pl + jQl
Pr + jQr
Qc = Qr -Ql
Fig. 2.1 Two nodes power system configuration
Just at the receiving end of the transmission link, the powers are (P r + jQr).
The load powers are (Pl + jQl). Pr is evidently equal to Pl, while Qr differs
from Ql. The difference between Qr and Ql allows for reactive power
injections or compensation Qc at the load node, i.e. (Qr = Ql + Qc). Although
Vs, Vr are complex quantities, their magnitudes will be the main field of
interest in voltage stability problems as they are determining indicator.
2.3 Complex Voltage Depression Method:

The vector diagram of the voltages of the two nodes system is shown in
fig. (2.2). Neglecting the inphase voltage increment V, the difference
between Vr, Vs is given by an inphase component Vr and a quadrature one
Vx. Regarding the vector diagram fig. (2.2), their values can be expressed in
the form:
Vr  Rs I p  X s I q (2.1)
Vx  X s I p  Rs I q (2.2)
With:
Pr Q
Ip  and I q  r (2.3)
Vr Vr
Vr, Vx can be rewritten as:
Rs Pr  X s Qr
Vr  (2.4)
Vr
X s Pr  Rs Qr
V x  (2.5)
Vr
Chapter 2 32
In complex form:
V  Vr  jVx (2.6)
Fig. 2.2 Phasor diagram of two nodes system voltages and currents
Then, The two-node voltage relation will be:
Vs  Vr 0  Vr   j Vx  (2.7)

Or
 R P  X sQr   X s Pr  Rs Q r 
Vs  Vr  s r  j 
 Vr   Vr 
   
 g   h 
Vr  j (2.8)
 V  V 
 r  r
Therefore; Vs is given by:
2 2
 g   h 
Vs  Vr     (2.9)
 Vr  V 
  r
Or:
Vr4  2 gVr2  g 2  h 2
Vs  (2.10)
Vr2
And Vr is given by:
4
   2
  
Vr  2  R P  X Q V 2 Vr  R2  X 2  P2  Q 2  0
s r s r s s s r r
 (2.11)
Then:
 b  b 2 4ac
Vr  (2.12)
2a
Where:
a  1.0

b  2 Rs Pr  X s Qr Vs2 
c   Rs2  X s2    Pr2 Qr2 
   
The receiving end reactive power Qr, which is the sum of the load reactive
power Ql and the compensator reactive power Qc, can be calculated by slight
manipulation in (2.8) as:
aQr2  bQr  c  0 (2.13)

Where:
a  Rs2  X s2
b  2Vr2 X s
2
c  V 2  R P 2   X s2 Pr 2  Vr2Vs2
 r s r 
Qr is positive for lagging power factor and negative for leading one. The
phase angles difference between Vs, Vr;  is given by:
V X P R Q
sin   x s r s r (2.14)
V V V
s r s
For ultra high voltage networks, Rs << Xs and the angle  is small, (i.e. tan 
 in radians) and V = 0, therefore the magnitudes of the voltage depression is
approximately given by:
X s Qr
Vr  (2.15)
Vr
X s Pr
V x  (2.16)
Vr
And its phase angle is given approximately by:

Chapter 2 32
X s Pr
 (2.17)
Vs Vr
Which means that reactive power flow is mainly dependent on nodes voltages
magnitudes and active power flow is mainly dependent on phase differences
of these voltages.
Example 2.1:
A Load center consumes 25 MW and 50 MVARS at peak load period.
It is fed from an infinite 10 kV network through a transmission link of
impedance Zs = (0.0784 + j0.3922) Ohm. Find the voltage depression and the
required compensator reactive power for the following cases:
(a) System without compensation.
(b) When the load power factor is corrected to unity.
(c) For the load node voltage reste equal the source voltage.
Solution:
(a) Having Vs = 10kV, Pr = 25MW, Ql = 50MVAR and Qr = Ql = 50MVAR. Rs
= 0.0784Ohm, Xs = 0.3922Ohm, the load node voltage Vr is given by equation
(2.11) as: Vr = 6.782kV
The voltage depression will be Vr = Vs - Vr= 3.218 kV. and no compensation
exists (i.e. Qc = 0)
(b) For load power factor compensation to unity:
Compensator reactive power Qc = -Ql = -50 MVAR and Qr = 0. Eqn. (2.11)
yields: Vr = 9.748kV. Therefore, voltage depression Vr = 0.252kV.
Noting that power factor correction has improved the voltage level and
reduced the voltage depression from 3.218 to 0.252 kV.
(c) Compensation for equal load and source voltages:
This means that Vr = Vs = 10kV, or zero voltage regulation. Using eqn. (2.13),
Qr = -6.35 or -484 MVAR. Load quantity makes that evidently Qr = -6.35
MVAR will be considered.
Compensator reactive power Qc = -6.35-50 = -56.35 MVAR
No voltage depression in this case on the account of large required reactive
power compensation (-56.35MVAR) at the load end. Practically reactive
power compensation is a fraction of the load reactive power. This is called
load voltage control.
2.4 Scalar Voltage Depression Iterative Method:

Neglecting "V" in the vector diagram, fig. (2.2), the scalar difference
between |Vs| and |Vr| can be expressed by the scalar value of Vr, that is:
 X Q  Rs Pr 
Vs  Vr   s r   Vr (2.18)
 Vr 
Having a fixed value for Vs and a specified value for both of Pr, Qr, Rs
and Xs, the load node voltage magnitude Vr can be calculated in an iterative
method. In that method the numerator of eqn. (2.18) is calculated once and
kept constant. The iterative procedure starts by assigning the nominal value
for |Vr| (per phase). Vr is then calculated from eqn. (2.18). The first value of
Vr is afterwards found from |Vr| = |Vs| - |Vr|. The new value of Vr is
substituted in eqn. (2.18) to get a new value for Vr, which is used to
calculate the second iteration of Vr. The process is to be repeated until the
scalar depression Vr rest unchanged. The final value of |Vr| = |Vs| - |Vr| is
taken as the magnitude of Vr. The sending end voltage phase angle  can then
be calculated approximately from.
V x X s Pr  Rs Q r
  (radians)  (2.19)
Vs Vs Vr
In order to have any voltage regulation represented by Vr = |Vs|-|Vr|, the

receiving end required reactive power Qr is obtained from.
V V  Rs Pr R
Qr r r  k  s Pr (2.20)
Xs Xs
Where:
K = (Vr.Vr/Xs) and Qr = Ql + Qc.
Compensator reactive power Qc can be calculated from eqn. (2.20), for any
specified load voltage Vr, load power Pl and transmission link (Rs + JXs).
Example 2.2:
Using the scalar voltage iterative method, find the load voltage of a
load consumes constant powers of 1 MW and 0.75 MVARS, independent of
voltage. The load is fed through a line of impedance Z s = (0.66 + j0.66) Ohms
from an infinite network having constant voltage of 3.3 kV.
Solution:
Load node phase voltage 3300/ 3  1900V.
The first iteration of eqn. (2.18) yields:
R P  XsQ r
ΔV (1)  s r
Vr
Chapter 2 32
0.66 10 6  0.660.7510 6 385

  202V
3  1900 1.9
(1)
Then: Vr  1900  202  1698V
For the second iteration we get:
385
ΔV (2)   227V
1.698
(2)
Vr 1900  227 1673V
Third iteration yields:
385
ΔV (3)   230 V
1.673
Vr(3)  1670 V
The fourth one gets:
385
ΔV (4)   230
1.670
No Variation in V, Therefore, the final value of Vr is 1670 V.
In order to check the accuracy of the obtained value, the voltage V r is
obtained from the traditional relation:
10 6
 0.8  j0.6   0.66  j0.66 
3300
Vr  Vs  IZs  
3 3  3300  0.8
Vr = (1698.3 - j28.3), and its magnitude is given by: |Vr|  1698 V.
Load power factor is 0.8 lagging and error is nearly 1.6%, which is acceptable
in practical purposes.
2.5 Generalized Constants Method:

For either equivalent (Rs + jXs) transmission links or for links consist of
medium or long or short lines and tapped-transformers or other series or shunt
elements, generalized constants approach is the more suitable one. It offers
simple formula and can be adapted to calculate maximum transmitted power
and its corresponding critical load node voltage, for both constant reactive
power loads or constant power factor loads, taking into account the presence
of tapped transformers. The voltage formula can be derived as follows:
Using the generalized line equation.
Vs  AVr  BI r (2.21)
Assuming Vr is the reference phasor and the load current I r lags Vr by r. The
transmission system generalized constants are:
A = |A| and B = |B|
Vs  s  AVr   BI r    r
Vs  AVr cos  jAVr sin   BI r cos   r   jBI r sin    r  (2.22)
As the modulus of the left-hand side is equal to that of the right
2 2 2 2 2

Vs  A Vr  B I r  2 ABV r I r cos    
r

2 2 2 2

Vs  A Vr  B I r  2 ABVr I r cos    cos  sin(    ) sin 
2
r r
 (2.23)
Pr  Vr I r cos  r and Q  Vr I r sin  r
Equation (2.22) becomes:

Vs  A Vr  B I r  2 ABPr cos     2 ABQ sin    
2 2 2 2 2
r
Substituting:
2 2 2
I r  I p  jI q , I  I  I , I  p V , and I  Q V
r p q p r r q r r
In eqn. (2.23), yields:
 2 2 
2 2 2 2  Pr  Qr   2 ABP cos     2 ABQ sin     (2.24)
Vs  A Vr  B
 2  r r
 Vr 
The load end voltage is given by:
G G 2  4 A2 B 2 S 2
Vr   (2.25)
2 A2 2 A2
Where:
r

G  2 AB P cos     Q sin      Vs
r
2

And: S 2  Pr2  Qr2
The critical voltage, which corresponds to the maximum power transfer, can
be found by equating the second term under the root to zero, i.e.
Chapter 2 23
G
Vcr  (2.26)
2 A2
The maximum power to be transferred to the load can be found by equating

the second term to zero and performing some manipulations to it to get:
b b 2  4ac
Pmax    (2.27)
2a 2a
Where:
(a) For constant power factor load (cos r = constant): a, b and c are found
from:
a   sin 2      2 cos   sin     tan  r  tan 2  r cos2    
cos    2 tan  r sin     2
b Vs  Vs
AB AB
V S4
c
4 A2 B 2
(b) For constant reactive power load (Qr = constant): a, b and c are found
from:
a   sin 2    
 V 2  2 ABQ sin     
 
b   cos       s r

 AB 
 
 V 4   Q sin    V 2 
c
 s  r s   Q 2 cos 2    
 2 2   AB  r
 4 A B   
Noting that (+) and (-) are used for Qr with lagging and leading power factors
respectively. A, B,  and , for a line having total series impedance Z and
total shunt admittance Y, are calculated as follows:
 For simple Z = (Rs + jXs) link: A = 10, B = Z.
 For  section link: A = (1 + YZ/2), B = Z .
 For T section link: A = (1 + YZ/2), B = (1 + YZ/4) Z.
 For long lines: A = [1 + (YZ/2) + (Y2 Z2 /4) + (Y3 Z3 / 720)+...],
B = Z [1 + (YZ/2) + (Y2 Z2 /120) + (Y3 Z3 /5040) +...]
The first two terms are sufficient for lines lengths less than 500 Km.
2.6 Load Nodes Short-Circuit Power Method:

In practice the load nodes short-circuit power are usually known and
defined as the product of the three-phase short-circuits current Isc and the
nominal node voltage Vs, i.e.
S sc  Vs I sc
*
 Psc  jQsc  S sc  sc (2.28)
Vs2
S sc .  (2.29)
Zs
The link impedance is:
Z s  Rs  jX s (2.30)
Then:
Vs2 Vs2
Rs  Z s cos sc  cos sc , X s  sin  sc (2.31)
S sc S sc
The real and imaginary components of the voltage depression Vr, Vx can
be written in the form:
V P cos   Q sin 
r  r sc r sc (2.33)
V 2 V S
s r sc
V P sin   Q cos 
x  r sc r sc (2.34)
V 2 V S
s r sc
V  Vr  jVx (2.35)
The scalar voltage depression V in Vr from its no-load value Vs equals

nearly to Vr. Assuming constant power load (Pr = 0) and Rs << Xs (sinSC
1), then:
V Vr Qr sin sc Qr

   (2.36)
V V S S
s s sc sc
Chapter 2 22
Q
V  Vs  Vr  r V (2.37)
S s
sc
Or:
 Q 
Vr  Vs 1  r 
 (2.38)
S
 sc 
Therefore:
Vr
Vs  (2.39)
 Qr 
1  
 S 
 sc 
This relation gives the slope (-Vs/Ssc) of the voltage characteristic of the two
node link due to receiving end reactive power variation at a node of specified
short- circuit power level, which is shown in fig. (2.3).
Fig. 2.3 Load voltage characteristics with received reactive power
2.7 Load-Flow Gauss Iterative Method:

Typical load flow equations involve network equations written in terms
of voltages and powers. Generator node "s" can be considered as reference
bus having specified voltage Vs0. The generator power is given by:
S g  Ps  jQs (2.40)
While, the load power is:
S r  Vr I *  Pr  jQr (2.41)
 
Vs  Vr  I Rs  jX s  Vr  IZ s (2.42)
The load node voltage is given by:
 S* 
 
Vr  V  r Z (2.43)
s  *  s
 Vr 
Having Vs, Sr and Zs, eqn. (2.43) can be solved iteratively to get V r. Gauss
iterative method is usually used with a computer program to perform these
iterations. In this concept Pr is the actual load power and Qr is the net received
reactive power at node r. It is the difference between the load reactive power
demand and the external injected reactive power.
Example 2.3:
For the two nodes power system shown in fig. (2.1), find the load
voltage Vr when its power demand is (8-j5) pu and the generator node voltage
Vs is kept constant at 1pu. The transmission link impedance is Z s =
0.005+j0.03 pu./phase. Use the load flow Gauss iterative technique equations.
Solution:
Having Vs = 1.00, Zs is known, using first Gauss iteration for V r(1) =1.00,
substitute in eqn. (2.43) to get a new value for Vr(1) = 0.810-j0.215. Using this
value a second iteration yields Vr(2) = 0.715-j0.190.
The third one gives Vr(3) = 0.677-j 0.215. Continuation of these iterations up
to the 13th, one gets Vr(13) = 0.618-j 0.215 and the 14th, iteration gets the same
value.
Solution is said to be converged and the load voltage is finally pronounced as:
Vr = 0.618-j0.215 = 0.654-19.18o pu
Current in the link is: I = (8-j5)/(0.654-19.18) = 14.43-51.19 pu, and
Generator input power is given by:
Sg = Vs I* = (1.0 0)(14.43-51.19) = 9.04+j11.24 pu
The voltage depression in then = 0.346 pu
Example 2.4:
Solve example 2.3 for:
(a) Load demand increased to (10+j5)
(b) Equal load and source voltages (Vs = Vr = 1.0 pu).
Find required compensation reactive power.
Chapter 2 22
Solution:
(a) No convergence occurs. No solution, i.e., the system cannot operate with
this heavy loading condition
(b) Assuming the load voltage Vr is the reference values then:
8  j5  jQ c
Vs  1.00   0.005  j0.03
1.00
|Vs| = |1 + (0.005+j 0.03)(8-j 5+jQc)| = 1.0
This gives Qc = 7.41 pu. Therefore: Vs = 1.014.6 pu.
And the generated power is given by: Sg = 8.349-j 0.315 pu.
2.8 Thevenen’s Equivalent of Large Power Systems at

Certain Load Nodes:
All previous formula of load nodes voltages are developed for a simple
two node system having voltages Vs and V r at both ends and interconnected
by a link of impedance Z. However, voltage stability criteria are applicable
for large systems represented by their Thevenen’s equivalent at the concerned
node. This representation is quite sufficient for such analysis determination of
Thevenen’s equivalent of large power systems can be summarized in the
following steps:
(a) Disconnect the load at the concerred node.
(b) Transform all other loads into their Yl = (Pl-jQl)/|V|)2 and add these
shunts to the system [Y] matrix.
(c) With the load separated, perform a load-flow for the system. The
obtained voltage at the load node represents its Thevenen’s voltage E th =
Vs, as the current flowing in the equivalent two nodes link is zero, the
source voltage equals the load node voltage.
(d) Arrange the system nodes so that all generators are at the top of nodes.
(e) Kill all generators. This can be performed mathematically in the
following manner: The system [Y] matrix having generator nodes "G" and
load nodes "L", can be written as follows.
 I G  Y GG Y GL  V G 
 L    LG   (2.44)
 I  Y Y LL  V L 
With:
VL, IL vectors of voltages and currents at load nodes.
VG, IG vectors of voltages and currents at generators node.
YGG, YGL, YLG, and YLL are sub-matrices of the system Y-matrix.
Killing all generators of the system means that all generators are
connected to the ground with the result that their self elements |Y GG| will
disappear and |VG| = 0. Their mutual with load nodes |YLG| vanish. This
mutual should be added to the self of the load nodes, which are connected to
the generator buses "G". Fortunately they are already included in |Y LL| of the
load nodes in the elements having mutual with the generators before killing.
Therefore, the above [Y]-matrix becomes:
I L  Y LL V L (2.45)
Taking the inverse of this equation yields:
V L  Z LL I L (2.46)
With:
|ZLL| = 1/|YLL|
Injection of 1.00 current at node # n results in voltage V n at that node. The

Thevenen’s impedance seen from that node n is therefore:
Zth n = Vn/In = Diag |ZLL|; corresponding to node #n, with all other loads
represented by their equivalent shunt admittance’s and added to the [Y]
matrix, and the load of node #n separated. It is also the diagonal of the Z-bus
matrix corresponding to node #n, at previous conditions.
2.9 Load Nodes Reactive Power Characteristics:

Reactive power at the receiving load end of the two nodes system
mainly determines the load voltage magnitude V r. In the same time any
required voltage at the load node should be accompanied by modification of
reactive power quantity and perhaps its sign at that node. For the same power
demand, capacitive reactive power is associated with higher voltage levels,
while inductive reactive power is associated with lower levels, as shown from
equation (2.12). For a 300km long line with parameters R=0.003pu,
X=0.041pu, and Y=2.35pu operating at 500 kV, connected to a unity power
factor load. The sending end voltage is kept constant at 1.0 pu. fig. (2.4)
shows the reactive power at the receiving end of the line in order to keep the
receiving end voltage at the shown levels at various loading conditions.
In other words, the feasible power that can be transmitted at each level
of the receiving voltage and the respective needed reactive power at this end.
Chapter 2 22
Fig. 2.4 Load node voltage-reactive power characteristics at various load

powers
2.10 Load Nodes Active Power Characteristics:

In order to demonstrate the effects of voltage variation on the power
system operation, the previous two nodes system is reconsidered with the
same numerical data. For certain sending end voltage V s, the receiving end
voltage Vr is plotted at various load powers Pr and different load power factors
and for constant reactive powers in fig. (2.5). The power/voltage
characteristics for different power factors and for constant load reactive power
requirements appear in fig. (2.5) in what is known by the "noze" curves which
have special importance in voltage stability studies.
(a) (b)
Fig. 2.5 Load node voltage-active power characteristics

(a) For constant load power factor (b) For constant load reactive powers
That two values of voltage exist for each value of power is evident
from equation (2.24). At the lower voltage a very high current is required to
provide the required power. For loads of lagging power factors the possibility
exists that the operating power may be near the knee where small changes in
load cause large voltage changes and voltage instability can occur. On the
other hand, lagging power factors load works at a low voltage level and a
limited power transfer.
Inserting a capacitor in shunt with the receiving end load i.e. having
leading power factor region at load end, raises the voltage levels, eliminates
the probability of voltage fall and increases the power transfer for each level
of voltage. When the load power and reactive power are independent on its
node voltage, that load is said to be “stiff". Otherwise it is called “soft” load.
2.11 Load Power Factor Correction and Load Voltage

Control:
Load power factor correction means modification in the reactive power
amount drawn from the feeding network at the load node by a shunt
capacitive power source. The inductive reactive power drawn by the load
itself rests the same. The new capacitive reactive power amount will rise the
load terminal voltage to a new single valued load voltage. On the other hand,
voltage control means numerous specified voltages are required at a certain
load node irrespective of its load power factor. This calls for a variable
inductive and capacitive reactive power source at that load node .The required
reactive power is controlled for each voltage value.
Although power factor corrections of loads is inherent by certain

improvement in load voltage level and by decrease in voltage depression, it
cannot be considered a voltage control means, as it cannot adjust the voltage
to numerous prespecified values. This is true as examination of the above
formula show that if Qr is specified certain corresponding Vr will be obtained.
It may be an undesired (or a low) value. Also if Vr is controlled to be any
value (say equal Vs), certain corresponding value of Qr is absorbed which may
not fulfill the load power factor correction requirement (0.86 in Europe and
0.9 in Egypt).
2.12 Load Compensation Theory Principles:

The above discussion of power factor correction requirements and
voltage control consequences and load powers and reactive powers
characteristics with voltage are formulated in the load compensation theory
principles as follows:
(a) A purely reactive compensator can eliminate supply-voltage variations
caused by changes in both the real and the reactive power of the load.
Chapter 2 22
(b) The purely reactive power compensator cannot maintain both constant
voltage and unity power-factor at the same time.
(c) Rule (b) has an exception when the load power is zero, it is quite
possible for a purely reactive compensator to maintain both constant
voltage and unity "average" power-factor.
2.13 Compensator Reactive Power Sensitivity to System

Nodes Voltage Variations:
Examination of voltage/reactive power characteristics shows that any
load compensator used for voltage control should be characterized by a knee
point voltage Vk, and a compensator gain Kc, which is defined by
compensator reactive power sensitivity to system voltage variations, or
defined as:
dQc
Kc  (2.47)
dVr
Vk defines the nominal voltage for a compensator of maximum rated reactive

power Qc (max). The compensator node voltage Vr can be then defined by:
Qc
Vr  Vk  (2.48)
Kc
Within 0  Qc  Qc (max).
Therefore, if Kc is infinity, the compensator can generate a reactive power
sufficient to keep Vr = Vk = constant as load varies. For example, a
compensator gain of Kc = 40 VAR/volt means that the compensator reactive
power changes from zero to 1 pu for a change in Vr by Vr =1/40 = 0.025 pu.
Fig. 2.6 Compensator voltage characteristics with its reactive power

In practice Kc is limited and generally not so high for compensator operation

stability considerations. Figure (2.6) shows the compensator voltage
characteristics with its reactive power. The slope in VAR/volt is the value of
its gain Kc. Vk is its knee voltage or system reference voltage.
2.14 Load Node Voltages as Affected by System Gains

and Compensator Reactive Power:
For a two nodes system link impedance ratio Xs/Rs and negligible load
power variations, reactive power balance at load end is given by:
Ql  Qc  Qr (2.49)
Where Ql is the load reactive power, Qc is the compensator reactive power

and Qr is the link receiving end reactive power. On the other hand, system
voltage characteristics, which called load line characteristics, is shown in fig.
(2.7) and can be expressed by:
 Q   1 
Vr  Vs 1  r   Vs   Qr (2.50)
 S  K 
 sc   s
It is the relation of the load node voltage (Vr) with its received reactive power
Qr. Its slope is (-Vs/Ssc) is the inverse of the system gain Ks of units VAR/volt.
As Qr increases, the load voltage falls, by a rate of (Vs/Ssc) Qr, or at a rate
equal to (1/Ks) Qr. Ks is a negative value.
Fig. 2.7 Load line voltage characteristics

Chapter 2 23
2.15 Load Nodes Voltage Sensitivity to Received Reactive

Power and Its Dependence on Their Short-Circuit
Level:
The slope (gradient) of the load line represents the sensitivity of the
network voltage to variations of the received reactive power Qr therefore:
r   s 
dV V
S  (2.51)
dQ  sc 
r
Higher values of Ssc reduce the voltage sensitivity to reactive power

variations, making the load line flat. The system is called “stiff ” system.
Lower values of Ssc increase the load node voltage sensitivity to reactive
power variations, the system is said to be “soft” system. Higher values of load
nodes short circuit power is found in heavily meshed networks and low values
are encountered in radial or high impedance networks. Figure (2.8) shows this
phenomena.
Fig. 2.8 Load node voltage with load reactive power at different nodes
short-circuit levels
2.16 Effects of Presence of Reactive Power

Compensators on Load Node Voltage Sensitivity to
Reactive Power Variations and on Its No-Load
Voltage:
Without reactive power compensator (Qc = 0), the voltage sensitivity to
load reactive power is the same as its intrinsic sensitivity (-Vs/Ssc). However,
with compensator, the load voltage is given by:
 Q  Qc 
Vr  Vs 1  l  (2.52)
 S sc 
Since Qc is function in Vr, the sensitivity will be modified. Assuming Q c is

related to Vr by:
Qc  K c Vr  Vk  (2.53)
Then, a high compensator gain Kc implies flat Vr/Qr shape, or “stiff ” or

constant voltage characteristics. Taking Qcmax as a base for reactive power and
Vk as a base voltage, the compensator effects can be determined by
substituting for Qc from eqn. (2.53) into eqn. (2.52) and rearranging as:
  k c Vk   Ql 
1    
 S
sc   S sc 
Vr  Vs    k V  (2.54)
k V
 1  c s  1  c s 
 S   S 
 sc   sc 
Equation (2.54) shows how the supply point voltage V r varies with load
reactive power Ql in the presence of a reactive power compensator. Provided
that QcQc (max), the load reactive power is Ql, the compensator gain is Kc
and its knee voltage is Vk, the generator voltage is Vs and the load node short-
circuit power is Ssc. For uncompensated load, eqn. (2.54) tends to (2.50).
Comparing the two terms of eqns. (2.50) and (2.54), the compensator is then
has two effects:
(a) It alters the no-load network voltage from Vs to a new virtual value
given by the first term of eqn. (2.54), which is:
Chapter 2 22
 kV 
1 c k 
Vs  
S sc
(2.55)
 k cVs 
1 
 S sc 
(b) It modifies the sensitivity of the load node voltage to load reactive power
variations, as shown by second term of eqn. (2.54), to the following:
 Vs 
 
dV
r  S sc 
   (2.56)
dQ k V
l 1  c s 
 S 
 sc 
Instead of (-Vs/Ssc) without compensator, that sensitivity with the presence of

the compensator is the same as that without compensator divided by the
denominator of relation (2.56).
Fig. 2.9 Load voltage/reactive power characteristics at Kc=10 and

different load node short-circuit levels
Fig. 2.10 Load voltage/reactive power characteristics at Ssc = 25 pu

for different values of Kc
Fig. 2.11 Load voltage/reactive power characteristics at Ssc=250MVA for

different values of Kc
If the compensator gain Kc is positive, the voltage sensitivity decreases. If it

reaches infinity, i.e. Kc = , dVr/dQl = 0, which is the best ideal operational
condition. This occurs when the compensator posses infinite reactive power,
and represent infinite reactive power source, its terminal voltage will be
always constant. Variation of Vr against the load reactive power Ql at
different load node short-circuit levels are shown in fig. (2.9), for Kc = 10.
The same characteristic is drawn in fig. (2.10) for S sc =25 pu and for different
values of Kc = 1,100 and 1000. With lower values of Kc, the voltage vanishes
early at low values of Ql. It is retained at higher values of Kc. For the sake of
comparison, fig. (2.11) shows the same characteristics for Ssc = 250 MVA.
Example 2.5:
For a certain system Vs = 1.00 pu, and Ssc = 25 pu, based on Qc(max),
(a) Find the voltage sensitivity to load reactive power without any reactive
power compensation.
(b) Find that voltage sensitivity to load reactive power variations with
compensator having a gain Kc = 100, for a gain Kc = -100 and for Kc = .
Solution:
(a) Without compensation: (Kc = 0) dVr/dQr = -Vs/Ssc = -0.04
(b) With compensation:
dVr
With Kc =100: From eqn. 2.56,  0.008
dQ l
dVr
With Kc = -100: From eqn. 2.56,  0.013
dQ l
dVr
With Kc =: From eqn. 2.56,  0.0
dQ l
Chapter 2 22
2.17 Effects of System Gain on Load Nodes Voltage

Sensitivity to Reactive Power Variations:
Knee voltage of compensator to make the no load network load node
voltage equal to the no load voltage without compensation is obtained by
making Vk = Vs. The first term of equation (2.54) then becomes equal V s. The
second term of (2.54) in Qr becomes:
 Vs   1 
   
dV
r  S sc   ks 
   k  (2.57)
dQ k V
l 1  c s  1  c 
 S   k 
 sc   s 
Where, the slope or gradient (-Vs/Scs=1/Ks), defines the system gain "Ks",
therefore equals the rate at which reactive power must be absorbed from the
system in order to depress the system voltage by amount of unity. Ks is
therefore analogous to Kc for compensator, Ks is always negative.
The leverage which the compensator has to do in determining the overall
sensitivity of network voltage to load reactive power is a function of the ratio:
(Kc/Ks), for QcQc (max) as seen from equation 2.57. Ks equal the negative of
the load node short circuit current when its voltage is normalized to the source
voltage Vs.
Example 2.6:
A Load node of short-circuit power Ssc = 250 MVA, is fed through a
transmission system from an infinite network of constant voltage V = 1.0 pu,
and loaded by a load of maximum reactive power Ql (max) = 10 MVAR. To
regulate the load voltage, a capacitive static VAR compensator is connected at
that load node. The compensator can generate capacitive reactive power up to
-10 MVAR.
(a) For a load reactive power variation from (0 to 10) MVAR, find the
required compensator reactive power Qc, load node voltage depression
(V) and the system received reactive power at the load end Q r. The
compensator gain Kc = 100 (VAR/volt).
(b) To what range of consumed reactive power overload, the compensator
will be in service.
(c) Repeat (a) when the load is overloaded upto 150% of Ql (max).
Solution:
(a) Application of eqns. (2.54) and (2.57) show that:
Ql = 10 MVAR, Qc should be = 8MVAR and the system received power

Qr = Ql - Qc = 2 MVAR. This result means that at maximum loading, there
still (-2) MVAR of the compensator unused.
From eqn. (2.54) voltage depression will be = -0.008 pu, with compensator
of gain Kc = 100. Without compensation this voltage depression will
increase to (-0.04) pu.
(b) Using Qc = -10 MVAR (full compensator rating) in eqn. (2.57), and
with the same voltages, the corresponding allowed load reactive power Q l
= 12.5 MVAR, i.e. allowed overload in Ql is 25% (originally it was 10
MVAR)
(c) In the range Ql = 12.5 MVAR to 15 MVAR, Qc will rest unchanged at
the maximum rating (Qc = -10MVAR), eqn. (2.57) decides this.
2.18 Relation of Load Nodes Voltage/ Reactive Power

Sensitivity With Their Short-Circuit Levels:
For any load fed from a large infinite power system, the phase voltage
Vr at that node is a function of the load active and reactive powers, (P r + JQ r),
i.e.
Vr  f Pr , Qr  (2.58)
As all the other system nodes voltages are assumed as infinite buses, The total
differentiation of Vr is:
 V   V 
dV   r dP   r d Q (2.59)
r  P  r Q  r
 r   r 
Eqn (2.59) can be rewritten as:
dP dQ
dV  r  r (2.60)
r  P  Q 
 r   r 
 V   V 
 r  r
For the simple link of impedance (R + JX), voltage/powers system relations

are shown before as:
X Q R P
V V  s r s r (2.61)
s r V
r
Chapter 2 22
Or:
2
V V V  X Q  R P (2.62)
s r r s r s r
From (2.62), we get:
 Pr V  2V
 s r (2.63)
 Vr R
s
And:
 Qr V  2V
 s r (2.64)
 Vr X
s
The latter formula represents the reciprocal of the node voltage sensitivity to
reactive power injection at that node. At no-load Vr = Vs and that sensitivity
equals to:
 Qr V
s
 (2.65)
 Vr X
s
But the load node short-circuit current is given by:
s  j  
V V
I  s  (if Rs<Xs) (2.66)
sc jX  
s  Xs 
Therefore, the load node voltage sensitivity to reactive power, calculated at no

load conditions equals to the reciprocal of the short circuit current. The sign
decides the nature of the reactive power. Inverse of the short circuit currents
which is usually known for nodes refer to their voltage/reactive power
sensitivity.
Problems
2.1 The equivalent Thevenen’s of node # 21 of the IEEE 30 bus power
system is given by: E = 0.9535-14.37o pu, Zs = 0.148675.24o pu. The
node feeds a load having P = 0.106pu, Q = 0.01pu.
(One) Find the load node voltage magnitude, voltage phase angle, and voltage
depression, using the complex voltage depression method, the scalar
voltage depression iterative method, and the generalized constant method,
the load node short–circuit power method, and the load–flow Gauss
iterative method.
(Two) Find the critical load node voltage and the maximum load power for
load power factors: 0.7 lead, unity and 0.7 lagging.
(Three) Plot the critical voltage magnitudes, the maximum power for constant
load power factors of (0.1 up to 0.9) in the leading and in the lagging
ranges, with intervals of 0.1. Repeat these plots for constant reactive
power loads ranging from (0.1 to 0.9) pu in the capacitive and inductive
ranges and for zero load reactive power (Active power is kept constant at
its original value).
(Four)For active load powers equal 100%, 75% 50% 25% 10% and 5 % of the
maximum transmitted power, find the load terminal voltage .The load
power factors are ranging from (0.1 to 0.9) lead and from (0.1 to 0.9) lag
and unity. Plot the power against the load voltage in each case. Repeat this
requirement with constant load reactive powers equals (0.01 to 0.1) pu
inductive and (0.01 to 0.107) pu capacitive and for zero reactive power.
(Five) Plot P/V and Q/V characteristics of the system for both constant load
power factors and constant load reactive powers, for the IEEE 30 bus
system at node #21.
2.2For the six-bus Ward Hall system, repeat (a), (b), (c), and (d). The system
data are Eth = 1.004-3.2o pu., Zth = 0.32375.48o pu., P = 0.3 pu., Q =
0.18 pu. in (d) Q is changed from 0.18 pu up to 0.718 pu., in the inductive
and capacitive ranges. Unity power factor should be included.
2.3 A large load center is fed from a voltage source Vs, through a
transmission system having the generalized constants:
A = 1.00o and B = 0.2589.72o pu. and consumes powers of: Pr = 0.6 pu,
Qr = 0.216 pu. at Vr = 1.0 pu.
Find the load node voltage using all studied methods.
2.4A supply system operates at 11 kV with short-circuit level of 250 MVA
and of Thevenen’s impedance ratio Xs/Rs of 5, supplying a wye-connected
inductive load whose mean power is 20 MW and whose reactive power
changes from (0 to 40) MVARS find:
(One) The voltage depression due to maximum loading using all known
methods
(Two) The required reactive power for unity load power factor compensation.
(Three) The required reactive power for zero voltage regulation and for +10%,
+20%, +50% voltage regulations
(Four)The improvement in load voltage values due to unity power factor
correction in (b) and for voltage control regulations in(c)
(Five) The critical load node voltage and the corresponding maximum power.
(Six) With short-circuit levels of 400, 100, 50 MVA, repeat (a). (b). (c). (d),
and (e)
2.5 For a two-nodes power system having the following data:
Chapter 2 22
A = 0.9690.49o, B = 52.28874.79o ohm, f = 50 Hz, Vs = 132 kV, the

load power factors are 0.9 lagging, unity and 0.9 Leading
(One) Draw the voltage/power and the voltage/reactive power curves
(Two) Find the critical voltage and the maximum power at each case.
2.6 Find the node equivalent Thevenen’s impedance’s for the 6-bus Ward-
Hall system and the 30-bus IEEE system. Data are given in literature.
2.7(a) A reactive power compensator has a compensator gain K c = 10 and
a knee-voltage Vk = 1.0 pu. Plot the compensator node voltage V r with
compensator reactive power ranging from (zero to 2.0) pu, with
intervals of 0.1 pu. Zero value should be included. What will happen
when Q is negative.
(b) Plot Vr with its gain Kc for a rated reactive power Qc = 1.0 pu, when Kc is
ranging from (zero to 100), with intervals of 10.
2.8(a) Plot the load line voltage characteristics for a load node having short-
circuit power of 800 MVA, no load generator voltage = 132 kV and
reactive power ranging from (zero to 100) MVAR what is the value of the
system (or the network) gain?
(b) Plot Vr with Qr without compensator for Ssc = 800 MVA.
(Three) Without compensator, Plot Vr with Ssc for Qr = 100 MVAR, and Qr = -
100 MVAR. No load generator voltage Vs = 132 kV. On the same graph
plot the system gains with Ssc.
2.9The system of prob. 2.8 is provided with reactive power compensator
having a gain Kc = 10, load node Ssc = 800 MVA, generator no load
voltage Vs = 140 kV, Knee voltage before compensation Vk = 132 kV find:
(One) The new no-load network voltage (or the new knee voltage with
compensator connected at that load node).
(Two) The new sensitivity of network voltage with load reactive power
variation (new dVr/dQr relation after compensator connection).
(Three) Plot the voltage/reactive power for Qr ranging from zero to 100,
with and without compensator.
(Four)Find the sensitivity of the load node voltage to the load reactive power
variations (dVr/dQr) for compensator gain of Kc = 10 and system gains Ks
= (-1, -5, -10, -20, -30, -50, -100). Plot (dVr/dQr) with Ks. Repeat these
plots with other values of Kc = (20, 30, 50 and 100).
2.10 A UPS arrangement shown in fig. (2.12) consists of taps to yield 95%,
100%, and 105% of the input voltage at no load. The transformer is rated
at 120 V, 60 Hz, and 1 KVA. It has a leakage reactance of 6% (resistance
is neglected). Calculate the reactive power that the switch-mode converter
must draw to bring the load voltage to 100% of nominal value of 120 V,
if the utility voltage is 128 V. Use all studied methods and assume that
the critical load draws a sinusoidal current at a unity power factor.
2.11 Write the load node voltage with load reactive power, (knowing the
compensator gain Kc and the load node short circuit power S sc) in prob.
2.5. What is the no load knee voltage Vk before compensation which

makes the network load node voltage Vr at no-load equals the no load
generator voltage gain Vs.
Fig. 2.12 UPS arrangement configuration
References
[1] Elgerd, O., "Electric Energy Systems Theory", Mc-Graw Hill, New
York, 1971.
[2] Gross C. A., "Power System Analysis", Wiley, New York, 1986.
[3] Guile A. E. and Peterson W., "Electrical Power Systems", 2 nd, edition,
Vol.2, Pergamon Press New York, 1977.
[4] Neuenswander, J. R., "Modern Power Systems", International textbook
Co., Scranton, Pennsylvania, 1971.
[5] Weedy B and Cory B. J., "Electric Power Systems", 4 th, edition. John
Wiley & Sons, New York, 1998.
[6] Gonen T., "Electrical Power Distribution System Engineering", Mc-
Graw Hill, New York, 1986.
[7] Gonen T., "Modern Power Systems Analysis", A Wiley-Inter-science
Publication, John Wiley & Sons, 1988.
[8] Grainger J. J. and Stevenson W. D., Jr, "Power System Analysis", Mc-
Graw Hill, international, 1994.
[9] Glover J. D. and Sarma M., "Power System Analysis and Design", 2nd
edition, PWS Boston, Massachusetts, 1994.
[10] Miller T. J. E., "Reactive Power Control in Electric Systems", General
Electric Corporation Company Research and Development Center
Schenectady, New York, 1982.
[11] Ahmed A. A. H., "Control of VAR Flow in Power Systems as
Influenced by System Reconfiguration", M. Sc. Thesis, Assiut
University, Assiut, Egypt, 1993.
Chapter 3 15
Chapter 3
Load Representation for Voltage Stability
Studies
3.1 Introduction:
Voltage stability is tightly related to load characteristics and voltage
magnitudes. It is directly dependent on load behavior with voltage and
frequency variations. It will be shown later that voltage instability can be
detected with several criteria. They are defined by different formula, which
are all function in load node powers, load nodes reactive powers and their
derivatives with voltage and frequency. So, exact detection of the occurrence
of voltage instability phenomena is mainly dependent on the correctness of
the loads power/voltage and reactive power/voltage relations. Recently it has
suggested to represent these relations in polynomial forms to certain orders,
which led to coincidence of results of voltage stability criteria. The load
powers/voltage characteristics have derived from the load/time and
voltage/time characteristics, usually recorded in all power stations and
substations. New models for the loads which represent the heaviest burden on
power systems voltage stability such as: Induction motors, heaters, arc
furnaces, arc welders, aluminum smelters, fluorescent lamps, sodium vapor
lamps, and mercury vapor lamps are presented. The known simple models for
these loads were found to have erroneous results on detection of occurrence of
voltage stability.
3.2 Loads Behavior:

Behavior of loads can be predicted by studying the changes in their
active and reactive power requirements due to changes in system voltages and
frequency, either analytically or experimentally or using loads time recorders
plots.
3.3 Load Window:

Typical system load bus supplies currents, active and reactive powers
to a variety of load components having different characteristics. The
percentage of each component to the total load bus is called "Load Window".
The composition of the load bus is variable and it changes allover the hour of
15 Load Representation for Voltage Stability Studies
days, seasons, and with weathers conditions. Load windows are very difficult
to be defined for substations load busses.
3.4 Stiff and Soft Loads:

Power system loads are classified as their behavior with voltage
variations into:
 "Stiff" loads, which nearly consumes constant active power irrespective
of their terminal voltage levels, such as induction motors.
 "Soft" loads, which have active power requirements dependant on their
terminal voltages magnitudes such as heaters.
3.5 Classification of Load Types:

The main categories of power systems loads can be classified in:
(a) Rotating Machinery: Including all rotating machines such as:
synchronous motors, single and three phase induction motors, special motors
such as: linear motors, repulsion motors, stepper motors, shorage motors, ac
commutator motors, controlled speed motors, dc motors...etc
(b) Lighting: Including all lighting lamps such as: filament lamps
(Incandescent lamps), and discharge lamps: (Fluorescent lamps, mercury
vapor or (flora lamps), sodium vapor, halogen lamps, laser lamps and low
power lamps).
(c) Heaters: Including all heating devices (Filament heaters, induction
furnaces, high frequency furnaces and microwave ovens)
(d) Electronic Converters: They consist of vast varieties of electronic
devices and circuits such as: HVDC rectifiers and inverters, speed control
converters of motors, wind-mill converters, lifts, DC arc furnaces, DC
welders, DC rolling plants, DC converters of electric trains, DC converters of
electrolysis chemical plants (Aluminum smelters and soda reduction plants,
electric metal coating plants, water analysis plants and battery charging
plants). Cycloconverters, choppers, and inverters. Uninterruptable power
supplies UPS, and static VAR compensators and static generators.
(e) Electric Arcing loads: such as arc furnaces and arc welders
3.6 Traditional Load Modeling in Power Systems

Studies:
The three well established model representations are:
(a) Constant Impedance: This is the classical traditional representation, in
which, at system nominal frequency, the active and reactive consumed powers
are assumed to be proportional to the square of supply voltage. The load is
Chapter 3 15
represented by a constant admittance added to the system admittance matrix

at the concerned load node.
(b) Constant Current: in which the active and reactive powers are assumed
to be proportional to the load bus voltage. Usually it represents the
combination of constant impedance and constant Power or MVA loads.
(c) Constant MVA: for which load power and reactive power are assumed to
be constant irrespective of bus load voltage or they are usually voltage
independent.
3.7 Static and Dynamic loads:

According to their behavior with sudden disturbances and faults or
impacts, the loads are classified into static or dynamic. Dynamic loads are of
time dependant nature. They are sharply or abruptly variable with time. Static
loads are time independent, but variables dependent.
3.8 Linear and Nonlinear loads:

Basic load components are: lighting lamps, heaters, induction and
synchronous motors, converters, arc furnaces Non linear loads are those
having nonlinear functions in system variables such as voltages or
frequencies. Their relations contain sinusoidal relations or they posses
hyperbolic elements. Linear elements have direct relations with system
variables such as resistors. Nearly most loads are nonlinear.
3.9 Load Representation by Powers/Voltage and

Frequency Formula:
The basic performance equations which constitute the loads
components mathematical formula for consumed power and reactive power at
variable voltage and frequency are widely used in load representation.
However, this technique is limited to the loads with well-known
powers/voltages or powers/frequency equations. It can be used for composite
loads with mixture of load components, by addition of each load component
powers at each voltage or frequency variation, assuming load window is well
known at each time interval. The following are some load components power
formula.
3.9.1 Filament Lamps:

These incandescent filament lamps behave as pure resistance’s, varying
to an extent with voltage but virtually independent of frequency. No reactive
power is consumed, which means unity load power factor. Active power
changes to the nth, power of voltage, Therefore:
Vn
P  Po , Q0 (3.1)
Von
The exponent n was found to be 1.50 to 1.6 for modern filament lamps. This
value appreciably independent from the amplitude of voltage reduction. "n"
decreases from initial value of 2 to its final value (1.5–1.6) in a time period
equal the thermal transient time of the lamp.
3.9.2 Resistive Heaters:

Resistive heaters behave as pure resistors for which power varies with
voltage to exponent 2, reactive power consumption is zero, which means
unity load power factor. No sensible variation of power or reactive power
with system frequency, therefore:
Po
P V 2 , Q0 (3.2)
Vo2
3.9.3 Discharge Lamps:

Discharge lamps of all classes have one characteristic in common, that
the lamp can not be operated directly from the supply. The arc discharge
having a negative resistance characteristic and requires a current limiting
device for stable operation. Further, to start a discharge lamp a higher voltage
than the normal supply is usually required establishing ionization. In many
cases the ballast or choke provides the starting voltage and subsequently
limits the current. This current limiting equipment introduces some power
loss and lowers the power factor of the installation. The average operating
power factor of discharge lamp loads range from 0.39 to 0.58 lagging (It is
0.55 for Fluorescent lamps, 0.39 for Flora or mercury vapor lamps and 0.58
for sodium vapor lamps). Power factor correction by capacitors is ordinarily
used, depending on the efficiency of the choke, it can be raised to 0.9 up to
0.95 by capacitors. Some investigations indicated that tube and discharge
lamps belong to that class of static loads where input reactance varies directly
with frequency and the effective input resistance is both frequency and
current dependent. The active power input to the circuit may increase as the
frequency is increased above nominal value, which means that the tube
resistance decreases. The reactive power input depends on the amount of
shunt compensation present. The voltage drop across the tube is assumed
Chapter 3 11
remains constant and the effective tube resistance "R" is assumed current and
frequency dependent according to the relation:
Ro I o o k '
R  (3.3)
I I
Where Ro, Io and o are nominal values of resistance, current and frequency
respectively, and (k' = RoIoo). Also the assumption is made that voltage drop
Vt across the tube remains constant, i.e.
Vt  Ro I o  const. (3.4)
On the above assumptions, active and reactive power to the circuit were
expressed at voltage V, frequency  and choke inductance L as:
0.5
'   K '  
2
V2   
K
P  (3.5)
2
L     
   
2
 1  K 
'
2 1
Q V   c   (3.6)
 L  L   
Another approach is based on experimental tests considered that the power

demand is a function almost solely of the voltage magnitude. The active and
reactive powers are approximated to be nearly linear and expressed as a
function of the applied voltage "V" as follows:
 V  Vi 
PP   (3.7)
oV V 
 o i 
V V j 
QQ   (3.8)
oV V 
 j
Where Po and Vo are rated load power and voltage; Vi and Vj are the values of
the voltage at which the approximated P/V and Q/V linearized characteristic
intersects the axis of the abscissas. These formula were found to be valid if:
Vi > 0.6-0.7 pu, Vj > 0.65-0.7 pu for fluorescent tubular lamps.
Vi > 0.75-0.85 pu, Vj > 0.7-0.8 pu for mercury vapor bulb lamps.
If the voltage drops below the above limits, even for a short while (0.1 s), the
arc is quenched and current is drawn immediately to zero. The duration of the
voltage drop has only a small influence on the extinction value (10-15%). It
is well known that when the voltage is restored, the mercury vapor bulb lamps
will not reignite during a few minutes.
3.9.4 Electronic Converter:

Large static converters have been used in recent years in connection
with high voltage transmission links as well as with large dc drives. They
have been represented in detail in theoretical investigations of the
performance of power networks containing AC and DC lines. The relation
ships between AC source voltage Ell and the ideal converter DC voltage Vdo,
with multiple "B" bridges in series and converter transformer has an off-
nominal tap-ratio "a" is given by:
3 2
Vdo  BaEll (3.9)

Since the voltage drop per bridge is I d(3Xc/), with Xc the converter
commutation reactance, and since there are B bridges in series, the controlled
DC voltage of the converter is given by:
 3X 
Vd  Vdo cos  I d B c  (3.10)
  
Where Id is the DC converter current and  the thyristor firing angle. The DC
output power is given by:
Pd  Vd I d (3.11)
The RMS value of the fundamental frequency component of the total

alternating current is given by:
6
I l1  BaI d (3.12)

Therefore the AC side power is then:
Pac  3I l1Ell cos (3.13)

Chapter 3 15
Having the DC power equal the AC input power, the input power factor is
given by:
Vd I d  3I l1 Ell cos (3.14)
From which the input reactive power Q can be obtained:
Qac  Pac tan  (3.15)
B=1 from six pulses, B=2 from 12 pulses and B=4 for 24 pulses system, and
so on.
3.9.5 Aluminum Smelter Plants and Chlorine Soda

Reduction Plants:
Aluminum smelter plants are very special load types. Their
consumption is ranging from (300 to 2000) MW, with DC voltages between
400, 900 volts. A typical smelter plant is the Egyptian Aluminum Company at
Nag-Hammady, Upper Egypt. It is rated 350MW and consists of four
production lines, with four rectification stations. It is fed from the 132kV
network through seven, 90MVA, 132/10.5KV transformer. The rectifier
transformers are 10.5KV/800 or 400volt. The output DC voltages are (800 or
400) volts. They are fed to several series reduction cells each of 4volt and
18 resistance. Electrolysis processes occur as a reduction of aluminum
oxide. The rectifiers are 12 pulse ones and they consist of series and parallel
connected groups of normal diodes to withstand the line voltage and the line
current, which amounts to 155KA or 200KA. R-L-E model can represent such
plant satisfactory in both steady state and transient conditions.
3.9.5.1 Aluminum Smelter Plants and Chlorine Soda Reduction

Plants Behavior Analysis:
By far the largest field of applications of static converters at present is
in the electrochemical process industries, fig. (3.1), where the rectifiers
operate in the constant current mode. Power and reactive power input to the
converter are calculated on basis of an R-L-E model, with E is the back e.m.f.
in the aluminum smelter or soda reduction plants cells. Having V c the
instantaneous output converter voltage then, the active power demand from
the AC system of fig. (3.1) is given by:
Pt   Vc t it  (3.16)
Where non-negative values of P(t) only are meaningful.

If the voltage va(t) is constant during the voltage depression and equal to a
fraction K of the rated voltage Va (va(t) = Va' = KVa), the DC voltage can be
expressed as:
vc t   Vc'  hKVa  KVc  const. (3.17)
Where "h" is a constant of the rectifier and  is a factor accounting for the
high-speed voltage control, if any (1). If the rectifier has controlled ignition
and o is the delay angle at the occurrence of the voltage dip, the delay angle
will be drawn automatically to zero in the trial to support of voltage; then
from theory of rectifiers it is found =1/coso.
Fig. 3.1 Equivalent circuit of an aluminum smelter plant or of chlorine-

soda reduction plant
Let us call "I" and "I'" the DC currents circulating in steady condition when
the AC voltage is Va and Va' = KVa. i.e.
Vc  E ' Vc'  E KVc  E

I , I   (3.18)
R R R
The solution of the differential equation of the R-L-E circuit, given later, has
led to the following expression:
 
Pt   Vc' t it   KVc I  I ' e t   I ' 
Or:
 1  K  t   KVc  E 
Pt   KVc2  e  KVc   (3.19)
 R   R 
The reactive power is easily calculated when the current and voltage are
known. If the magnetizing power of the transformers is neglected, theory of
Chapter 3 15
rectifiers provides the following expression of the power factor, when the
delay angle  = 0, as supposed in the foregoing:
2 IX
cos  1  (3.20)
2Va
Where X is the commutation reactance, V and I have the meaning above

defined. Then the reactive power can be calculated at intervals of half a cycle
with the formula:
 2 I t  X 
Qt   Pt tg t   qo  Pt tg cos1 1    qo
 (3.21)
 2Va t  
The magnetizing reactive power qo of the transformers may be neglected or

assumed proportional to the square of the voltage. Typical parameters of a
43MW, 44 series cells, chlorine-soda reduction plant are: I=220KA,
Vc=195V, Z = 0.455 mΩ, E = 136V, R = 0.27mΩ, L = 0.12mH.
3.9.6 Arc Furnace:

An arc furnace for manufacture of steel is essentially a steel shell with a
spheroid bottom, lined with refractory material. It has a tilting mechanism and
lip for pouring, as shown in fig. (3.2). The diameter of large furnaces now
being installed is between 22 and 26 feet. The roof is arched and is lined with
refractory material, three holes admit the graphic electrodes, one for each
phase. Roof electrodes and superstructure can be lifted up and swing to one
side so that the furnace can be charged. The electrodes are typically about 24
inches in diameter. They are usually molded in sections six to eight feet long
and threaded at each end so that a new section can be screwed on the other
end wastes away, thus allowing the electrodes to continuously fed to the arc.
Electrodes are raised or lowered by remote automatic control that adjusts each
electrode position to hold circuit impedance constant and thus, as possible
maintain constant current. A furnace transformer connected to the electrodes
by a number of conductors, who are water-cooled for the largest furnaces,
supplies power. Transformer secondary voltage varies from 120 to 800 Volts,
depending on the size of the furnace and the operation being performed.
Voltage change is accomplished with a load tap changing transformer or
regulator in the primary circuit or with no-load taps in the furnace
transformer. Their reactances suffer from unbalance. It was observed that a
certain apparent power is fed into the furnace at a certain power factor with a
lower voltage across the arc, if the phase reactance is lower, the arc then
becomes shorter, and heat radiation is concentrated more on the charge. After
the furnace has been charged, usually with steel scrap, the operator energizes
the circuit with the electrodes in the drawn position. They are then lowered
under automatic control until they contact the charge and an arc is ignited, the
control then attempts to maintain constant impedance in the circuit. In some
methods of operation, the furnace transformer secondary voltage is at a high
level during the initial part of the meltdown for maximum power output.
Constant current cannot be maintained until a significant quantity of the
charge has been melted, because of the changing shape of the mass of scrap as
it liquefies. The arc is quite irregular and the load fluctuates. Widely from
short-circuit when the electrodes contact the metal to no-load when the arc is
extinguished. Since scrap is usually bulky, the furnace must be recharged one
or more times during meltdown. Arc resistances are usually unequal.
Fig. 3.2 Arc furnace elements and its feeding circuits
3.9.6.1 Best Operation Conditions of Arc Furnaces:

In an arc furnace it is normally possible to control both the voltage and
the current, and these quantities can be controlled independently of one
another. To obtain the highest possible power, it is generally necessary to
utilize the highest voltage setting and the highest current from the furnace
Chapter 3 55
transformer. Reducing the power can be accomplished by decreasing the

voltage or current or both. If the best possible economy is to be achieved, it is
important that the correct settings are chosen. To enable this problem to be
properly understood, characteristic curves or load curves for the furnace are to
be prepared for each furnace.
3.9.6.2 Arc furnaces Equivalent Circuit:

Balanced furnace circuit is firstly assumed. This is only achieved by
using static VAR compensators. The problem can be simplified in that the
study is limited to only one of the three phases. Figure (3.3) shows the
equivalent circuit of the arc furnace. In that circuit of the arc furnace, V is the
secondary furnace transformer line voltage, I = electrode current (assumed to
be sinusoidal); X = phase reactance (including the reactance of the reactor and
transformer recalculated to the secondary side, the phase reactance of the bus
bars ahead of the delta connection point and the reactance of the electrodes);
r= loss resistance;  = arc resistance (assumed to be constant over the AC
cycle.). R is the total circuit and arc resistance.
Fig.3.3 Equivalent circuit of balanced arc furnace and its connections
3.9.6.3 Load Curves of Balanced Arc Furnaces:

The furnace powers, currents, losses, arc voltages and power factors
can be calculated using its equivalent circuit of fig. (3.3) as follows:
Input current:
V
 
I  (3.22)
3 R2  X 2
Total applied apparent power in the three phases:
V2
S  3VI  (3.23)
R2  X 2
Input reactive power:
3 XV 2
Q  3 XI 2  (3.24)
R X 2 2
Input active power:

Pr  S 2  Q 2 (3.25)
Total power loss:
Pl  3rI 2 (3.26)
Power in the arcs:
P  Pr  Pl (3.27)
Voltage across each of the arcs:
P
3 I 2 
V  I   (3.28)
 3I 3I
Furnace efficiency:
P
 
  (3.29)
P R
r
Load power factor:
P R
cos   r  (3.30)
S
R2  X 2
Load curves for a 40MVA furnace are plotted in fig. (3.4) with the aid of
equation (3.22) to (3.30) as a function of the electrode current. The furnace
data are X= 2.9m.ohm/phase, I (operating)= 53 K Amps/line, V= 420 volt,
R=0.5m.ohm/phase, arc resistance is variable, I= furnace current ranging from
zero to 80 K Amps. If the current is more than maximum value of 55 K.
Amps, the arc power will decay. While the losses will still increase further. If
the electrical efficiency is taken into account, it is clear that one must keep to
the left of this point. Load power factor at that point is usually around 0.7.
Fig. 3.4 Arc furnace characteristic curves

Chapter 3 55
3.9.6.4 Arc Properties and Characteristics:

The arc length is dependent on the arc voltage, as can be seen in
fig.(3.5). A short arc yields heat radiation, which is mainly directed
downwards into the charge, while a long arc yields a greater percentage of
heat radiation directed upwards towards the furnace roof and the sides.
Particularly towards the end of a meltdown period, when the scrap in the
furnace is no longer protecting the walls and the roof against radiation, it is
important that the arc should be maintained short.
Fig. 3.5 Maximum arc length versus instantaneous value of arc

voltage for different RMS currents
3.9.6.5 Effect of Furnace Transformer Voltage Variations on

Arc Voltages:
The arc voltage is lower for a higher current i.e, shorter arc. With the
same arc power to the left and to the right of the maximum point, the wear on
the walls and roof will be less, if we choose to operate to the right of the
maximum point.
3.9.6.6 Arc Stability Dependence on Power Factor and Arc

Currents:
Stability of the arc is dependent on the power factor of the furnace
circuit. The arc is extinguished at each current zero, and the voltage between
electrode and charge immediately after the arc extinction is higher at a low
power factor than at a high one when the apparent power is given. The arc
stability is also dependent on the current. At higher currents, the arc is fatter
and the region between the electrode and the charge is more ionized. The arc
therefore ignites earlier and more reliably at high currents and low power
factor.
3.9.6.7 Furnace Operating Point and Furnaces Power Factors:

Reducing of the power merely by decreasing the current leads to a
higher electrical efficiency but also more substantial wear of the refractory.
Since rather a large percentage of the arc power is lost through heat radiation
to the roof instead of heating the melt, it is in fact doubtful whether the total
efficiency will be better. Furthermore, the arc becomes less stable. Reducing
of the power through merely decreasing the voltage results in a poorer
electrical efficiency and shorter arcs. The lower efficiency, however, will not
only be to the worse as mentioned above. It can be said that with normally
designed furnace conductors, one generally keeps slightly to the left of the
maximum point of the arc power. An operating point is often selected where
the power factor is 0.7 to 0.8.
3.9.6.8 Effects Circuits and Leads Reactance on Furnace

Performance:
For a certain applied apparent power and a certain power factor a lower
arc voltage and a higher electrode current will be obtained if the reactance
"X" of the furnace circuit is reduced. This is illustrated in Figure (3.6), for
balanced furnaces, where the arc power and the electrode voltage versus the
electrode current have been plotted for two 20 MVA furnaces, the first has a
reactance of 5.0 m and the second one a reactance of 2.5 m. Figure (3.6)
shows the two furnaces curves characteristics. To minimize the refractory
wear, efforts are made in modern furnaces to reduce the phase reactance of
the conductors by using flexible cables as short as possible and arranged with
as small a phase clearance as possible with respect to movements of the
furnace. Recently, static VAR compensators [5] have been proposed for the
same purpose.
Fig. 3.6 Comparative load curves for two balanced furnaces having
different reactance’s (2.5 m, 5 m)
Chapter 3 51
3.9.6.9 Unbalanced Furnace Circuit Characteristics:

Arc furnaces are never been balanced. Usually circuit reactance's are
not equal because of the flexible movable connectors to the graphite
electrodes and the unequal arc resistance’s due to the non-homogeneity of the
scrap in the furnace. The theory for calculating the electrical data of the
unbalanced furnace circuit can be derived on the basis of the circuit theory for
three meshes with different elements. i.e. V1  V2  V3, I1  I2  I3, R1  R2 
R3, X1  X2  X3. Figure (3.7) shows the curves of the arc power and the arc
voltage in the three phases versus the electrode current for a typical
unbalanced furnace having the data: (S=30 MVA; V=430 V; r 1 = r2 = r3 = 0.7
m; X1 = X3 = 5 m; X2 = 2.5 m). It can be seen that both the arc voltage
and power are highest in phase 3 and lowest in phase 1, which means that the
arc will be longest in phase 3 and the wear of the furnace walls and roof will
be at its greatest opposite this phase. More rapid wear of the refractory will be
obtained compared to a balanced plant. Furthermore, a certain degree of
unbalanced melting down of the charge will be experienced. As recently
suggested, balancing can be accomplished by means of static VAR
compensators.
Fig. 3.7 Load curves for an arc furnace with unbalanced circuit and
equal current control
3.9.7 Induction Motors:

In a utility system, induction motor loads may be expected to exist at
all load buses. The exact composition of such load is not usually known to the
utility. However, some information about the number of motor units, ratings,
types of shaft loads...etc. should be readily available. With this information,
and knowledge of general performance characteristics of a typical induction
motor, an approximate representation in terms of single equivalent load unit
can be defined as a function of its electromechanical behavior. The validity of
this representation improves when applied to relatively homogeneous motor

groups. Having identified a homogeneous group of induction motor loads, the
parameters of the single-motor equivalent circuit as well as the resultant shaft
load characteristic can be determined. Methods of doing so are discussed in
some references. There are shortcomings in the procedure of single-unit
representation of groups of induction motors, particularly when considering
their dynamic behavior. But it appears to be the only feasible approach
because individual representation leads to prohibitive amounts of
computation.
3.9.7.1 Induction Motor Equivalent Circuits:

Figure (3.8) shows an L-equivalent circuit of an induction motor in
which: X1 stator leakage reactance; X2 rotor leakage reactance referred to the
stator X is the total of X1 and X2; magnetizing and stator losses are neglected;
Xm magnetizing reactance; r2 rotor resistance, "s" motor slip. The motor load
model includes provision for different shaft load torque-speed characteristics
of the general form:
Tl  n  (3.31)
Where:
 and  are constants and "n" is the shaft speed.
Fig. 3.8 L-equivalent circuit of an induction motor
The characteristic coefficients are then obtained as follows: Active and

reactive power input to that induction motor is expressed in terms of applied
voltage, motor reactance’s X = (X1 +X2) and Xm, slip s and critical slip scr in
the form:
 s 
 
V 2  s 
P    cr  (3.32)
 X  2
   s 
1  
s 
 cr 
Chapter 3 55
2
 X     
  s   s  1  X 
 V 2   X m  cr  s cr   X 
 m
Q  (3.33)
 X  2
   s 
1  
s 
 cr 
Critical slip and reactance are frequency dependent but not voltage or current
dependent unless saturation is taken into account. The P-V, Q-V
characteristics may be also determined by the use of the simplified circuit
shown in fig. (3.8). When it is assumed that the mechanical load on the shaft
is constant. The electrical active motor power is:
Pelect  Pmech  P (3.34)
2 r 
P  3I  2   constant (3.35)
 s 
 
3I 2 r
s 2 (3.36)
P
The reactive power consumed is given by:
2
Q
3V
Xm
 3I
2
X 1  X 2  (3.37)
Also, from fig. (3.8), the active motor power is given by:
2r 3V 2 r  3V 2 r s
P  3I 2   2   2 (3.38)
 s 
s
 r2 
2   r2
2  sX 2
   X2
 s 
 
3.9.8 Synchronous Motors:

The power consumed is approximately constant. For a given excitation,
the VAR's change in a leading direction with voltage reduction. By adjusting
its DC excitation, it can operate in the inductive or capacitive reactive power
range. Its consumed active and reactive powers with different terminal
voltages are given by:
 EV   X  Xq 
P  sin  V 2  d  sin 2 (3.39)
X   2X X 
 d   d q 
 EV   X  Xq   X  Xq 
Q  cos  V 2  d  V 2 d  cos 2 (3.40)
X   2X d X q   2X d X q 
 d     
Where: Xd, Xq are motor parameters. E is the internal voltage and V is the
terminal network voltage.  is the internal voltage phase angle.
3.10 Load Representation by Characteristic Coefficients

Powers/ Voltage and Powers/ Frequency Relations:
Two analytical approaches are now used in voltage stability studies: the
direct powers/voltages or powers/frequency relations for any changes in
voltages or frequency, which are previously given in detail for each load, and
the characteristic coefficients approach. In the latter one should has obtained
the coefficients: dP/dV, dQ/dV, dP/d and dQ/d for small variations in
voltage and frequency for each load or for each load node having composite
loads .The changes in load node powers is given by:
 dP V
P   
 dP  , P  P  P
  (3.41)
 dV   d  o
Q  
 dQ V   dQ  , Q  Q  Q
   (3.42)
 dV   d  o
The characteristic coefficients may be approximated by constants for small

voltage and frequency excursions. But they are functions of V and  and must
be obtained from knowledge of concerned loads.
3.10.1 Typical Characteristic Coefficients of Loads and

Systems:
Analytical formula of these relative coefficients for different load
components are calculated from the above load powers formula and tabulated
in table (3.1). Typical numerical values for some loads published in literature
are given below in table (3.2). They were calculated at nominal network
voltage and frequency. Tests to obtain P-V and Q-V characteristics
coefficients of complete substation loads are very few and very rare. Where
t=off-nominal tap ratio of load transformer.
Chapter 3 55
Table 3.1 Formula for dP/dV, dQ/dV, dP/d and dQ/d for various load
types
Load Type dP/dV dQ/dV dP/d dQ/d
Filement lamp nP V 0.0 0.0 0.0
(n=1.55-1.6)
Heaters (n=2) 2P V 0.0 0.0 0.0
1  P Q   1 
P V 1  cos 2 t 
 
2Q V 
 cos 2  
 P  1  cos t 
 2
Discharge  t   3 
or: Po Vo  Vi      ---
Lamps or: Qo Vo  V j
Vi  0.6-0.7 cost: power
Vj =0.65-0.8 factor
P V 1  Q P 2 
DC
 
0.0  Q2 P  Q
Converters
Arc Furnaces tVP LQ 2tV L P  Q 
Induction Q P    1   Q P   
2P V    P    P  
Motor 2P V 1  kn kd  2sscr kd  kn k2 kd  
2sscr k2 kd 
(Where) 2  s2
kn  scr
2  s2
k p  scr kd  kn  k2k p k2  2   /1  s 
E sin  E cos 
 2V  2V
Xd Xd
Synchronous
 Xd  Xq   Xd  Xq  --- ---
Motor   sin 2  
 2Xd Xq   2Xd Xq 
   
Table 3.2 Experimental values of relative characteristic coefficients of

different loads at nominal voltage and frequency
dP dP dQ dQ
Load / Po / Po / Qo / Qo
dV d dV d
Filament Lamp 1.6 0.0 0.0 0.0
Heaters 2.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
Discharge Lamp, Pf = 0.9 1.0 1.0 3.0 -2.8
Arc Furnace, total reactance 62% 2.3 -1.0 4.6 -1.0
Converters 1.2 -0.48 0.0 1.0
Induction Motor:
(a) Load = 1.0 pu
i.  = -1.0 -0.06 -0.021 0.51 -0.29
ii.  = 0.0 0.0 1.0 0.53 0.49
iii.  = 1.0 0.05 1.9 0.55 1.21
iv.  = 2.0 0.11 2.9 0.62 1.81
(b) Load = 0.5 pu
i.  = -1.0 -0.13 -005 1.64 -0.82
ii.  = 0.0 0.0 .50 1.65 -0.62
iii.  = 1.0 0.13 1.0 1.65 -0.45
iv.  = 2.0 0.25 1.5 1.66 -0.27
3.11 Loads Representation by Single Termed

Polynomials:
Traditionally the loads were represented in stability studies as single
termed polynomials.
(a) The first one was the constant impedance loads representation
method… i.e.
 2  2
P  Po
V  , V 
Q Qo (3.43)
 2   2 
V
 o   Vo 
Therefore, in system calculations, the load constant admittance value is

expressed by:
P  jQ
Y Load   2
V
Which is to be added to the system admittance matrix [Y], in shunt at the load
node.
(b) While in load flow studies, they were represented as constant power
loads... i.e.
o o
V   
P P   , Q Q  V  (3.44)
oV  oV 
 o  o
In system calculations, a load represented by its constant power value is

expreesed by its constant powers Po+jQo. They are to be subtracted from the
generator powers at that load node, in load flow calculations.
(c) Presence of combination of these two type of loads were represented by

constant current load models… i.e.
V   
P P   , Q Q  V  (3.45)
oV  oV 
 o   o
Where:
P, Q = Load power and reactive power
Po, Qo = Initial powers and reactive powers
V, Vo = Actual and initial load node voltages
Chapter 3 55
In system calculations, a load represented by its constant current value is

expressed by a constant current "I" given by:
P  jQ
I
V*
That current is to be injected at the load node by a negative sign. In literature,
the loads were also represented by a single term polynomial formula with
different exponents for each load power and different exponents for each load
reactive power, they are usually written in the form:
n m
V   
P P   , Q Q  V  (3.46)
oV  oV 
 o  o
The power/voltage and the reactive power/voltage characteristic for different

values of exponents m and n, are shown in fig. (3.9). The exponents of the
single termed polynomial models for some typical loads are reproduced from
literature in table (3.3).
Fig. 3.9 Loads P/V, Q/V with different exponents (n, m)
Table 3.3 Single termed polynomial models for some typical loads
Voltage Voltage
Type of Load Dependence Type of Load Dependence
P Q P Q
0.05
1-Large I.M V V0.5 7-Fluorescent lamp V 1.0
V3.0
2-Refrigerator V0.8 V2.5 8-Incandescent lamp V1.55 ---
3-Heat pump V0.2 V2.5 9-Arc furnace V 2.3
V1.6
4-Dish washer V1.8 V3.5 10-Aluminum smelter V2.3 V2.7
5-Clothes dryer V2.0 V3.3 11-Induction motor V0.1 V0.6
6-Color TV V2.0 V5.0 12-Mercury vapor lamp V1.0 V1.0
3.12 New Suggested Load Polynomial Models:

The best method for load representation at any load bus is to observe
and record the change in the active and reactive power when voltage and
frequency are changed. Steady-State voltage instability is examined using the
dE/dV criterion, which depends on load power P, Q and their derivations
w.r.t. load voltage dP/dV, dQ/dV. The availability of new computers with
large facilities has encouraged the new load powers representation to be
established. It is based on practical or experimental measurements and
extrapolation technique to determine the appropriate polynomial exponents,
after which the voltage stability results rest unchanged or be coincident.
Usually time records for power, reactive power and voltage are available.
From these records, plots of power/voltage and reactive power/voltage are
readily available by getting the values of the power, reactive power and
voltage at each discrete time interval.
Recently energy analyzers can get the corresponding values of the three
quantities directly on screens or in prints or on diskettes. Using the published
experimental P/V and Q/V characteristics of some loads, their polynomial
models were found. These models are based on a nominal power of 0.3 pu,
nominal reactive power of 0.18 pu at voltage of 1 pu. Any other load powers
should be normalized to get nominal load power and reactive power at 1 pu
voltage, simply by multiplying these polynomial coefficients by the (load
power/0.3) and (the load reactive power/0.18). The polynomial load models
are displayed below, for various load types:
3.12.1 Induction Motor Load Models:

The package of the characteristics of the induction motor with
normalized P/V, Q/V characteristics, fig. (3.10) with constant mechanical
load torque (T=c). Mechanical load torque function in speed (T), and
mechanical load torque function in the square of the speed (T2) are
considered. Using extrapolation technique, the following equations were
derived for the motor powers and reactive powers as a function of the load
terminal voltages. Using different powers of the polynomials of the
power/voltage (P/V) and the reactive power/voltage (Q/V), the derived
models are:
3.12.1.1 Induction Motors with Constant Mechanical Loads

Torque’s (T= Constant):
The active power and reactive powers have expressed by the 5 th order
polynomials:
Chapter 3 55
P  1.2  3.2V  7.1V 2  6.55V 3  3.85V 4  1.8V 5 (3.47)
Q  3.5  18.22V  34.35V 2  30.72V 3  13.81V 4  2.27V 5 (3.48)
3.12.1.2 Induction Motors with Mechanical Load Torque’s

Proportional to Speed (T):
The active power and reactive powers have expressed by the 5 th order
polynomials:
P  10.5  50.6V  90.5V 2  68V 3  25.86V 4  8.56V 5 (3.49)
Q  310.25  35.5V  50.8V 2  28.99V 3  13.55V 4  9.93V 5 (3.50)
3.12.1.3 Induction Motors with Mechanical Load Torque’s

Proportional to Square of Speeds (T2):
The active power and reactive powers have expressed by the 7th order
polynomials:
P  3.7  25.47V  180.44V 2  190.25V 3  110 .5V 4  65.8V 5

(3.51)
 38.7V  95.66V
6 7
Q  285  1970.9V  5950V 2  9600V 3  8630V 4  4210V 5

(3.52)
 960.8V  45.08V
6 7
Fig. 3.10 Normalized P/V, Q/V characteristics of Induction motors

(a) T = constant (b) T (c) T2
3.12.2 Aluminum Smelter Plant Load:

P/V, Q/V measured characteristic graphs given for a traditional
electrolytic aluminum smelter plant with P = 120MW, Q = 55MVAR and
V=292volt are reproduced in fig. (3.11). As all plants are nearly similar in
their characteristics, these plots are used to derive the following possible
models for such load. The active power and reactive power are expressed by
he 5th order polynomials:
P  0  0V  0V 2  0V 3  0.3004V 4  0.004V 5 (3.53)
Q  0  0V  0V 2  0V 3  0.18012V 4  0.004V 5 (3.54)
Fig. 3.11 P/V, Q/V Characteristics of an Aluminum Smelter Plant
3.12.3 Arc Furnace Load:

Arc furnace load was proved to be a source of voltage instabilities in
power systems. It has a strange P/V, Q/V characteristic as shown in fig.
(3.12). The active power and reactive power are expressed by the 4 th order
polynomials:
P  78.45  1296.2V  3882.65V 2  4242.9V 3  1577.7V 4 (3.55)
Q  48.06  786.42V  2356.2V 2  2576.7V 3  958.68V 4 (3.56)
Fig. 3.12 Arc Furnace Load Powers/Voltage response

Chapter 3 51
3.12.4 Lighting Loads:

Once more, this type of load includes incandescent lamps, fluorescent
lamps, mercury vapor lamps, sodium vapor lamps, and halogen lamps.
However incandescent lamps can be represented by
P  PoV 1.6 , Q  0 (3.57)
This is quite sufficient for such simple resistive load.
3.12.4.1 Fluorescent Lamps:

Typical fluorescent lamps, mercury and sodium vapor lamps measured
characteristics are reproduced in fig. (3.13). For fluorescent Lamps, the active
and reactive powers are expressed by the 5th order polynomials:
P  13.46  59.056V  77.897V 2  0V 3  66.366V 4  34.479V 5 (3.58)
Q  8.58  38.35V  51.22V 2  0V 3  45.2V 4  23.93V 5 (3.59)
3.12.4.2 Mercury Vapor Lamps:

For mercury vapor lamps, the active and reactive power are expressed
by the 4th order polynomial:
P  3.48  10.92V  11 .14V 2  147.99V 3  399919.4V 4 (3.60)
Q  10.134  51.89V  97.145V 2  79.2V 3  24V 4 (3.61)
Fig. 3.13 Fluorescent and mercury vapor lamps P/V, Q/V response
3.12.5 Arc Welding Loads:

Typical arc welding loads measured characteristics, are reproduced in
fig. (3.14), for a welding transformer in certain company, the active and
reactive powers are expressed by the 4th order polynomials:
P  13.46  59.056V  77.897V 2  0V 3  66.366V 4 (3.62)
Q  8.58  38.35V  51.22V 2  0V 3  45.2V 4 (3.63)
Fig. 3.14 P/V and Q/V plots of arc welding load
3.12.6 Synchronous Motors Loads:

For typical synchronous motor load, the active and reactive powers are
expressed from fig. (3.15) by the 4th order polynomial:
P  3.48  10.92V  11 .14V 2  147.99V 3  399919.4V 4 (3.64)
Q  10.134  51.89V  97.145V 2  79.2V 3  24V 4 (3.65)
Fig. 5.15 P/V and Q/V plots of synchronous load
3.12.7 Practical Composite Loads:

In order to illustrate the technique of application of the above concepts
of individual loads modeling for industrial loads, a typical residential
industrial town load measured result are selected as an example. Power,
reactive power and voltage time responses were plotted in fig. (3.16). From
these plots, P/V and Q/V characteristics were derived and the load polynomial
representations are derived as follows: That load active and reactive powers
are expressed by the 5th order polynomials.
Chapter 3 55
P  2.93  21.32V  0V 2  50.4V 3  0V 4  32.3V 5 (3.66)
Q  0.65  3.9V  0V 2  18.1V 3  0V 4  14.67V 5 (3.67)
Fig. 3.16 P/V, Q/V responses of a residential industrial town load
The Assiut cement company bus bar load measured results are selected as
another example. Power, reactive power and voltage time responses are
plotted in fig. (3.17). From these plots, P/V and Q/V characteristics were
derived and the load polynomial representations are derived as follows: That
load active and reactive powers are expressed by the 3rd order polynomials.
P  2.93  21.32V  0V 2  50.4V 3 (3.68)
Q  0.65  3.9V  0V 2  18.1V 3 (3.69)
Fig. 3.17 P/V, Q/V Assiut cement company bus-bar loads responses
3.12.8 Composite Loads Polynomial Representation:

Each load bus is regarded as made up of homogeneous load groups,
according to its load window, constituting the composite load. When the
polynomial expression of each load component is known, the whole load node
powers and reactive powers are then found by addition of the individual load
powers. Therefore, for n elements load bus, the active and reactive power of
the total load node will be obtained by adding their individual polynomials
power coefficients having the same orders as follows:
n n
P   Pj , and Q   Q j (3.70)
j 1 j 1
3.12.9 Load Node Characteristics Coefficients with

Polynomial Load Representation:
Practically, load characteristics of system load nodes are best given by
curves of active and reactive power against voltage and frequency. Using the
previous approach of determination of load characteristics by recording the
change in load of the concerned system bus (or buses), when the supply
voltages (or frequency) are changed. The interpolation of the plotted curves
are afterwards written in polynomial form as:
P  PoV o  a1V 1  a2V 2  a3V 3  a4V 4  ... (3.71)
Q  QoV o  b1V 1  b2V 2  b3V 3  b4V 4  ... (3.72)
Po, Qo power and reactive power components, which are independent of

voltage, measured at nominal voltage, and a 1, a2, a3… b1, b2, b3, … are
constant interpolation coefficients. Load node characteristic coefficients at
any specified voltage Vr can be obtained by:
dP
 a1  2a2Vr  3a3Vr2  4a4Vr3  5a5Vr4  ... (3.73)
dVr
dQ
 b1  2b2Vr  3b3Vr2  4b4Vr3  5b5Vr4  ... (3.74)
dVr
Frequency is assumed constant in all these equations.
3.13 Load Modeling for Transient Voltage Stability

Studies:
Loads behavior are usually classified as static loads and dynamic ones
Static Loads such as heaters, lamps and constant impedance loads are static
loads and can be represented by algebraic equations. Other loads such as
induction motors, converters, electrolytic chemical plants... etc, are dynamic
loads and should be represented by appropriate differential equations together
with some algebraic equations.
Chapter 3 55
3.13.1 Shunt R-L Loads and Shunt Capacitors:

Most inductive loads can be considered as shunt R-L loads. This may
include lighting loads, induction heaters, arc furnaces, and arc welders.... etc.
Also, most of those inductive loads are provided with shunt capacitors for
power factor correction purposes and for raising voltage levels and
minimizing feeders currents, cross sections and losses. Some shunt capacitors
are applied for voltage control purposes and installed at strategically nodes .In
transient voltage stability studied, the dynamics of such elements should be
represented explicitly.
The dynamics of each element in the fixed axis are transformed to the
synchronous rotating reference frame via Parks transformation. Balance
operation is assumed and the zero sequence dynamics are dropped. Each
capacitor is represented by its terminal voltage components as states and each
inductor is represented by its flowing current components as states. This is
shown in fig. (3.18). The differential equations describing their dynamic
behavior transformed to the network d-q axis are:
For the R-L Load:
    R 
I d   o Vd   o  I d  I q (3.75)
 X1   Xl 
    R 
I q   o Vq   o  I q  I d (3.76)
 X1   Xl 
With R, Xl are load resistance and 50Hz reactance. Id, Iq the d and q axis
current components respectively. o is the synchronous angular frequency
and  is instantaneous angular frequency. For the shunt capacitors:
  
Vd   o  I d  Vq (3.77)
 Bc 
  
Vq   o  I q  Vd (3.78)
 Bc 
Where Bc is the 50Hz capacitor susceptance. Vd, Vq are the capacitor voltage
components in the d, q axis. Id, Iq are the capacitor currents components in the
d, q axis. , o previously defined with the R-L load
Fig. 3.18 Shunt reactors and shunt capacitor states
3.13.2 Electrochemical Plants Load Representation in

Transient Voltage Stability Studies:
In transient conditions an electrochemical plant is equivalent to a
resistance R in series with an inductance L and a counter emf. E. The values
of R, L and E are a function of the type of electrolysis and be easily deduced
from the treaties of electrochemistry. In practice the value of E ranges
between 25% to 80% of applied DC voltage. During the voltage depressions
of short duration the values of R and E remain unaltered. The transient
condition is however strongly dependent on the inductance L of the reduction
cells circuit, as the time constant  = L/R may be several tenths of a second in
the large plants. The simplified scheme of fig. (3.1) will be used here for the
analysis of the transients. The inductance L is comprehensive of the ones,
relatively very small of the source and rectifier. The current i(t) is meaningful
only if it is non-negative. Since the rectifier prevents negative current flow.
The voltage Vc (t) in the dc side of the rectifier can easily be calculated when
the RMS voltage on the AC side, Va (t) is known. The differential equation of
the circuit then is:
 di   Ri  V (t )  E
L  (3.79)
 dt  c
If R is comprehensive of the equivalent resistance of converter plant, the

active power demand from the AC system is:
Pt   Vc t it  (3.80a)

The reactive power is then:
Qt   Pt  tan   qo (3.80b)
Where non-negative values of P(t) only are meaningful. The equation (3.79)
and (3.80), along with the initial conditions, can be used for the representation
of large electrochemical plants in transient stability computer studies.
Chapter 3 55
3.13.4 Synchronous Motor Representation:

In transient voltage stability studies, the synchronous motor does not
form an unfavorable stability burden, as it can generate reactive power, which
participates in voltage stabilization. Moreover it is a very rare load and its
application is very limited to insensible portion of total power systems load
composition. However if it necessary to be included in voltage stability
studies, all models of the synchronous generators, which are available in all
power systems stability references and books, can be used with appropriate
signs for input currents and voltages. One of these models is given below.
The transient model for a synchronous motor has the differential equations:
  1 
ed'
 Tqo 
  
  '    ed'  X q  X q'  id   (3.81)
 

eq'
 1 
  
  '    eq'  X d  X d'  iq  V f
T 
  (3.82)
 do 

 1 
    Te  Tm  (3.83)
M 
And algebraic equations:
 ra  '  X q 
'
i d   e d  e '   1 V (3.84)
D  D  q D d
 
 X d'  '  ra  '  1 

iq   ed   eq   Vq (3.85)
 D  D  D
 
Te  Vd id  Vq iq (3.86)
Tm    (3.87)
With:
1
D
ra2  X d' X q' 
 Mechanical torque constant

 Mechanical torque coefficient exponent (0 to 2)
 Instantaneous angular rotor velocity
Xr Rotor reactance (leakage and mutual)
ra Stator resistances in d and q axis
Vf DC field voltage
id, iq Stator currents in d and q axis respectively
Xd, Xq Synchronous reactances in d and q axis respectively
X'd, X'q d and q axis transient reactances respectively
e'd, e'q d and q axis voltage behind transient reactances respectively
Vd, Vq Stator voltage in d and q axis respectively
T'do, T'qo d and q axis open circuit transient time constants respectively
Te Air gap electric torque
Tm Mechanical shaft load torque
M Inertia constant "2H/fo"
H Inertia constant "KWs/KVA"
3.13.5 Induction Motor Representation:

In the multi machine power systems transient stability and transient
voltage stability studies, and for each study, a special model should be used.
The models allow for supply voltage and frequency variations. They are as
follows:
3.13.5.1 Fifth Order Model:

For which, both stator and rotor circuits transients are considered this
model is used when transients in network elements are to be taken into
consideration such as in sub-synchronous resonance studies.
Stator:
P sd  Vsd  Rs isd   o sq (3.88)
P sq  Vsq  Rs isq   o sd (3.89)

Rotor:
P rd   Rr ird  s o rq (3.90)
P rq   Rr irq  s o rd (3.91)
Rotor motion equation:
 T  Tm 
  o Ps    e  (3.92)
 2 o H 
Chapter 3 55
With:
Te   eq ird   ed irq (3.93)
Tm  r (3.94)
And the flux equations:
 sd  X s isd  X mird (3.95)
 sq  X s isq  X mirq (3.96)
 rd  X r ird  X misd (3.97)
 rq  X r irq  X misq (3.98)
The motor takes the voltage from the network, which will be:
Vsd  Vt cos t (3.99)
Vsq  Vt sin  t (3.100)
Vt  Vt  t (3.101)
The motor injects in the network the negative of the stator currents, which are
given by:
  X  X m rd 
isd   sd r  (3.102)
 X X X2 
 s r m 
  sq X r  X m rq 
isq    (3.103)
 X X X2 
 s r m 
The active and reactive power consumed by the motor are given by:
P   rq ird   rd irq (3.104)
Q   rq irq   rd ird (3.105)

With:
 s  1.0 P.u,  r  1  s  s
3.13.5.2 Third Order Model:

When the transients of the stator are neglected… i.e. Psd = Psq = 0 in
above and equation (3.88), (3.89) the model is rewritten with some
developments as:

P rd   o  X 7 rd  X 4 sd  s s rq  (3.106)

P rq   o  X 7 rq  X 4 sq  s s rd  (3.107)
 P  Pm 
P r   o  e  (3.108)
 M 
Stator fluxes:
  
 sd  a Vsd X 5  Vsq s  b  rd X 5   rq s  (3.109)
 sq  aVsq X 5  Vsd  s   b rq X 5   rd  s  (3.110)
Stator currents:
I sd   sd X 1  rd X 3 (3.111)
I sq   sq X 1  rq X 3 (3.112)
Rotor current:
I rd   rd X 2  sd X 3 (3.113)
I rq   rq X 2  sq X 3 (3.114)
Pe   rq I rd   rd I rq (3.115)
Pm  r (3.116)
Where:
   r 
s   s  , M  2H o ,  o  2f
  s 
Vt  Vsd  jVsq ,  s  1.0 P.u,
1 X   1 
a   , b   s , C    , and d  X 6   s2
d   d  X X X  2
 r s m
X 1  CX r , X 2  CX s , X 3  CX m , and X 4  Rr X 3
X 5  Rs X 1 , X 6  X 52 , X 7  Rr X 2 , and X 8  Rs X 3
Chapter 3 51
3.13.5.3 First Order Model:

Only the rotor mass transients are considered. Stator and rotor currents
are represented by algebraic equations.
Vt  Vsd  jVsq (3.117)
Vt
is  isd  jisq  (3.118)
 Zs  ZmZr 
 
 ZmZr 
 Zm 
ir  ird  jirq  is   (3.119)
 Zm  Zr 
Stator and rotor flux linkages:

 
 rd   o  X r ird  X m isd  (3.120)
 s 
 
 rq   o X r irq  X m isq  (3.121)
 s 
 
 sd   o  X s isd  X m ird  (3.122)
 s 
 
 sq   o X s isq  X m irq  (3.123)
 s 
 o Pe  Pm 
P s   (3.124)
M
Air-gap power and mechanical shaft power:

Pe   rq ird  rd irq (3.125)
Pm    (3.126)
Network powers:
Pin  Vsd isd  Vsq isq (3.127)
Qin  Vsq isd  Vsd isq (3.128)

With:
   r 
o=2, s=314.0 or 377.0 rad/sec, s   s 
 s 
Where:
 = Supply frequency
 
Z s  Rs  jX ss  o  , X ss  X s  X m
 s 
 
Z r  Rr  jX rr  o  , X rr  X r  X m
 s 
 
Z m  jX m  o 
 s 
The variation of the supply voltage Vt or its frequency varies the motor slip
“s” according to the differential equation of rotor mass motion.
Where:
Xs Stator reactance "leakage and mutual"

Xr Rotor reactance "leakage and mutual"
Xm Mutual reactance
Rs Stator resistance
Rr Rotor resistance
H Motor inertia constant
Tm Mechanical shaft load torque
Te Electrical developed torque
 Load shaft torque proportionality power with angular shaft speed
 Torque constant
P Motor input power
Q Motor input reactive power
 Phase angle of motor terminal voltage
t Time
P Differential operator "d/dot"
 Constant "3.142"
d, q Reference axes
s slip
is, ir stator and rotor currents "P.u"
r Angle of voltage behind transient reactance response
rd, rq Rotor fluxes in the d and q axis respectively
e’d, e’q Voltage behind transient reactance’s in d and q axis respectively
sd, sq Stator fluxes in the d and q axis respectively
Chapter 3 55
3.14 Conclusions:
Load characteristics could be given by curves of active and reactive
power against voltage and frequency or by analytical P-V and Q-V relations
or by characteristic coefficients for each load component or by high order
polynomials of powers/voltage expressions. Individual or composite loads at
each node can be represented by such techniques.
Problems
3.1 A load consuming power 1.0+j0.5 pu at 0.95 pu voltage, express that
loads as:
(a) Constant impedance or constant admittance load
(b) Constant power load
(c) Constant current load
3.2 Repeat prob. (3.1),when the voltage phase angle becomes 0, 20, -20
degrees respectively.
3.3 An incandescent lamp consumes 35Watts under 200V, and rated
40Watts at 220V find the load exponent "n"
3.4 A load having nominal power of 1.0+j0.5 pu, write its polynomial form
when it is: Arc Furnace Load–Arc welding transformer Fluorescent
Lamp-Mercury Vapor lamp-Sodium vapor lamp-Aluminum smelter
plant-Induction motor with different mechanical load. For all these
loads find the formula of (dP/dV ) and (dQ/dV) for each load
3.5 A Soda reduction plant has the following data: cells in series 44, E=
136V, R = 0.27m.ohm, L = 0.12 mH,  = 0. 45 sec. P = 43MW, I =
220KA, VT =195V. Find the load power and reactive power voltage
formula.
3.6 An arc furnace load circuit has a total reactance = 2.9 m.ohm, loss
resistance r =0.5 m ohm and source voltage 420V. Its maximum current
is 55KA, power factor 0.7. Find the arc resistance, the arc power, and
the arc energy per day and per year, the arc voltage and the circuit
losses. If the arc resistance is halved. What will be the new load power
factor and the corrective capacitor reactive power to avoid penalty in
Egypt and in Europe.
3.7 An induction motor is represented by its L-R. Equivalent circuit with
parameters: Xm = 3pu X = 0.2pu, (r2/s) = (0.04/s)pu, based on 500KW,
6.6kV, and P = 1.0pu, at V = 1pu. Determine the reactive power
consumed at various voltages and plot the P/V and Q/V characteristics
of the motor. Find the critical slip and critical voltage at which the
motor stalls. Assume the mechanical load constant and bus bar voltage
is raised from zero to normal value at intervals of 0.5kV.
3.8 A load has time recorder plots for power, reactive power and voltage
shown in the following fig. (P3.8). Using the MATLAB extrapolation
technique, find the power/voltage and reactive power voltage
polynomial coefficients up to terms less than 0.001.
Fig. P 3.8 Power, reactive power and voltage time records plots
References
[1] Maurica, H. Kent, Wayne R. Schmus, Francis A. Mccrackin, and
Lauther M. Wheeler, “Dynamic Modeling of Load in Stability
Studies”, IEEE on PAS, PAS-88, No. 5, May 1975, pp.756-763.
[2] G. J. Berg, “System and Load Behavior Following Loss of Generation:
Experimental Results and Evaluation”, Proc. IEE, London, Vol. 119,
No. 10, October 1972, pp.1483-1486.
[3] F. Illiceto, A. Csyhsm, G. Ruckutuhl, “ Behavior of Loads During
Voltage Dips Encountered in Stability Studies Field and Laboratory
Tests”, Paper T72, IEEE PES Winter Meeting, New York, February
1972, pp.2470-2477.
[4] Y. Sundberg, “The Power Circuit of Arc Furnaces”, Elektro Warme
International, 30, b2. April 1972, pp.693-699.
[5] M. Z. EL-Sadek et al, “A Flexible AC Transmission System (FACTS)
For Balancing of Arc Furnace Loads”, Electrical Power Systems
Research Journal, 1997.
Chapter 3 55
[6] M. Z. EL-Sadek et al, “Load Representation for Steady-State Voltage

Stability Studies”, Electrical Power Systems Research Journal, Vol. 43,
1997, pp.187-195.
[7] W. I. Rashed, “Voltage Stability Enhancement of Power Systems”, Ph.
D. Thesis, Suez–Canal university, Port Said, Egypt, 1997.
[8] M. Z. EL-Sadek, “Behavior of Induction Motor Loads During Voltage
Dips and Frequency Excursions Encountered in Transient Stability and
Voltage Stability Studies”, Bulletin of Faculty of Engineering, Assiut
University, Assiut, Egypt, Vol.16, 1987, pp.193-202.
[9] A. E. Hammad, M. Z. EL-Sadek, "Prevention of Transient Voltage
Instabilities due to Induction Motor Loads by Static VAR
Compensators", IEEE Trans. on Power Systems, Vol.4, No.3, August
1989, pp.1182-1190.
[10] C. Concordia, "Representation of Load", IEEE-PES Symposium on
Adequacy and Philosophy of Modeling: System Dynamic Performance-
75CHO 970-4-PWR, 1975, pp.41-45.
[11] IEEE Task Force on Load Representation for Dynamic Performance,
"Load Representation for Dynamic Performance Analysis", IEEE
Transactions on Power Systems, Vol.8, No.2, May 1993, pp. 472-482.
[12] CIGRE Task Force 38.02.05, "Load Modeling and Dynamics", Electra,
May 1990.
[13] Chia-Jen Lin, Yung-Tien Chen, H-D Chiang, J-C Wang, "Dynamic
Load Models in Power Systems Using the Measurement Approach",
IEEE Transaction on Power systems, Vol.8, No.1, Feb.1993, pp.309-
315.
[14] M. S. chen, C. Concordia, T. Nagao, J. Fitzer, W. Dillon, R. Shoults,
"Determination des Caracteristiques Statiques et Dynamiques des
Charges des Reseaux Electrique", CIGRE Report #31-11T, 1978, (In
French).
[15] W. W. Price et al., "Load Modeling for Power Flow and Transient
Stability Computer Studies", IEEE Transaction on Power systems,
Vol.3, No. 1, Feb. 1988.
90 Voltage Instability Phenomena
Chapter 4
Voltage Instability Phenomena
4.1 General:
This chapter deals with definition, identification and classification of
the phenomena of voltage instability. After displaying the definitions of
voltage instability, its mechanism, causes, types, forms, factors affecting its
occurrence and its consequences are presented. It explains the concepts and
mechanism of steady-state voltage instability and transient voltage instability.
Loads provoking these phenomena are clarified. Their role is explored.
4.2 Available Definitions:

Several definitions are presented in the available literature. From the
system point of view, voltage stability can be defined as the system ability to
maintain its voltage within certain specified limits at all loading conditions all
over the hour. From the load point of view, it can be defined as the load
ability to give more power as the loading is increased without voltage dips
beyond the limits, i.e. the system possibility to provide the required reactive
power to support its load voltage as load increases. As it was stated before
voltage limits are totally within  10%. For low voltage networks, it is 1.5%,
for medium voltage networks it is 3.5% and 5% for HV transmission
networks and 10% for overall system networks.
4.3 Classification of Power-Systems Stabilities:

Planning, operation and control of power systems are to a significant
extent governed by stability considerations. Two distinct areas of power
system stability are recently recognized classified as:
(a) Synchronous Stability: Transient, dynamic and steady-state
synchronous stability of power systems generators rotors inertial masses
motions are their capability to operate stabily without loss of synchronism
after large or small disturbances respectively. This is recently called
"Synchronous or Inertial or Angle Stability".
(b) Voltage Stability: Which is the ability of the system to provide
adequate reactive power support under all operating conditions, in order to
maintain load voltage magnitudes within specified operating limits in
steady-state and transient conditions.
Chapter 4 19
All traditional power system stability studies were concerned by

synchronous stability and were simply denoted by power systems stability.
Voltage stability problems are now serious concern to the electric utility
industry. Several isolated and interconnected power systems are increasingly
experiencing abnormal voltage problems, which can reach to voltage
collapses or voltage failures leading to partial or complete blackouts. These
voltage problems are mainly due to increased loading of transmission lines,
higher transmission impedance’s, insufficient local reactive supply, shipping
of power across long distances, and presence of induction motor loads, or
HVDC systems or arc-furnaces or large welding machines or certain sensitive
electronic devices, together with presence of three-phase load unbalance or
excessive amounts of harmonics penetrating in the network. Voltage flickers
may form certain voltage instability. The IEEE has established a
subcommittee for studies of voltage stability since 1986.
4.4 Aspects of Voltage Instabilities:

The heart of voltage stability problem is the voltage dip that occurs
when power system experiences sudden or gradual heavy loading or after
excessive reactive power demand, which may lead to voltage oscillations or
voltage collapse or both. Voltage instability has reported to occur in four
aspects: Voltage collapse or voltage oscillations or either modulated on each
other or voltages flicker.
Briefly these forms or aspects can be summarized in:
(a) Voltage Collapse: Which is characterized by a progressive fall of
voltage in one or more consumer regions. This voltage fall first occurs
gradually, then followed by rapid fall and settles at certain low values as
shown in fig. (4.1). The rapid fall of voltage is aggravated by certain
control systems, specially the action of the on-load transformer tap-
changers.
Fig. 4.1 Voltage collapse

(b) Sustained Voltage Oscillation Instability: which is characterized

by, sustained voltage oscillations or swings around the nominal value.
These are shown in fig. (4.2). They can be experienced with certain
repetitive loads, with welding machines, arc furnaces and with
synchronous generators pole slipping after loosing excitation system
control.
Fig. 4.2 Voltage oscillations
(c) Voltage Collapse Modulated by Voltage Oscillations: Figure

(4.3). This has been reported with HVDC systems or subsequent to faults
at induction motor load terminals. Other loads provoking sudden voltage
collapses transiently lead to that form of voltage instability.
Fig. 4.3 Voltage oscillations modulated on voltage collapse
(d) Voltage Flicker: occurs mainly with arc furnaces or arc welding or
repetitive pumping loads. This is shown in fig. (4.4). Voltage flicker has
usually a very slight drop in voltage magnitude, but in a repetitive manner
at frequencies of (5-20)Hz. This type may destroy the eyes retain or may
be annoyant for human eyes. Voltage flicker causes undesirable irritation
for consumers eyes and may destroy there retains.
Chapter 4 19
Fig. 4.4 Voltage flicker
(e) Voltage Instability Due to Pole slipping: Voltage instability in the

form of oscillations is often accompanied by pole slipping in system
synchronous machines as shown in fig. (4.5), which may lead to
synchronous instability. Figure (4.5) is plotted for a 3-machines power
system subsequent to 120m.sec short circuit at one generator terminal
cleared by one line opening.
Fig. 4.5 Three generator voltages with pole slipping
(f) Voltage Failure: When voltage disappear completely for certain times,
it is called voltage failure. Some times thus occur in the form of spikes.
4.5 Steady-State and Transient Voltage Instability:

Voltage collapse is characterized by an initial slow progressive dip
followed by a final rapid fall in voltage magnitude fig. (4.1). If the
phenomena occur during system operation after minutes, hours or days,
voltage instability is called "Steady-State Voltage Instability". This was firstly
noticed by Weedy [1] in 1968. Recently, it has found that the phenomena can
occur in seconds or milliseconds. This has early called, in ref. [2], "Transient
Voltage Instability". Opening of one of two circuits feeding large induction
motor loads or clearing short circuits at induction motor load terminals after
certain period recently called in [3] "Critical Clearing Time for Voltage
Stability" or tripping of local generation, near induction motor loads, are
reported to be the three main causes of occurrence of transient voltage
instabilities. They are all related to the presence of induction motor loads.
Other studies showed that these phenomena occur also with repetitively
variable load or with HVDC systems controls failures. In resume, two types
of voltage instabilities are now well known.
(a) Steady-State Voltage Instability: Occurs gradually in minutes,
hours or days and experienced in many countries in the form of voltage
collapses.
(b) Transient Voltage Instability: Occurs suddenly in seconds or
milliseconds, subsequent to network topology variations or short-circuits
at induction motor or tripping of local generators or some parallel lines or
at HVDC terminals with controller failures of either rectifiers or inverters
or at certain operational conditions of repetitively variable loads or due to
presence of arc furnaces loads. This form of instability is the main cause
of several blackouts in the systems worldwide. It occurs in the form of
voltage oscillations or collapse modulated by oscillations or as voltage
flickers.
4.6 Mechanism of Steady-State Voltage Instability:

It was shown that any load node fed from small or large network can be
represented by a two nodes network. Voltage equation of such two nodes
system can be reproduced from chapter 2 as:
 2 2 
2  Pr Qr
2 2 2
Vs  A Vr  B
 2   r r

  2 AB P cos      Q sin     (4.1)
 Vr 
For each value of generator voltage Vs and load powers Pr, Qr and network
constants A, B, equation (4.1) shows that Vr is of fourth order. Figure (4.6)
shows Vr against Pr for a certain typical system for different constant power
factors. Each value of load power P1 can be consumed at two values of
terminal voltages V1 and V2. The first value V1 is a stable value slightly less
than the no-load voltage Vs. While the latter value V2 is an unstable value.
Consumption of P1 under voltage V2 will be accompanied by drawing
excessive currents and consequently by heavy losses and important voltage
Chapter 4 19
drops and heating of lines, transformers and switchgears. Having the load
operates at a stable voltage V1 and allowing the load power to increase to P2,
its voltage will fall to V3. Increasing the load more and more until the critical
voltage reaches (at which the two values of voltages coincide), critical
situation is attained. No further increase in load power is possible. Any slight
power impact, at this situation will cause the load voltage to move to a value
lower than the critical value. The load power will decrease more and more
and settle at a value P4 in the unstable range determined by system
parameters. No body can find analytically these unstable voltage values,
because of divergence of load-flows at these situations. It is noticed that
heavy load impacts forces the unstable voltage to reach zero (or it looks like a
virtual short-circuit, without any material short-circuit at that load node).
Further partial load shedding may allow the load to restore its stable voltage,
e.g. if P3 is reduced to P1, V3 will go to V1, as shown in fig. (4.6). During
gradual impacts, the voltage may oscillate between stable and unstable values
according to load power value.
Fig. 4.6 P/V Characteristics of a load node with constants load power
factors
If the link of the two nodes system represents two parallel lines and one of
them is tripped out, dashed lines of fig. (4.6) give its new characteristic. At
that time, the maximum power and the corresponding critical voltage
decreased. The same powers P1, P2…etc, will be fed at lower voltages as
shown fig. (4.6). If any of the powers P1, P2 ...Pn is more than the critical
powers of these new P/V characteristic curves, no stable operating point
exists. Thus if the load power does not cope with the system power capacity,
system fails to feed that load, i.e. complete voltage failure will occur or
complete blackout is then experienced, in the steady-state conditions.
4.7 Mechanism of Transient Voltage Instability:

Transient voltage instability usually occurs with the presence of
dynamic loads such as induction motors, arc furnaces, HVDC systems loads
and repetitively variable loads. To explain this mechanism assume, a 100
MVA load is connected to the generator through a 400 kV double circuit
transmission line. The load composition will be assumed either 100%
constant impedance or 50% constant impedance and 50% induction motor.
The well-known voltage/power characteristics are drawn in figs. (4.7), (4.8)
for the studied two nodes double-circuits transmission system is used to
illustrate the mechanism of transient voltage instability.
In figs (4.7), (4.8) P/Q/V load node system characteristics are plotted
for different constant values of Q= (0, 1.5 and 3) pu. Superimposed on that
network P/Q/V characteristic, the transient power/voltage trajectory of the
load behavior, just after one line opening of the double circuit transmission
link. Figure (4.7) is plotted for 100% constant impedance load and fig. (4.8) is
plotted for 50% constant impedance and 50% induction motor load. When
load reactive power level increases, the maximum static power limit denoted
by the point where voltage/power characteristics reverse direction, decreases.
The other set of curves (a1, b1, c1) in figs. (4.7), (4.8), represent the system
characteristics when one circuit of the transmission line is tripped while
keeping constant the equivalent external network voltage source. It is clear
that tripping one line circuit results in lowering the respective power limit for
each load reactive power level. Also, for the same real and reactive power
loads the terminal voltage drops.
With a purely static load, both load real and reactive powers decrease
as the load voltage drops as shown in fig. (4.9). While, with presence of
induction motor load, fig. (4.10) shows exponential increase of reactive power
when voltage drops, slight decrease of active powers. Therefore, when one
line circuit is tripped in this case a stable dynamic operating point is reached,
however with a lower voltage magnitude as shown by the trajectory (d) in fig.
(4.7). With induction motor loads, fig. (4.8), however, no stable operating
point exists when one line circuit is tripped and both load voltage and power
collapse after some initial oscillations shown by trajectory "d" in fig. (4.8).
This is due to the dynamic characteristics of the induction motors reactive
power, shown in fig. (4.10). The final steady-state condition settles at an
unstable voltage point on P/V curve c 1, although it has firstly oscillates
around several stable points on curves a1, b1, drawn for one line opening case.
Sometimes, no operating point is reached and state of voltage failure is
attained.
Chapter 4 19
Fig. 4.7 Transmission System V/P/Q Characteristics with superimposed

transient V/P load trajectory (curve "d"), and 100% Z load.
____with double Circuits ---- With One Circuit
(a, a1) for Q = 0 (b, b1) for Q = 1.5 PU, (c, c1) for Q = 3 PU

transient V/P load trajectory (curve "d"), and 50% Z and 50% IM load.
_____With double Circuits ---- With One Circuit
(a, a1) for Q = 0 ,(b, b1) for Q = 1.5 PU, (c, c1) for Q = 3 PU
Fig. 4.9 Transient P/Q/V response of constant impedance load after

tripping of on line
Fig. 4.10 Transient P/Q/V response of 50% induction motor and 50%
constant impedance after one line tripping
Chapter 4 11
4.8 Loads Provoking Voltage Instability:

Certain load types mainly provoke voltage instability. They are:
(a) Constant active power loads are the loads, which can provoke voltage
instabilities, constant impedance loads are the loads which do not usually
lead to voltage instability as shows fig. (4.9).
(b) Constant current loads may provoke voltage collapse to certain low
values. In other words, stiff loads are the source of voltage instabilities,
while soft loads are usually not.
(c) Loads having low power factors and higher reactive power requirements
can cause voltage instabilities. Loads fed from inductive voltage stabilizers
can also provoke voltage instabilities.
(d) HVDC systems, which are used for transmission of several hundreds of
megawatts up to Giga Watts, require reactive power amounts to 60% of
transmitted active power. Any malfunction in the reactive power
compensators (which are essential elements for these systems) can
provoke voltage instabilities due to heavy reactive power transition on the
ac systems connected to these networks.
(e) Arc furnaces initiate voltage flickers of the form:

V  Vo e t   k sin t  (4.2)
With  ranges (330-400) sec. and f ranges (5-6) cycles/sec or  ranges (36-
40) rad/sec and k ranges (0.003-0.005). Values of =332, =35.9, and
k=0.004 are reported by some authors.
(f) Welding machines of any size can provoke voltage instabilities, as their
loading vary between no-load and short-circuit intermittently. Moreover,
their reactive power demand is very excessive, because of their very poor
power factor (0.2-0.3).
(g) Induction motor load, which is the more familiar load in both domestic
and industrial applications. It is the main source of voltage instabilities
especially when it has no power factor correction capacitors. Induction
motor load consumes heavy reactive power at lower voltages. For any dip
in its terminal voltage, its reactive power increases nearly exponentially.
This process is repetitive for each successive voltage dip. At voltages
lower than 0.8pu, induction motors can go to standstill. The motor will not
provide any mechanical power to its load shaft, i.e. it behaves as a
transformer with air gap between its primary and secondary magnetic
circuit. This is shown in fig. (4.11) for voltage dips of 30% and 50% at
terminals of a typical isolated induction motor
(h) Street lighting lamps of large numbers and without corrective
capacitors (power factors of 0.39-0.58).
(i) Large inductive furnaces and large solenoids used for electric
magnets are important reactive power consumers (p.f 0.15-0.3).
(j) Large electrochemical plants (such as aluminum smelters, soda
chloride reduction plants, and metal coating plants and water analysis
units) are other sources for voltage instabilities.
(a) (b)
Fig. 4.11 Characteristic of induction motor load reactive power and slip
due to voltage dips
(a) 30% voltage dips (b) 50% voltage dips
To sum up, HVDC systems and induction motor loads are reported to be the
severest loads provoking voltage instabilities. Arc furnaces, however, provoke
voltage flickers which is a special sort of voltage instability, which not only
affect the other loads operation but also annoy the human eyes and can
destroy their retains.
4.9 Interrelation between Load Stability and Voltage

Stability:
Loads are said to be "stable loads" when they can perform their
specified jobs and fulfill their designed performance characteristics to the
consumer. When the loads are energized by network voltage and fail to give
their specified required outputs (lighting, heat, motion, driving...etc), they are
said to be "unstable loads". Examples: energized induction motors at
standstill, energized lamps at blackout. As the load performance is function of
its terminal voltage (and frequency), load stability and voltage stability are
tightly interrelated. Each of them lead to the other and may be due to the
Chapter 4 909
other. Unstable loads, such as energized induction motors failed to start (at
stand-still) or HVDC system with partial loss of reactive power compensation
or a large load with partial short-circuits will draw heavy currents and reactive
powers from the system and will trigger voltage instability or lead to voltage
collapse. On the other hand, a system suffering from voltage collapse or
instability due to any reason (such as lowering of generator voltages or
malfunction of their controls) will lead to load instability for all of its loads.
Regarding the power-voltage characteristics of any link supplying a

load, it was seen that for a given load power-factor, a value of transmitted
power was reached, beyond which any further decrease of the load impedance
produce greatly reduced voltages, i.e. leads to voltage instability. If the load is
purely static, e.g. represented by impedance, the system will operate stable at
these lower voltages, although unexpected load flows can result. If the load
contains non-static elements such as induction motors, or if the load is
constant power one, voltage may collapse precipitously even with no further
system disturbance. In the more usual case of for example, constant current
load, a stable low-voltage condition may be attained. System node voltage
stability and load stability are interrelated by the P/Q/V characteristic of the
system node and the load line characteristic. However, according to the
system and loads characteristics, load may become unstable before voltage
reaches the state of unstability and vice versa.
4.10 Causes of Voltage Instabilities:

Voltage instability originates from voltage drops of special nature,
which lead to voltage collapse or voltage oscillation or both. Regarding the
simple equation of the scalar voltage depression, between two nodes having
voltages Vs, Vr, feeding a load of Pr+jQr, through a link of impedance Zs =
Rs+jXs, which was given before as:
X s Qr  Rs Pr
V  Vs  Vr  (4.4)
Vr
The main causes of voltage instability can be summarized in the following:

(a) Stressed power system, i.e. high active power loading P r, and/or also
high reactive power loading Qr in the system.
(b) Inadequate fast reactive power resources due to, e.g. action of current
limiters of generators, or excitation systems limitations (uncontrolled Vs).
(c) Load characteristics at low voltage magnitudes different from their
designed values.
(d) Tap-changers respond to demand side voltage magnitudes to prop up as

voltage falls.
(e) Unexpected (and or unwanted) relay operation or malfunction of
controllers during conditions of low voltage magnitudes .
(f) Low power factors of loads, which results higher values of Q.
(g) Presence of inductive voltage stabilizers which represent an equivalent
high rated reactor at each load node.
(h) Presence of induction motor load, as it draws heavy reactive powers at
low voltage conditions. It's active power rest nearly constant irrespective
of voltage levels, i. e it is also nearly constant power load.
(i) Presence of special loads such as: Arc furnaces, arc welders, HVDC
systems, electrolysis DC converters, which are usually draw heavy
reactive power and have low power factors.
(j) Three-phase loads unbalance of phase currents and voltages and
presence of neutral wires currents.
(k) Presence of harmonics resonance’s in capacitor compensated systems.
(l) Unsufficient current corridors or umeshed networks which increases
both Rs and Xs.
4.11 Consequences of Voltage Instability:

Voltage instability leads in general to the following consequences:
(a) Interruption of service to consumer loads.
(b) Voltage failure which means absence of voltage from consumer load
terminals after voltage collapse.
(c) Tripping out of lines and generators due to currents overloading, at low
voltage levels.
(d) Reaching the synchronous machine current limit due to low voltage
which results in excessive currents associated with increase of reactive
power.
(e) Losses increase due to the excessive value of (I 2 R) due to the higher
currents, as
 P2  Q2 
Ploss   2
R
 (4.5)
 V 
This is translated in excessive lines heating.

(f) Voltage falls which can result also in:
 Stand still of induction motors loads.
 Lowering the power consumed by constant impedance load (such as
heaters). It's proportional to V2 as (P-jQ = YV2).
 Change in design characteristics of all rotating machines.
Chapter 4 909
 Black out of gas discharge lamps.

 Noise in transformers magnetic circuits.
 Lowering lifetime of all equipment’s and excessive replacement costs.
 Excessive currents in lines or line tripping due to over currents, as
decrease of voltage increases currents I, for constant power loads the
current consumed by a load of (P +jQ) under voltage V is given by:
P  jQ
I (4.6)
V
(g) Apparent or virtual short-circuit without presence of any material short

circuit at any point in the system, leading to blackouts and/or synchronous
instability. This is accomplished with sudden severe impacts.
(h) Malfunction of line equipment switching and transformer tap changers
control.
(i) Occurrences of synchronous or angle instability: It has noticed, with
most large systems that angle instability, can occur after occurrence of a
state of voltage instability. Usually, voltage instabilities and angle
instabilities are involved.
(j) Loss of voltage security: An important aspect of whole system security
is "voltage security". Voltage security is so closely related to system
voltage stability. Nearness to voltage instability state means threatening of
" system security".
(k) Generators and lines tripping and system blackouts :
(l) With low voltages, generator field excitations may increase. Generator
fields may be overloaded and should be reduced (manually or
automatically). Some generators then trip, transmission lines may trip with
that combination of low voltage and high current.
(m) Power transformer tap changers and distribution system voltage
regulators may attempt to restore load voltage to normal and thereby
further increase the load power. The result may be complete collapse of a
major part of the system.
(n) Unanticipated actions of various controls and relays and operators .
4.12 Systems Suffering from Voltage Instability:

 Radial power systems are usually suffering from voltage instabilities
during peak-loads periods or abnormal loading conditions. Meshed
systems are less suffering except when loads of special characteristics
exist.
 Distribution systems with overhead lines and scattered loads can also
experience voltage instabilities especially upon separation of voltage
control capacitors and/or power factor correction capacitors. When line

lengths exceed the specified ones for corresponding voltage levels (voltage
nearly equal line length) and when loads are suddenly operate with their
full installed capacities.
 Systems designed without continual load-flow studies for each
extension will usually suffer from voltage instabilities.
 Unbalanced three phase systems or systems having power electronic
devices with high ratings may have some sort of instabilities.
 Radial networks for either transmission or distribution of electric power
are characterized by their single generation source of reactive power. The
IR and IX voltage drops in these networks are usually considerable.
Insufficient or over compensated reactive power will largely contribute to
these IR and IX drops as:
I p 2
  
/ V 2  Q 2 / V 2 and V  IR2  IX 2 .
Irrespective of the sign of Q, the magnitude of I is function of Q. Therefore
voltage instability is more probable.
Problems
4.1 What are the causes of voltage instability of power systems?
4.2 What are the consequences of voltage instability on power system
operational conditions?
4.3 Explain the mechanism of occurrence of steady-state voltage
instability in power systems.
4.4 Explain the mechanism of occurrence of transient voltage instability in
power systems.
4.5 What are the aspects of occurrence of voltage instability?
4.6 Define both of voltage instability and load instability and give the
interrelation between them.
4.7 What is the difference between voltage or load stability and
synchronous or inertial or angle stability?
4.8 Steady-state voltage stability and transient voltage stability are two
aspects of voltage stability in time spectrum. Give factors
characterizing each of them.
4.9 What are the main factors contributing to voltage instability?
4.10 Explain how voltage instability is initially triggered.
4.11 What are the main systems usually suffering from voltage instability.
4.12 What are the loads, which tend to provoke voltage instability?
4.13 What is the role of reactive power in initiating or alleviating voltage
instability?
Chapter 4 909
References
[1] A. E. Hammad, M. Z. El-Sadek, "Prevention of Transient Voltage
Instabilities due to Induction Motor Loads by Static VAR
Compensators", IEEE Trans. on Power Systems, Vol.4, No.3, pp. 182-
1190, August 1989.
[2] B. M. Weedy, B. R. Cox, "Voltage Stability of Radial Power Links",
Proc. IEE, Vol.115, No.4, pp. 528 - 534, April 1968.
[3] M. Z. El-Sadek, "Prevention of Repetitive Blackouts in the Egyptian
Power System", Middle East Power System Conference, MEPCON'92,
Assiut University, Egypt, January 1992, pp. 14 - 19.
[4] F. N. Abdelbar, "Control of Dynamic Over-Voltages Due to Load
Rejection and Prevention of Voltage Instability Using Shunt Static
VAR Compensators”, M. Sc. Thesis Assiut University, Egypt 1987.
[5] F. Bourgin, G. Testud, B. Heilbronn, J. Versulle, " Present Practices
and Trends on The French Power System to Prevent Voltage Collapse",
IEEE Trans. on Power Systems, Vol. 8, No. 3, August 1993, pp. 778 -
788.
[6] C. Barbier, J. Barret, "An Analysis of Phenomena of Voltage Collapse
on a Transmission System", Revue General Electric, RGE, Paris, July
1980, pp. 3 - 21.
[7] C. W. Taylor, "Power System Voltage Stability", Book, McGraw Hill,
Inc., New York, 1994.
[8] W. I. Rashed, "Steady-State Voltage Stability Enhancement of Power
Systems", Ph. D. Thesis, Suez Canal University, Port Said, Egypt, 1997
[9] Moneer M. Abu El-Nagaa, "Major Blackouts and Failures of Power
Systems: Main Causes, Consequences and Preventive Measures", 7th
International Middle East Power Systems Conference Ain Shams
University, Egypt, MEPCON’ 2000. March 2000, Vol. 2, pp. 702 - 713.
106 Criteria for Detection of Steady State Voltage Instability
Chapter 5
Criteria for Detection of Steady State Voltage
Instability
5.1 Introduction:
Detection of steady-state voltage instabilities is performed through load
flow techniques or through certain mathematical criteria. Among these
derived criteria: dE/dV criterion, dZ/dV criterion, L-indicator criterion, dP/dV
criterion, critical voltage criterion, load flow formula criterion, modal
eigenvalues criterion and ZLoad/Zsystem criterion. The mathematical formulas of
these criteria are displayed for simple two nodes power systems, to represent
all of the possible power systems configurations. The results of these criteria
can be checked by using the critical voltage value for each case, detection of
transient voltage instabilities call for differential equations models and
eigenvalues or time simulations techniques and is beyond the scope of this
chapter.
5.2 Steady-State Voltage Stability Criteria:
5.2.1 dE/dV Criterion:

The first criterion relating to voltage instability, as proposed by Weedy
[1,2], in 1968, is the dE/dV criterion. This criterion was firstly, suggested by
Venikov, for simple two nodes links. It relates the sending and receiving-end
voltages (Es, Vr) of that simple link feeding a load of powers (P r, Qr). The
receiving-end voltage Vr is stable when (dEs/dVr)>0, for a given link having
impedance Z.
Fig.5.1 Basic two nodes system parameters
In evaluation of the dEs/dVr for the basic two nodes system in fig. (5.1), the
following symbols are used:
Chapter 5 701
Es = voltage at the source bus-bar

Vr = voltage at the load bus
Pr, Qr = load active and reactive powers, respectively
S = load apparent power
Z = transmission link impedance = Z1
12 = angle between phasors Es and Vr, (12 = 1 - 2)
 = 90o- 
r : refers to receiving-end (or load bus end)
s : refers to sending-end (or source bus end)
It is shown that voltage stability holds when a factor k 'c>0 where k'c is
obtained from dEs/dVr and is defined as:
 Q 2V 
k c'  cos 12    r  r cos 
 Vr Zl 
(5.1)
 P 2V  E
 sin  12    r  r sin    s  0
 Vr Zl  Zl
Critical steady-state node voltage stability arises when k 'c = 0 and instability
appears when k'c<0. The criterion depends mainly on the partial
differentiation of both load power and reactive power with respect to its
terminal voltage magnitude. Noting that E s/Zl equals the load node short-
circuit current (Isc).
5.2.1.1 dE/dV Criterion in Terms of Load Node Short Circuit

Level:
The series impedance Z1, for all power networks is highly inductive
and   0o or   90o. In this respect, X will replace Z1, eqn. (5.1) for
detection of voltage instability reduces to:
'  Q 2V   P  E
k  cos   r  r   sin   r   s 0 (5.2)
c 12  V 12  V
 r X   r X
From which:
Q
r     2Vr    Pr 
I
sc      V  tan  12 (5.3)
V  cos  
r  12   X   r
As (Isc = Es/X):
For example, The induction motor may be considered, at high loading, to be a

constant power device. Let  = 0o and, as an approximation, let Pr/Vr = 0.
Then eqn. (5.1) reduces to:
'  Q 2V  E
K  cos   r  r   s  0 (5.4)
c 12  V
 r X  X
 Qr Es 2Vr
  (5.5)
 Vr X cos  12 X
At the stability limit,
 Qr I sc 2Vr
  (5.6)
 Vr cos  12 X
Eqn. (5.4) may be expressed as:
  Qr 2Vr 
 cos  
12   V 
I
sc
(5.7)
 r X 
This gives a relation between the short circuit current (I sc = Es/X) at the load
point and the other parameters, at this particular load case, eqn. (5.7) is
rewritten as follows and the voltage will be stable, when:
  Qr 2Vr 
cos  12     I sc (5.7)
  Vr X 
The general expression in terms of the short-circuit apparent power level at

the load point may be written from eqn. (5.1) as:
 12      V r  r cos    sin      r  r sin    I

Q P
 
2V 2V
cos    V  sc
12
 r
X   r X 
Or:
  Q 
 12      V r 
2V
E s cos  r cos  
  r
X 
(5.8)
P 
 2V
 
 sin      r  r sin     E s I sc
12  Vr X  

Chapter 5 701
Noting that (EsIsc) is the short circuit power level Psc of the concerned load
node. For a composite load, Pr and Qr can be represented by polynomials in
Vr, and:
n
1 P n
1
Pr  
k
a V and r   ka V k  1 (5.9)
k r V k r
k 0 r k 0
n
2 Q n
2
k
Qr   b V and r   kb V k  1 (5.10)
k 0
k r V k r
r k 0
Which can be substituted into eqn. (5.1) or (5.8) to give k 'c in terms of Vr, X,
Z1, Es, 12 and , and in ak, bk which are system constants. n1, n2 which are
the load powers polynomial orders.
5.2.2 dZ/dV Criterion:

When investigating the conditions required for voltage instability apart
from the load itself, the major parameter to be considered is the impedance Z
between the supply-end bus bar and the load. Weedy has proposed the idea of
a criterion depend on the evaluation of dZ/dV r such that for voltage stability
limit this impedance is such that dZ/dVr equal to zero. To hold the steady-
state voltage stability of the load of the two-node link of fig. (5.1), dZ/dVr
should be less than zero (dZ/dVr < 0). The formula for this criterion is
developed in [4], as:
 E

k z  2Vr3  Vr E s2  3Vr2 E s cos 12  s Vr2 E s  Vr3 cos 12
Vr


  12   Vr4  Vr2 E s2  2Vr3 E s cos 12 
 Vr E s sin  12 
3
    (5.11)
  Pr  Qr
2 2 
 r  
V 
 P Qr 
  p r r  Qr   0
 V r V r 
Therefore, steady-state voltage instability of the load node is pronounced

when KZ or dZ/dVr>0. dZ/dVr=0 determines the critical voltage stability
symbols are the same as those given with the previous criterion.
5.2.2.1 Loads Representation With dZ/dVr Criterion:

In order to get accurate results with this criterion, all system loads,
except the concerned one, should be represented by constant impedances,
calculated by |V2|/(P-jQ) and should be added to the system [Y] matrix or

should be considered in the construction of the system Z bus, before calculation
of the system equivalent Thevinen’s impedance [4].
Example 5.1:
Check the voltage stability of a power system represented by its
Thevinen's equivalent (E and X) at one of its nodes loaded by a load of
voltage characteristics:
P=3.5V3, Q = 2.0V
The equivalent generator voltage E is calculated at the nominal voltage V=1.0
pu and is kept always constant (E=constant). Use (dZ/dV or dX/dV criterion).
If E is allowed to change, check the voltage stability using the exact (dE/dV)
(or Kc>0 criterion), R is negligible.
Solution:
Using the scalar voltage drop formula:
XQ  RP X Q
EV   as (R=0.0)
V V
2
EV  V 2 EV  V E V
X   
Q 2V 2 2
E constant: dZ/dV = dX/dV = (-0.5) (system voltage is stable)
X constant: dE/dV = 1.0 (system voltage is stable)
Example 5.2:
A load is supplied from a 275kV distribution bus bar through a link of
reactance per phase to neutral of 70 (ohm) and X/R ratio =5.0. The load
consists of a constant power demand of 200MW, and reactive power demand
which is related to the load voltage (V) by the polynomial: Q = 4 - 8V+5V2
(a) Check the above system voltage stability using the dE/dV criterion
(PL=200MW, at 0.78 p.f lag.)
(b) Check also the above system voltage stability using the dZ/dV
criterion .
(c) If the load power is doubled, check the system voltage stability for
cases (a) and (b)
Take bases of 275kV and 200MVA.
Solution:
Base impedance (2752/200), and X = 70 x (200/2752) = 0.185 pu, R = X/5 =
0.037 pu., E=10 pu. (Assumption). But, P = 1.0 pu at p.f = 0.78 lag.
1.0
I cos1 0.78  1.27  38.74 pu.
1.0  0.78
Chapter 5 777
Z = 0.037 + j0.185 = 0.18866  78.69o pu

Vr = E - IZ  0.837-10.77o pu
 = 90 - 78.69 = 11.31o
dQ r
Q r  5Vr2  8Vr  4 and  10Vr  8
dVr
At Vr = 0.837 pu, then Qr = 0.8045 pu, (dQr/dVr) = 0.37
(a) Substituting in eqn. (5.1) and having variable E:
Kc  3.611 (stable system voltage)
(b) Substituting in eqn. (5.11):
dZ/dV = - (Negative) (system voltage is stable)
(c) Increasing the load power demand to P = 4.0 pu
4.0
I cos1 0.78  5.13  38.74 pu.
1.0  0.78
Vr = E - IZ = 0.67367.42o
Substituting in eqn. (5.1) Kc = - 2.81 (unstable system voltage).
Substituting in eqn: (5.11) dZ/dV = (Positive) (unstable system voltage)
Example 5.3:
A general nonlinear load having the following load/voltage relations:
Pr  Po Vrn and Q r  Q o Vrm
The load is fed from an infinite network through a link having a generalized
constant A = 10, B = 0.2389.72o, when the load power vary from zero to
1.0 pu at 0.8 power factor lagging. Initially E = 1.00.0o pu.
Derive a formula for dE/dV, then plot the value of dE/dV r with Vr when it is
changed from zero to unity at the following cases:
(a) m = n = 0 (constant MVA load)
(b) m = n = 1 (constant current load)
(c) m = n = 2 (constant impedance load)
From m = n = 0, Pr = 1.0 pu. Plot dE/dVr for different power factors from 0.7
to 0.9.
Solution:
Having; Pr  Po Vrn , and Q r  Q o Vrm
Pr Q r
 nPo Vrn 1 , and  mQ o Vrm1
Vr Vr
dE/dV is given by differentiation of E w.r.t. V r in the eqn. relating E, Vr, A,
B, , , Pr and Qr given in chapter 2, therefore,
dE
dVr
 
 2A 2 Vr  B 2 2n  2Po2 Vr2n 3  2m  2Q o2 Vr2m3 
 2AB nP V
o
n 1
r cos β  α   mQ o Vrm1sin β  α /2E
Substitution in the above equation for dE/dV r, by the appropriate values of m,
n and by the different values of powers and load voltage V r, fig. (5.2) shows
dE/dV for (m = n = 0), and for different powers and voltages Vr . fig. (5.3)
shows the same values for (m = n = 1), while fig. (5.4) for (m = n = 2). Noting
here that it was easier to differentiate E w.r.t. Vr than using the formula of the
criterion.
Fig. 5.2 System dE/dV characteristics with m = n = 0

Chapter 5 771

5.2.3 L-Indicator or On-Line Global Criterion:
An indicator L is recently defined [6]. Its value varies in the range
between zero and one for stable conditions. L = 1 indicates critical stable
condition. Its violation of one indicates unstable condition. Such an indicator
allows predicting steady-state voltage instability or the proximity of a
collapse, using information of a normal load flow and some simple numerical
calculations. It can be used for on-line testing of steady-state voltage stability
during power system operation.
For the jth, node, the local indicator Lj can be expressed as:
Voj Sj
L j  1  (5.12)
Vj Y jiV j2
Where:
Voj Thevenins equivalent voltage at node j
Sj Node complex power of node j
Vj The larger voltage amplitude or the feasible solution
Yji Admittance between nodes i and j
For stable voltage situation of each node j individually, the condition L j  1

must not be violated. For large systems, a global indicator L describing the
stability of the complete system is given by:
 F jiVi 
L  max J L Li   max J L 1     (5.13)
 i  V j 
 G 
Whereby L is the set of consumer nodes, G is the set of generator nodes, Vi

is the voltage at load node, Vi is the voltage at generator bus and F ji is sub-
matrix of the hybrid-H matrix voltage. Fji is obtained from:
1 1
Z LL  Y LL , and F LG   Y LL Y GL  F ji
FLG or Fji is a hybrid matrix can be obtained from the following analysis:
V L   I L   Z LL F LG   I L 
 G  H    G    GL 
GG   G 
(5.14)
I  V   K S  V 
L, G refer to load and generators nodes respectively, V, I are voltage and

currents, Z, F, K, Y are constants. The loads and generators voltage/current
relations in matrix form is the system Y matrix, which is given by:
 I G  Y GG Y GL  V G 
 L    GL 
LL   L 
(5.15)
  
I Y Y   
V
And according to eqn. (5.15) it is seen that:
I G  Y GGV G  Y GLV L (5.16)
I L  Y GLV G  Y LLV L (5.17)

So:
1 L 1
V L  Y LL I  Y LL Y GLV G
V L  Z LL I L  F LGV G (5.18)
Where:
1 1
Z LL  Y LL , and F LG   Y LL Y GL (5.19)
Substitution of eqn. (5.19) in eqn. (5.17) we have:
I G  Y GGV G  Y GLV L
1 L 1
I G  Y GGV G  Y GL Y LL I  Y GL Y LL Y GLV G
I G  K GL I L  S GGV G (5.20)
Where:
1
K GL  Y GL Y LL
1
S GG  Y GG  Y GL Y LL Y GL
With:
VL, IL Vector of voltages and currents at consumer nodes
VG, IG Vector of voltages and currents at generator nodes
ZLL, FLG, KGL, SGG Sub-matrices of the H-matrix
Chapter 5 771
The Sub-matrices of the matrix are generated from the Y-matrix by a partial
inversion. For any consumer node, i, j  L an equation for Vi can be derived
from the matrix.
Vj   Z ji I i   F jiVi (5.21)
i L iG
Where:
1
Z LL  Y LL Y GL
1
F LG   Y LL Y GL
For steady-state voltage of the whole system to be guaranteed, the voltage

stability criterion can be written as: (L < 1). For two nodes system (fig. 5.1)
this criterion tends to be:
Vs Z S
L  1  s (5.22)
Vr Vr
With:
S = the apparent power.
Z = the transmission series impedance.
Vs, Vr = voltage at generator node, and load node respectively.
Therefore:
L = 0, when Vr = Vs, and L = 1, when Vr = 0.5Vs, and L >1, when Vs > Vr.
5.2.4 The Modal Analysis Criterion:

Voltage stability characteristics of the system can be identified by
computing the eigenvalues and eigenvectors of the reduced Newton-Raphson
load flow Jacobean matrix. The linearized steady state system power voltage
equations are given in [6,7].
 P   J p J pv    
Q    J J qv  V 
(5.23)
   q
Where:
P = Increment change in bus real power
Q = Increment change in bus reactive power
 = Increment change in bus voltage angle
V = Increment change in bus voltage magnitude
Jp, Jpv, Jqv, Jq are the Jacobian matrix elements. At each operating point keep
P (real power) constant, therefore the value of P = 0. Then the eqn.(5.23)
becomes:
 0   J p J pv    
Q    J  

(5.24)
   q J qv   V 
And from eqn. (5.24) we find:
0  J p   J pv V
   J pv J 1
p V
Q  J q   J qv V

Q  J qv  J pv J p1 J q V 
Q  J r V

J r  J qv  J pv J p1 J q 
Jr is a reduced Jacobian matrix of the system. Eigenvalues of this reduced
Jacobian matrix is used as indicator of voltage stability. If all the eigenvalues
of Jr are positive, the system is considered voltage stable. The system is
considered voltage unstable if at least one of eigenvalues is negative. At each
operating point we keep the real power P constant and evaluate voltage
stability by considering the incremental relationship between the reactive
power Q and the magnitude of the bus voltage "V".
5.2.5 The Zth/Zload Criterion:

A simplified theory of voltage stability [9] may be immediately derived
from the optimal impedance solution of a two nodes system, as follows:
assume a load with impedance Z1 is fed from a constant voltage source Vs
with internal impedance Zs as shown in fig. (5.5).
Fig. 5.5 Two-bus system loaded by an impedance load

Chapter 5 771
When the load increases, Z1 decreases, the current I circulating in the

system increases, leading to a voltage drop which is proportional to the
current; the voltage V1 at the load terminal decreases as follows: The load
current magnitude is given by:
Vs
I (5.25)
 Z s cos   Z1 cos  2  Z s sin   Z1 sin  2  12
Vs
I
 Z 
2
Z  
 Z s 1   1
  Zs
  2 1  cos    

 12
   Zs  
I sc
I
  
2
Z  
 1   Z 1   2 1  cos    

 12
  Zs   Zs  
Vs
I sc  (5.26)
Zs
According to above equation, the collapse of the system at load bus (i) occurs
when the impedance of the load is equal to the equivalent impedance looking
into the port between bus i and the ground, i.e. Z1 = Zs (or = ZThevenin’s). For a
secure system at bus (i), we must have ZThevenin’s/Zload1, therefore,
ZThevenin’s/ZLoad can be taken as a measure of voltage stability at node (i)
ZThevenin’s/ZLoad = 1 is the critical value. If this value violate unity system
voltage becomes unstable.
5.2.6 Critical Load Node Voltage Criterion:

The results of the above three criteria are qualitative ones. Before their
application to load nodes, a Thevenen’s equivalent is obtained for each load
node under study. Critical voltage of these nodes and its corresponding
maximum power can be used as a checking index for the numerical
qualitative results of the above criteria [3,9]. The parameters are given in two
cases when the load power is received at constant power factor or when its
reactive power is always constant as shown in fig. 5.6(a) and fig. 5.6(b)
respectively. The critical voltage occurs when the two voltages coincide as
shown in fig. (5.6).
The formula of maximum received power and critical voltage in two

cases can be written in the form:
1
Pmax 
2a

 b  b 2  4ac  (2.27)
 1 
Vcr    2  K  E s2   (2.28)
 2A 
Where:
K  2 ABPr cos     Qr sin     (2.29)
And a, b, c are parameters given below for two loading cases: constant
reactive power loads and constant power factor loads. A load having voltage
less than the node critical voltage or having a power more than the node
maximum power corresponding to its critical voltage announces a state of
voltage instability.
(a) (b)
Fig. 5.6 P/V characteristics of a simple 2-node link

(a) For constant P.F load (b) For constant reactive power loads
(a) For constant receiving end reactive power:

The sending end voltage for two nodes system is given in chapter 2 as:
E s2  Ar2Vr2 
B2
P r
2

 Qr2  2 ABPr cos     Qr sin     (5.30)
Vr2
Where:
A=A and B=B are the line generalized line constants. Multiply
both sides of Eqn. (5.30) by Vr2, we get:
 
Vr2 Es2  Ar2Vr4  B 2 Pr2  Qr2  2 ABVr2 Pr cos     Qr sin     (5.31)
Let:
Chapter 5 771
K  2 ABPr cos     Qr sin    
Eqn. (5.31) will be in the form:

  
A2Vr4  Vr2 K  Es2  B 2 Pr2  Pr2  0  (5.32)
From eqn. (5.32) Vr2 is calculated by:
 1 

Vr21,2   2  K  E s2 
 2 A 
 K  E  2 2
s  
 4 A 2 B 2 Pr2  Qr2   (5.33)

Corresponding to Pmax there is one value of Vr, as the two values are
coincident, then the term under the root must vanishes i.e. the term under the
root become zero. The two equal values of the voltages Vr21,2 are thus the first
part only of eqn. (5.33) i.e.
K  E  2 2
s 
 4 A2 B 2 Pr2  Qr2 
Or:

2 AB Pr cos     Qr sin      Es2 2

 4 A2 B 2 Pr2  Qr2  (5.34)
Eqn. (5.34) can be rewritten in the general form:
aPr2  bPr  c  0 (5.35)
Pr in Eqn. (5.35) is Pmax of the node under study. Solution of Eqn. (5.35)
results in two values of Pr, one of them is negative and the other is positive.
Evidently the positive value should be considered.
Therefore:
 1 
 
2 a

Pmax     b  b 2  4ac  (5.36)
Where:
a   sin 2    
 cos     2
b  
 AB 

 E s  2 ABQr sin     
 E 4   Q sin    E s2 
c   2s 2    r   Qr2 cos2    
 4A B   AB 
   
(b) For constant power factor load:

In this case the receiving end power factor r is given for each case.
The receiving end reactive power Qr is given by:
Qr  Pr tan  r
The previous analysis will be valid as:
 cos     2
 sin 2    Pr2  
 AB

 E r  2 ABQr sin     Pr


E    0
(5.37)
4
 4 ABQr sin 2    E s2  4 A 2 B 2 Qr2 1  sin 2    
 s
4 A2 B 2
Substituting Qr = Pr tan r, then:
 cos     2
 sin 2    Pr2  
 AB

 E r  2 ABPr tan  r sin     Pr


 E s4  4 ABPr tan  r sin 2    E s2 
  (5.38)
 2 2 
 4 A B 

  4 A 2 B 2 Pr2 tan 2  r 1  sin 2     


0
 2 2 
 4A B 

2   sin      2 cos    tan  r sin    
2
  tan  r 1  sin    
Pr
 2 2 
 (5.39)
 cos    2 tan  r sin     2   
E s4
0
 Pr   Er  Er  
 AB AB   2 A B 
 2 2
Eqn. (5.39) can be rewritten in the form:
aPr2  bPr  c  0 (5.40)
Pr in (5.40) is Pmax of the node under study. Solution of eqn. (5.40) results in
two values of Pr, one of them is negative and the other is positive. Evidently
the positive value should be considered. Therefore:
 1 

Pmax     b  b 2  4ac
 2a 
 (5.41)
Where:
a   sin 2      2 cos    sin    tan  r  tan 2  r cos 2    
 cos    2 tan  r sin     2 
b   Es  Es 
 AB AB 
Chapter 5 727
 E s4 
c   2 2 

 4A B 
Example 5.4:
For the Ward-Hale 6-bus power system, the Thevenen’s equivalent at
node #5 is calculated as: Eth5 = 0.9815-3.1987o pu, Zth5 = 0.08125+j0.31277
pu, the load power at node #5 is kept constant (at 30MW = 0.3 pu), while its
reactive power is varied between 0.18 pu and 0.692 pu. Check the system
voltage stability for these two cases using dE/dV, dZ/dV and L-criterions (P
& Q are constants in each case).
Solution:
For node #5:
Vr5  E th5  IZth5
 P  jQ  (5.42)
 E th5   5 * 5  Z th5
 V 
 r5 
Application of criteria, we find:
For Q5 = 0.18 pu:
(dE/dV) or Kc = 2.4497, (dZ/dV) or Kz = - 0.036747, V = 0.9 pu
L = 0.2785, (Pmax = 1.3205 pu, Vcr = 0.5136)
So, the system voltage is stable.
For Q5 = 0.692 pu:

Kc = - 0.6639, Kz = 0.252278, L = 1.5174, V = 0.49 pu
Pmax = 1.3205, Vcr = 0.5136
The system voltage is unstable.
Check of criteria results by critical node voltage:

Using eqn. (5.28) with Pr = 0.3 pu
Vr5 (for Q5 = 0.18 pu) = 0.9-13.114o
Vr5 (for Q5 = 0.692 pu) = 0.49075-41.809o
This is clear from the voltage, which dropped to 0.49075 pu, it's lower than
Vcr and its phase angle which increased suddenly to -41.8, instead of -13.114
in the stable case. While in the first case the load node voltage is greater than
its critical one.
Example 5.5:
For the IEEE 30 bus system, the load power of a certain node is fixed at
21.88MW (0.2188 pu), while its reactive power was 14MVAR (0.14 pu). The
voltage is then stable. If the load reactive power of that node is changed
gradually to 152MVAR (1.52 pu.). Does the system voltage stability is

preserved? Thevenen’s voltage and impedance seen at that node are:
Eth = 0.9535-14.3658o, Zth = 0.1485875.24o pu
Solution:
Concerned node voltage is calculated by:
 P  jQ 
Vr  E th   Z
*  th
 Vr 
For Q = 0.14 pu, V21 = 0.919817.785o
For Q = 0.52 pu, V21 = 0.47675-11.571o
(a) Using Q = 0.14 pu, we find using (P = constant, Q = constant)
Kc = 5.9443, Kz = - 0.051307, L = 0.01403
(b) Using Q = 1.52 pu, we find using (P = constant, Q = constant, dP/dV = 0)
Kc = - 0.0076, Kz = 0.024415, L = 1.0971
System voltage stability is lost.
Noting that: Pmax = 2.5783 and Vcr = 0.4671 (for Q = 0.14)
Pmax = 2.5783 and Vcr = 0.50 (for Q = 1.52)
5.2.6 dV/dP or dP/dV Criterion:

The behavior of system voltage is often a very good indicator of the
approach to the boundary of secure operation. In particular, as the limits of
voltage stability are approached, voltage may become not only very sensitive
to small changes in load, but also more difficult to control. But in the
interpretation of these observations as indicating how close we are to the limit
of stability, the critical increment voltage drop (dV/dP) for a satisfactory
stability margin depends very strongly on the load characteristics and on the
system operating mode, in particular on the amount and types of local voltage
support (reactive power compensation) in use.
An indirect measure that can be observed is the sensitivity of voltage to

the continual changes in load (dV/dP) [10]. As mentioned before, the critical
value of (dV/dP) for a satisfactory margin may vary for different load and
system operating characteristics. Regarding the V/P curves of any system load
node, (dV/dP) is the slope of these curves for certain constant power factor or
for constant load reactive power. At the nose of this curve, the critical load
node voltage is determined. For these particular conditions the sign of the
slope of the (dP/dV) can be taken as indicator of the stable or the unstable
operational range. Also, (dV/dP) results in bifurcation near and at the critical
voltage point. Before and after this situation, the sign of the obtained
characteristics determines the degree of stability of the node voltage and
consequently of the whole system voltage. Based on the above assumption of
constant source voltage (Vs = E) and for constant power factor load (cos r)
Chapter 5 721
and network representation by its generalized constant A, B, the

dVr/dPr or dPr/dVr criterion formula was derived in [10] as follows:
Substituting by  -  =  in equation relating E with Vr:
2 Pr2  Qr2 
E  A Vr  B 
2 2 2 
2

  2 AB Pr cos  Qr sin 
 (5.43)
 Vr 
For constant power factor:
Qr = Pr tan r, where r = cos-1 (P.F.) (5.44)

Then:
1 tan 2  r 
E A
2 2
Vr2 B 2
Pr2  
  2 ABPr cos  tan  r sin 
 (5.45)
 Vr2 
 
Vr2 E 2  A2Vr4  B 2 Pr2 1  tan 2  r  2 ABPr cos  tan  r sin  Vr2 (5.46)
Let:
K = cos + tanr sin and S = 1 + tan2r
Thus:
Vr2 E 2  A2Vr4  B 2 Pr2 S  2 ABPr KVr2 (5.47)
Or:

A2Vr4  2 ABPr K  E 2 Vr2  B 2 SPr2  0  (5.48)
By differentiation Vr with respect to Pr, get:
 dV
4 A 2Vr3  r

  dV
  2 2 ABPr K  E 2  Vr  r  
  2 ABKVr2  2 B 2 SPr  0
 dPr   dPr 
4 A V  4 ABP K  2E  V  dV
2
r
3
r

  2 ABKV
dP 
2
r
r
r
2
 2 B 2 SPr  0 (5.49)
 r 
Regarding the slope of the voltage/power plot, the voltage is stable when:
dVr  2 ABKV r2  2 B 2 SPr

 0 (5.50)
dPr 4 A 2Vr3  4 ABPr KVr  2 E 2Vr
From equation (5.22):
2 ABKVr2 Pr  B 2 SPr2  A2Vr4  Vr2 E 2  0 (5.51)

By differentiation of Pr w.r.t Vr, we get:

  dP    dP 
2 ABK 2 PrVr  Vr2  r    2 B 2 SPr  r   4 A 2Vr3  2 E 2Vr  0
  dVr    dVr 
2 ABKV r
2

 dP 
 2 B 2 SPr   r   4 ABKVr Pr  4 A 2Vr3  2 E 2Vr  0 (5.52)
 dVr 
2 ABKV r
2
  dP 

 2 B 2 SPr   r   2Vr 2 ABKPr  2 A 2Vr2  E 2  (5.53)
 dVr 
Regarding the slope of the power/voltage plot, the voltage is stable when:


dPr  2Vr 2 ABKPr  2 A 2Vr2  E 2
0
 (5.54)
dVr 
2 B KVr2  BSPr 
From eqns. (5.54), (5.50) dVr/dPr is known by the sensitivity of receiving
voltage w.r.t receiving power, dPr/dVr defines the limit of receiving power
w.r.t receiving load voltage. Regarding to the load node voltage/power
characteristics, the voltage will be stable when dVr/dPr is negative and dPr/dVr
is positive, it will be unstable when dV r/dPr is positive and dPr/dVr is
negative. Using this new concept of voltage instability, dP r/dVr and dVr/dPr
criterion are plotted for a certain system for a 0.9 lagging power factor
(fig.5.7) and for a power factor 0.9 leading (fig.5.8). dV r/dPr are drawn for
different power factors in the lagging and leading ranges (0.7 to 0.9), for the
same system. The figure shows bifurcation of that slope at the critical voltage
and illustrates clearly the stable and unstable voltage zones. Noting that
Vs=1.0 pu and is constant, and the criterion describes the slope of the Vr/Pr
curve for constant power factors. Figure (5.9) shows the dP/dV characteristics
of that system.
Fig. 5.7 dV/dP for lagging power factor loads

Chapter 5 721
Fig. 5.8 dV/dP for leading power factor loads
Fig. 5.9 dPr/dVr Characteristics of the system for lead, lag and unity
power factors
5.3 Applications to Large Power Systems:

All of these criteria are developed for a simple two nodes link having
sending-end voltage Es, receiving-end load voltage Vr and link impedance Z.
The link is loaded at its load end by a concentrated load of active power P r
and reactive power Qr. It may be of constant reactive power Qr or of constant
power factor [tan-1 (Qr/Pr)] = constant. Or other application of these criteria to
large systems, using that simple formula derived for simple two nodes links,
can be made by calculation of a Thevenen's equivalent of the large system at
each load node successively, with its corresponding load separated and all
other load nodes are represented by constant impedances. This can be done
using the well known Zbus method to calculate the Zth as its diagonal element
at that node and a load flow run to determine the no load node voltage which
is its Thevenen's voltage Eth. Having obtained Eth, Zth, the criteria can be
applied by replacing Es by Eth, Z by Zth. The load node voltage Vr is then
calculated by the two nodes Thevenen’s voltage, the network Thevenen’s
impedance and the load powers power (Pr+jQr). This is to be repeated for each
load node successively for pronouncing the system voltage stability state.
For the unstable voltage cases, the load flow diverges i.e., load node
voltage Vr cannot be known. Upon separation of the concerned load powers,
load flow may converge and Eth can be obtained. Together with Zth, the load
node voltage Vr can be calculated, using simple formula given in chapter 2,
relating Eth, Zth, Pr, Qr and Vr as a fourth order equation in Vr. The
determination of Thevenen’s equivalent of a large power system can be
summarized in the following steps:
 Disconnect its load
 With the load node separated, perform a load- flow for the system.
The obtained voltage at the load node represents its Thevenen’s voltage
Eth.
 Arrange the system nodes so that all generators are at the top of
nodes.
 Kill all generators.
This can be performed mathematically in the following manner:

For a system Y matrix, having generator nodes “ G” and load nodes “L”, we
have:
 I G  Y GG Y GL  V G 
 L    LG   (5.55)
 I  Y Y LL  V L 
VL, IL Vectors of voltages and currents at load nodes

VG, IG Vectors of voltages and currents at generators node
YGG, YGL, YLG, YLL Submartices of the Y-matrix
Killing all generators of the system means that all generators are connected to
the ground with the result that their self elements Y GG will disppear and
VG=0. Their mutual with load nodes vanish. These mutual should be added to
the self of the load nodes, which are connected to the generator buses "G".
Fortunately they are already included in YLL of the load nodes in the form of
mutual with the generators, before killing.
Therefore, the above Y-matrix become:
I   Y V 
L LL L
(5.56)
Taking the inverse of this equation yields:
V   Z I 
L LL L
(5.57)
Where:
Chapter 5 721
Z   Y 
LL LL 1
Injection of current 10 at node n results in VL voltage at that node. The

Thevenen’s impedance seen from that node n is therefore:
 
Z th  V L I L  Diag. Z LL , (corresponding to node i) (5.58)
In order to have the same results of all criteria, the following technique is
proposed for calculating the new Zth at each load node. The new proposed
technique can be summarized in the following steps:
(a) Evaluate the admittance matrix [Y] and perform a load-flow solution
to obtain the voltage at each bus.
(b) Disconnect the load at the node at which Zth is to be calculated.
(c) Convert all other loads to constant impedance loads using the
formula:
 P  jQ 
Yii Load    i 2 i  (5.59)
 V 
 i 
Where:
Pi, Qi Load power and reactive power at node (i).
|Vi| The magnitude of the voltage at node (i).
Yii(Load) Equivalent load admittance at node (i).
(d) Modify the system admittance matrix [Y] diagonal elements as:
Yii  Yii old   Yii Load  (5.60)
(e) Eliminate lines and columns corresponding to generator buses to
obtain Ybus (new).
(f) Invert the new reduced Ybus (new) matrix, to get Zbus (new).
(g) The diagonal elements of Zbus(new) which corresponds to node (i) is
the new Zth corresponding to node (i).
(h) All the previous 6 steps should be repeated for any change in the ith,
node loading conditions (Pi or Qi), as the voltage level at all nodes will be
changed and the equivalent Yii (load) will be certainly changed.
5.4 Loads With Known P/Q/V Characteristics:

Formula of the previous three voltage stability criteria contain terms for
the partial derivation or the derivatives of the load powers P r, Qr with respect
to their terminal load voltage Vr, i.e. dPr /dVr, dQr /dVr. Therefore, voltage
stability is related to active and reactive power/voltage characteristics of
loads, which should be known for each load node. Generally special recorders
in all load centers can record the time response of the power, reactive power
and voltage. The P/V and Q/V characteristics can then be found from these
time records at discrete intervals or by using the energy analyzers available
nowadays. Extrapolation technique can determine polynomial orders of these
relations.
P  Po  a1V  a2V 2  a3V 3  a4V 4  a5V 5  ...... (5.61)
Q  Qo  b1V  b2V 2  b3V 3  b4V 4  b5V 5  ...... (5.62)

Where:
(a1, a2...ai), (b1, b2...bj) are constant coefficients. Po, Qo are the constant
active and reactive power parts, respectively, which are independent of
voltage variations, measured at nominal voltages. dP/dV and dQ/dV can
therefore be derived from eqns. (5.61), (5.62) as follows:
dP
 a1  2a2V  3a3V 2  4a4V 3  5a5V 4 ...... (5.63)
dV
dQ
 b1  2b2V  3b3V 2  4b4V 3  5b5V 4 ...... (5.64)
dV
If the loads are considered as constant power loads, all of the coefficients (a 1,
a2...ai), (b1, b2...bj) vanish and both dP/dV and dQ/dV become zero. Recent
studies gave these coefficients for known individual loads and for some
typical loads. They were displayed in chapter 3.
5.5 Checking of Criteria Numerical Results by Critical

Voltage Criteria:
Critical voltage of the load node of this two nodes system at the load
end and its corresponding maximum power can be used as a checking index
for the numerical qualitative results of the above criteria. They can be
calculated in two cases when the load power is received at constant power
factor or with constant reactive power. The Formula of the critical voltages
and maximum received power in these two cases are given in the previous
section.
5.6 Application of the Six Voltage Stability Criteria to

Large Power Systems of Fixed Loadability:
Chapter 5 721
The six bus Ward-Hall system is selected to illustrate the concept of the
above criteria for detection of degree of steady-state voltage stability of large
power systems. The Ward-Hale 6-bus system, generally used for testing the
new developed techniques in comparison to the known ones, is shown in
fig.(5.10). The system has two generators, 6 nodes, 5 lines and 2 transformers
with tap-changers. For the 6-bus Ward-Hall system, Thevenen’s equivalent at
each load node, with its load separated, is firstly calculated. The Thevenen’s
pu. Voltage and impedance for the load nodes (nodes 3-6) of the 6-bus system
are found in pu to be as follows:
Eth3 = 0.9753-1.023 pu Zth3 = 0.27375.64 pu

Eth4 = 0.9540-9.93 pu Zth4 = 0.22174.81 pu
Eth5 = 1.004-3.20 pu Zth5 = 0.32375.43 pu
Eth6 = 0.9873-3.20 pu Zth6 = 0.23775.54 pu
Fig. 5.10 Six bus Ward-Hall test system
The L indicator, dE/dV, dZ/dV modal analysis and Z th/ZL criterion are
applied for each node and the results are given in table (5.1), for the base case
state. The table shows complete agreement of the results with the six criteria.
Also, it shows the value of the critical voltage for each load node and its
corresponding consumed maximum power Pmax. Lj are all less than unity,
dE/dV are positive, dZ/dV are negative, Zth/ZL are less than unity and all
eigenvalues are positive, for all load nodes (node 3 to 6), which indicate that
all load nodes voltage are stable, and complete agreement of the six criteria is
obtained. The same study was performed in [8] for the IEEE-30 bus system.
Table 5.1The different voltage stability criteria indicators for 6-bus

system (Base Case)
Bus V in pu. L dE/dV dZ/dV Vcr Modal Pmax Zth/ZL

No Ind. (K'C) (KZ) 
3 1.0007-12.79 0.26 2.61 -0.0070 0.485 18.8 1.49 0.25
4 0.9296-9.80 0.21 4.43 -0.0003 0.465 2.54 1.60 0.0

5 0.9196-12.33 0.28 2.44 -0.0355 0.512 1.20 1.29 0.24
6 0.9191-12.23 0.26 3.63 -0.0561 0.443 8.40 1.65 0.22
All cases are stable
5.7 Application of the Six Criteria to Large Power
Systems Having Variable Loadabilities:
The application of the six criteria to the nodes voltages of the above six
bus Ward-Hall System with variable loading burdens, shows complete
coincidence of the results of the six criteria. This is clear in table (5.2) in
which the six voltage stability criteria are applied to node 5 with stressed
reactive power demand up to values, which led to voltage instability.
Table 5.2 Six voltage stability criteria application to node 5 after

stressing its reactive power demand up to values which led to voltage
instability (Vcr = 0.512 pu, P = 0.3 pu)
Q5 V in pu. L dE/dV dZ/dV Modal Zth/Z

Ind. (K'C) (KZ)  L
0.180 0.9196-12.3 0.270 2.439 -0.0355 [18.8, 2.5, 1.3, 7.4] 0.240
0.360 0.8439-12.7 0.360 1.980 -0.0350 [18.2, 2.3, 1.2, 7.1] 0.307
0.540 0.7455-13.8 0.530 1.380 -0.0337 [17.9, 2.1, 1.1, 7.0] 0.445
0.690 0.6007-17.06 0.890 0.480 -0.0220 [17.2,1.9, 0.899, 7.6] 0.760
0.715 0.5303-19.26 0.918 0.094 -0.0132 [16.4,1.7,0.115,1.88] 0.978
0.717 0.5105-20.0* 1.14* -0.004* 0.0103* [16.3,1.3,-0.05,6.19]* 1.02*
0.7173 0.4950-20.4* 1.16* -0.035* 0.0090* [16.2,1.2,-0.08,1.8]* 1.04*
*Indicates unstable voltage cases.
Problems
5.1 A large power system is loaded by a load of 0.3 pu power at a load
node has a Thevenen’s equivalent of Eth=1.004-3.20pu,
Zth=0.32275.23opu. Check the system stability for load reactive powers
of 0.18 pu, 0.36 pu, 0.69 pu and 0.72 pu.
5.2 Thevenen’s equivalent of node # 21 of the IEEE 30-bus system is
Eth=0.9535-14.3658 pu, Zth = 0.1485875.24 pu. Its load is p = 0.10 pu.
Find the node critical voltage, then check the system voltage stability for
reactive loads of Q = 0.019 pu, 0.057 pu, 0.107 pu.
5.3 A generator is feeding a load of (1+j1) pu, through a double circuit line,
each has a reactance of 0.185 pu, the resistance is negligible, on 200 MVA,
275 kV base.
Chapter 5 717
(a) Assuming the load power is kept constant at 1.0 pu and the reactive
power is stressed. Find this value of reactive power at which voltage
instability starts to occur.
(b) If the reactive power is kept constant at 1.0 pu and the active power
is increased. To what value the system voltage will remain stable?
(c) Use all known criteria and compare your results.
5.4 A 6-nodes power system is loaded by a load of (0.3 + j0.18) at node #
5. The system Thevenen’s equivalent at that node is V th5=1.004-3.2o pu,
Zth = 0.32375.43o pu.
(a) Check the system voltage stability at that node using all known
criteria.
(b) If the load is doubled, is the voltage stability holds?
(c) What will be the critical load voltage at that node and what will be
its maximum delivered power?
(d) If the load has a leading power factor of the same value, what will be
the new critical load voltage and the new maximum delivered power.
(e) If the load power is kept constant at 0.3 pu and its reactive power is
stressed, what will be the value at which voltage instability starts.
5.5 A 275 kV infinite system feeding a load through a line of 70 ohm
reactance and negligible resistance, Taking a 200 MVA base power
(a) Check the system voltage stability when its load reactive power
varies according to: Q=5V2-8V+4 and the load power factor is varied
between 0.1 and 0.9 by intervals of 0.1
(b) Check the system voltage stability, when its load reactive power
varies according to Q = 5V2 - 8V + 4 and the power factor is varied
between 0.1 and 0.9 leading at intervals of 0.1. What will be the situation
at unity power factor?
(c) Check the system voltage stability when its load power varies with
voltage as P = 2V2 and Q is kept constant.
(d) Repeat (a), (b) when P and Q are doubled.
5.6 The Thevenen’s equivalent of a 6 nodes power system at a certain
operation condition is calculated at node #5 as: Eth = 0.9815 - j3.1987 pu,
Zth = 0.08125 + j0.31277 pu (on 100 MVA base). Node # 5 is loaded by a
load of 30 MW and a reactive power of 18 MVAR
(a) Find the load voltage V.
(b) Check the load voltage stability, using the exact (dE/dV) criterion,
dZ/dV, L-criterion, modal criterion and ZL/Zthev criterion.
5.7 A power system has four load nodes. The Thevenen’s equivalent at
these nodes are found by:
Eth3 = 0.9753-1.023 pu Zth3 = 0.27375.64o pu
Eth4 = 0.9540-9.93 pu Zth4 = 0.22174.81o pu
Eth5 = 1.004-3.20 pu Zth5 = 0.32375.43o pu
Eth6 = 0.9873-3.20 pu Zth6 = 0.23775.54o pu
Check the node voltage stability of that system for the following loading:
P3 + jQ3 = 0.55 + j1.3 P4 + jQ4 = 1.0 + j1.0
P5 + jQ5 = 0.6 + j0.36 P6 + jQ6 = 0.5 + j0.05
5.8 For each of the nodes, of problem 5.7, find the load at which the
voltage becomes unstable when:
(a) The load is purely resistive (Q = 0)
(b) The load is purely inductive (P=0,Q positive)
(c) The load is purely capacitive (P=0, Q negative)
5.9 Find the critical nodes voltages for the nodes of problem (5.7) when the
load power factors are 0.7 lead, 0.9 lead, unity, 0.7 lag, and 0.9 lag. Plot
critical voltage values with power factors.
5.10 Assuming negligible link resistance, find critical value of X for
voltage instability for a general two nodes system in the following cases:
(a) A load, which drives a constant power P and a constant reactive
power Q from an infinite bus network through a line of variable reactance
XL (variable length and a short line).
(b) If the load power P is constant and equal 1.0 pu at V = 1.0 pu and
load reactive power in pu varies with terminal voltage according to: Q =
5V2 - 8V + 4.0.
(c) If 90%, 70%, 50%, 25%, 5% of the line reactance XL is compensated
successively by a series capacitor of reactance Xc, determine the critical
voltages in each case and plot them with series compensation percentage.
5.11 A 66KV load of 100 MW at 0.9 power lagging is fed from a 66 kV
supply through a 132 kV line, stepping-up and a stepping-down
transformer. The total impedance of the transmission line and the two
transformers is (2.5 + j66) ohm. Taking a 100 MVA base:
(a) Check the load voltage stability when the load is represented by its
impedance at nominal voltage
(b) Check the load voltage stability when the load is composed of 50%
constant power, 20% constant impedance and 30% constant current.
(c) Check the load voltage stability when the load is composed of 50%
constant power, 20% constant impedance and 30% constant current.
5.12 A load of (0.8 + j0.5) pu, based on 100 MVA base, is fed from a
generating source through a stepping-up transformer of reactance 0.15pu,
double circuits transmission line, each circuit has a reactance 0.4 pu and a
negligible resistance and a stepping-down transformer of reactance 0.1 pu.
Find the load voltage and its maximum power and check its voltage
stability, when the generator is:
(a) With constant excitation voltage( E = 2.52 pu and Xs = 1.5 pu).
(b) With non-continuously acting AVR (E’ = 1.59 pu, X’ = 0.4 pu).
(c) With continuously acting AVR (constant terminal voltage, V t =
1.28).
Chapter 5 711
5.13 A six-bus ward-Hall system is loaded at bus #5 by a load of (0.3 +

j0.18) pu. The Thevenen’s equivalent at that node is Vths = 1.004-3.20o,
Zth = 0.32275.23o. Find the voltage at which the system becomes
critically stable by E/dV criterion and the corresponding load power and
reactive power when node #5 is loaded by either of the following loads
represented in polynomial forms:
(a) A motor with certain mechanical load
P = 0.4147 - 0.2722V + 0.158V2 and Q = 0.668 - 1.324V + 0.836V2
(b) Another motor with new mechanical load
P = 0.048 + 0.36V - 0.008V2 and Q = 0.346 - 0.614V + 0.448V2
(c) A third motor with special load
P = 0.67833 - 0.815V + 0.43V2 and Q = 0.74 - 1.285V + 0.7253V2
(d) A small Electrolysis plant
P=0.3002-0.0002V+0.000003V2 and Q=0.18124-0.00124V+ 0.000004V2
(e) An Arcing load
P = 0.34 - 0.096V + 0.056V2 and Q = 0.215 - 0.09V + 0.055V2
(f) Certain lighting load
P = -0.31 + 0.457V + 0.153V2 and Q = 0.192 - 0.76V + 0.748V2
(g) Another lighting load 2
P = -0.5988 + 1.239V - 0.342V2 and Q = 0.2 + 0.176V + 0.205V2
(h) A certain commercial load
P = 0.314 - 0.0156V + 0.0016V2 and Q = 0.189 - 0.009V + 0.0001V2
(i) A certain residential load
P = 0.3835 - 0.096V + 0.0088V2 and Q = -7.57 + 9.24V - 1.49V2
(j) Another Arcing load
P = 135.289 + 279.819 - 144.23V2 and Q = 24.34 - 52.78 + 28.62V2
(k) Synchronous motor load
P = 1.699 - 3.677 V + 2.2779V2 and Q = 0.2744 - 0.401V + 0.3065V2
(l) Composite load
P = 10.74 - 39.27V + 28.83V2 and Q = 0.59 + 3.07V - 2.3V2
(m) Distribution transformer substation load
P=267.95 - 555.808V + 289.158V2 and Q = 69.7525 - 145.26V + 75.743V2
(n) The following special single termed loads
i. P = 0.3, Q = 0.18
ii. P = 0.3V2, Q = 0.18V2
iii. P = 0.3 V, Q = 0.18V
Note: All above load power based on P = 0.3 pu, Q = 0.18 pu at V = 1 pu.
5.14 Check the voltage stability of a power system represented by its
equivalent Thevenen’s impedance at the load node (E th , Xth), using the
exact (dE/dV) criterion (or Kc > 0 criterion). Xth = 0.32 pu, and the load
power is kept constant at 18MW, the reactive power varies according to:
(a) Q = Qo (V2/V2n)
(b) Q = Qo (V/Vn)
(c) Q = Qo (V3/ V3n)

(d) Q = Qo (constant)
Where: Qo = 72 MVAR, calculated at Vnominal = 1.0 pu, MVA base = 100.
5.15 Solve example (5.14) when: P = 3.5V, Q = 2V.
5.16 275 kV 3-phase line of length 96 km is rated at 800A. The values of
resistance, inductance and capacitance per phase per kilometer are 0.78,
1.056mH, 0.029f respectively. The receiving-end voltage is 275 kV when
full load is transmitted at 0.9-p.f lagging. Calculate the sending-end
voltage and draw the P/V characteristics for the same load power factor. If
the load is 50% load of (P = constant, Q = 5V 4 - 8V + 4) and 50%
constant impedance load. Check the system voltage stability, with the
sending-end voltage is kept constant. Use generalized constant formula.
What will be the case when the load is fully induction motor?
Compare your results with the load fully constant impedance.
5.17 For the IEEE 30 bus system having the data given in the appendices,
find the Thevenen’s equivalent at all load nodes and check their voltage
stability for their actual load abilities and for each load node, find the load
at which the system voltage start to be unstable. Use load flow program
and network reduction program for the system Y matrix or construct the
system Z matrix.
5.18 Repeat problem 5.17 for the equivalent 16 nodes Egyptian power
system.
References
[1] B. M. Weedy, B. R. Cox, "Voltage Stability of Radial Power Links",
Proc. IEE, Vol. 115, No. 4, April 1968, pp. 528-536.
[2] B. M. Weedy, "Electric Power Systems", Book, John Wiley and Sons,
Third edition, 1979, (chapter 8)
[3] A. A. Ahmed, "Control of VAR Flow in Power Systems as Influenced
by System Configuration", M. Sc. Thesis, Assiut University, Assiut
Egypt, 1993.
[4] M. Z. EL-Sadek, M. M. Dessouky, G. A. Mahmoud, W. I. Rashed,
"Improvement of the Steady-State Voltage Stability Criteria Results",
in Fifth International Middle East Power Conference, MEPCON’97,
January 1997, Alexandria University, Egypt, pp. 426-430.
[5] M. Z. EL-Sadek, M. S. Abdel-Salam, A. A. Ibrahim, A. A. Hussien,
"Criteria for Detection of Steady-State Voltage Stability of Power
Systems", Electric Power and Machines Journal, Vol. 25, 1997, pp.851-
864.
Chapter 5 711
[6] P. Kessel and H. Glavitsch, "Estimating the Voltage Stability of a

Power System", IEEE Transactions on Power Delivery, Vol. PWRD-1,
No. 3, July 1985, pp. 346-354.
[7] P. A. Lof, G. Anderson, D. J. Hill, "Voltage Stability Indices for
Stressed Power Systems", IEEE Transaction on Power Systems, Vol. 8,
No. 1, February 1993, pp. 326-334.
[8] C. W. Taylor, "Power System Voltage stability", Book, McGraw-Hill,
Inc. New York, 1994.
[9] W. I. Rashed, "Voltage Stability Enhancement in Power Systems", Ph.
D. Thesis, Suez Canal University, Port Said, 1997.
[10] Asmaa Abo-El-Fetouh, Gamal Abdel-Baset, "Load Power Factor
Correction Effects on Voltage Instability of Distribution Power
systems", B. Sc. degree project, Assiut University, Assiut, Egypt, 1992.
[11] S. Abe, J. Makino, A. Isono, U. Moroe, and O. Nagasaki "Criteria of
Power System Stability by Steady-State Analysis", Paper No. A 435-
758 presented at IEEE PES Summer Meeting, San Francisco,
California, and July 20-25, 1975.
[12] C. Concordia, "Voltage Instability", Electrical Power and Energy
Systems, May 1989, Vol. 1, No. 2, pp. 14-19.
136 Static VAR Compensators
Chapter 6
Static VAR Compensators
6.1 Introduction:
Earlier static VAR compensators were saturated reactors shunted by
fixed capacitors or DC–controlled saturated reactors. They were applied since
the mid of the sixteenth. Recent power electronic devices based static VAR
compensators were known and applied since the beginning of the seventeenth.
They were extensively used in the beginning of the eighteenth to replace the
conventional rotating synchronous condensers, in most networks. Several
versions of these compensators are now in service worldwide, others are in
the planning stages. Over 20 applications are already known for these
compensators. They have fast response and offer effective control to power
systems during normal operation conditions and during disturbances.
6.2 What are Static VAR Compensators?

Static VAR compensator is a new comer to the group of shunt devices
in power systems. The advantages of the static shunt fixed reactors and
capacitors encouraged the electrical power engineers to collect them in one
device and to permit either of them, or both, to change in function with the
system variables. They are denoted by static VAR compensators and
abbreviated by "SVC". They can perform the same tasks conventionally
performed by synchronous condensers, but without rotating parts and with
fast responses and low costs. The static reactive elements may be linear or
nonlinear reactors, and capacitors, designed into a VAR compensating
element and connected in shunt to the network. The shunt reactive powers
flowing in these devices are controllable over some range of VARS. Three
basic concepts are feasible:
 A variable capacitive element in parallel with a fixed reactor
 A variable reactor element in parallel with a fixed capacitor
 A variable reactor element in parallel with a variable capacitor
The elements variation may be physical as with the saturation of the

reactor or the switching of fixed reactors or capacitors in discrete manner. Or
it may be equivalent (or virtual) as the variation of the reactive currents
flowing in fixed capacitors or fixed reactors. This current variation is obtained
using thyristors with their new technologies and control systems. The
controllers can be simple lead-lag controllers or complicated ones, depending
Chapter 6 731
on the task of the SVC in the system. The control is either switching out and
in or continuous control. So these devices are called switched devices or
controlled devices respectively.
6.3 Types of Static VAR Compensators:

Several types of electronic-based static VAR compensators are now in
use in power systems utilities. The most important of them are:
6.3.1 Thyristor Controlled Reactor (TCR):

It is shown in fig. 6.1(a). It consists of a shunt connected, Thyristor-
controlled inductor whose effective reactance is varied in a continuous
manner by continuous conduction control of the thyristor valves, and
variation of reactor drawn reactive current "I()" in its fixed physical
reactance "X". The reactor variable effective susceptance "B c" is given as a
function in its fixed reactance "X" and it’s variable flowing current "I()"
under an instantaneous RMS terminal voltage V by:
I 2   X
Bc  (6.1)
V2
(
b)
Fig. 6.1 Thyristor controlled reactive power compensation devices

(a) Thyristor controlled reactor TCR or Thyristor switched reactor
TSR
(b) Thyristor switched capacitor (TSC)
The TCR equivalent variable susceptance as a function of the thyristors

conduction angle () and the fixed reactor reactance XL of the TCR is given
by:
  sin     sin  
BL     BL max   (6.2)
X L   
With: : thyristors firing angle, and =2-2. The losses with a TCR include
the step-down transformer cooling system, filters and TCR. The firing angle 
ranges from 90o to 180o.
6.3.2 Thyristor Switched Reactor (TSR):

A shunt-connected, thyristor-switched inductor whose effective
operation of the thyristor valve is the same as the TCR, except it has no firing
angle controls .Its firing angles are zero and 180º or without any firing at all.
A TSR is then a shunt reactor switched in or out by thyristors action as a
static switch. Again there are no appreciable transients or harmonics produced
in the switching process. There is a step drop in voltage owing to the
switching of the TSR. Figure 6.1(a) shows also its circuits, which are the
same as TCR. The difference of TSR than TCR is that a TCR is a controlled
reactor, which can be switched on during any period in the voltage waveform,
while TSR is either on or off. The controlled reactor (TCR) appears as a
continuously variable shunt susceptance to the system, while TSR appears as
a fixed shunt susceptance during its on state. The losses are those of the step-
down transformer, the cooling system and the TSR branches.
6.3.3 TCR/TSR UM SVC Type:

Another physical arrangement for TCR and TSR types in one device is
the UM-concept shown in fig. (6.2) and presented by Dr. A. Hammad. In
which the reactance of the reactor is splitted into two parts each connected to
one group of thyristor: one of them operates as a TCR and the other as a TSR,
in order to produce half of the harmonic generated from one large TCR, and
to extend the firing angle to be from 0 to 180o.
Chapter 6 731
Fig. 6.2 TCR/TSR UM-SVC scheme

6.3.4 Thyristor Switched Capacitor (TSC):
A shunt-connected, thyristor-switched capacitor, whose effective
reactance is varied in a stepwise manner by full- or zero-conduction operation
of the thyristor valves, as shown in fig. 6.1(b). This device switches small
sized individual capacitors units in or out of the circuit. The capacitor banks
are connected to the network through stepping-down transformers. To limit
the rate of rise of the current through the thyristor and to avoid resonance with
the network, an air-cored reactor may be connected in series with each single-
phase thyristor. An analog-digital processor determines the number of
capacitor banks to be in or out and supply accordingly pulses to the thyristor
switches, to become on or off.
6.3.5 Thyristor Controlled Reactor Combined with

Thyristor Switched Capacitor (TCR/TSC):
Shunt compensators built up from a combination of thyristors-
controlled reactors and thyristor switched-capacitors offer many advantages,
such as steeples control law, less losses, redundancy, low harmonic
generation and fast control of both the reactor and the capacitor part. The
single-phase schematic diagram for a TCR/TSC type compensator is shown in
fig. 6.3(a). The TCR/TSC type compensator combines "n" thyristor-switched
on/off controlled capacitor banks with a single thyristor controlled reactor
bank. The variable reactive power can be achieved by operating "n" thyristor
switched on or off capacitor banks individually in combination with the firing
angle control of the thyristor-controlled reactor bank. Their losses are lower
than those with TCR/FC configuration. The addition of the TCR to the TSC
provides a smooth continuous rapid transition over a wide VAR range, as
shown on the device steady-state characteristics in fig. 6.3(b). In this case the
characteristics is smooth transition over a fixed voltage value.
(a) (b)
Fig. 6.3 TCR/TSC static VAR compensator
(a) Configuration (b) V/ I Characteristics
6.3.6 Combination of TCR, TSC and TSR’s:
TCRs can be combined with TSCs and TSRs to form static VAR
systems, which have continuously variable outputs from reactive limit to
capacitive limit. The losses for the combined systems are the sum of the
components. TCR provides continuous voltage regulation while it has losses,
harmonics and cost. TSR, TSC assume the frequent requirements of systems.
fig. (6.3) represents also this version of SVC’S but with several reactors with
anti parallel-connected thyristors, instead of one.
6.3.7 Thyristor-Controlled Reactor/Fixed Capacitor

(TCR/FC):
In this version of SVC, thyristor is used to control the current in linear
air-core reactors. One physical arrangement of the elements of such a system
is shown in fig. 6.4(a). The thyristor controlled reactor branch (TCR) is
shunted by a fixed shunt capacitor to extend the control range in the leading
reactive power. This is shown in the steady-state characteristics of fig. 6.4(b).
In order to obtain an optimum voltage for the thyristor valves design, the
shunt fixed capacitor (FC) can be an integral part of the harmonic current
filters, which must be provided to eliminate the odd harmonics, other than the
triplen ones which are usually eliminated by connecting the secondary of the
transformer in delta. Fixed capacitors are usually connected to the high
voltage network nodes, while TCR are usually connected through stepping
down transformers, to minimize the number of required series thyristors.
(a) (b)
Chapter 6 747
Fig. 6.4 Thyristor controlled reactor/fixed capacitor SVC type

(a) Configuration (b) V/I Characteristics
6.3.8 Thyristor-Controlled Transformer/Fixed Capacitor
(TCT/FC):
A transformer short-circuited through thyristor circuits, called thyristor
controlled transformer (TCT), in the TCT/FC type may replace the reactor, in
the TCR/FC version. The transformer has a short-circuit impedance of nearby
100%, and so there is no need for additional separate reactors. Figure (6.5)
gives the arrangement of this version. For the TCR/FC and the TCT/FC, the
principle involves phase angle control of the thyristor from 90 o to 180o i.e.
from no gating to full cyclic conduction. For phase angle of 90 o, a maximum
current passes through the reactor and a value lower than this results in
unsatisfactory performance.
(a) (b)
Fig. 6.5 Thyristor-controlled transformer/fixed capacitors SVC TCT/FC)

(a) Schematic diagram (b) Steady-state characteristics
6.3.9 Basis of Selection of Compensator Type:

The type of compensator is selected on the basis of certain requirements:
 Maximum inductive part
 Maximum capacitive part
 Dynamic control range
 Maximum permissible harmonic content
 Maximum size of steps in compensation power
 Loss evaluation
Normally the maximum inductive and capacitive parts are obtained from a
load flow study. The compensator maximum inductive and capacitive currents
together with its voltage/current characteristics droop slope define its dynamic
control range. Compatibility specifications define the maximum permissible
harmonic content levels in power system networks and components. Losses in

each SVC type can be evaluated absolutely and in comparative manner with
other types. Total size of compensated power define the size of steps.
6.3.10 Static VAR Compensators Thyristors:
Actually the used thyristor rating is in the range of 5kV and 3000
amperes. Disc type thyristors are the more suitable for such compensators.
Thyristors are connected in series to withstand the network voltages reduced
through stepping down transformers (nearly 40kV) and in parallel to
withstand the required rated reactive current. The number of thyristors needed
in series for a certain voltage depends on the application (control of reactors
or capacitors) and on the anticipated over-voltages in the network, which
depend partly on the protective level of the surge arrestors. Valves for reactor
control are normally protected by voltage controlled firing. In the event of an
over voltage, the thyristor valve is triggered so as to transfer the over voltage
to the reactor. This makes it possible to reduce the number of thyristors
connected in series for a given voltage. This possibility is not available for
valves for capacitors switching, since in this case large current and voltage
oscillations will result if the valve is fired with a high voltage across it. Zinc
oxide arrestor connected direct to the valve normally protects these valves
instead.
6.4 TCR/FC Voltage/Current Characteristics:

TCR/FC SVC voltage/current characteristic is shown in fig. (6.3). The
characteristic has three distinct zones. Zone 1 in which the SVC behaves as
constant capacitor with straight line passing through the origin and slope X c,
in the negative reactive current half plane. Zone 3 in which the SVC behaves
as constant inductor with straight line passing virtually through the origin and
slope XL, in the positive reactive current half plane. Zone 2 which is called the
control zone, which is defined by the maximum capacitive current I cmax, the
maximum inductive current Ilmax, the SVC Knee voltage (voltage at zero SVC
reactive current) Vk, and the droop slope. The voltage difference/current slope
in the control range defines, the slope which is typically (1%-5%) on the own
SVC rating. In the active control range, SVC reactive power (or reactive
current) varies to regulate SVC terminal voltage according to that slope
(droop) the slope value depends on the desired voltage regulation, the desired
sharing of reactive power production between various sources.
Example 6.1:
A TCR/FC static VAR compensator is connected to a 138 kV load bus
to improve the network voltage stability. The short circuit-level of the load
bus is 4000MVA and the network frequency is 60Hz. Load flow studies show
Chapter 6 743
that the voltage can be maintained at 1.0 pu at both no load and peak load, if
reactive power of 15MVAR (inductive) and 45MVAR (capacitive) are
injected respectively. The slope of the static VAR compensator is adjusted to
(Vc=0.2%). Find the maximum and minimum load voltage within the
control range. Draw the compensator steady-state characteristics.
Solution:
X (of the system) 
kV 2 
1382
 4.761
MVA sc 4000
138000
Vl  n   79674 volt
3
Maximum capacitive current of the compensator = Ic max
Maximum inductive current of the compensator = I l max
Qc 45  106
I c max    188.27 Amp. TCR/FC 
3Vl  l 3  138000
Q - Qc 60 - 45  106
Il max    62.76 Amp.
3Vl l 3  138000
δVc 0.2  138000
slop  But, Vc   159.35 volt
Ic max 3  100
159.35
slop   0.846 volt/Amp.
188.27
 
VT min  138000 3  0.846 188.27  79515 volts
VT max  138000 3   0.846  62.76  79727.4 volts
Then: VTmin and VTmax are equally 137.724kV and 138.092 kV respectively.
Voltage and current characteristic is shown in fig. (6.6), below.
Fig. 6.6 Voltage/Current characteristics of example 6.1
6.5 Need of Transformers with Static Compensators:

SVC's usually have step-down transformers that couple the SVC to the
transmission or distribution system. The reason for the dedicated step-down
transformer in most cases is twofold. First, thyristor can be made to carry
large currents and their voltage ratings are modest. Only few thyristors in
series are used in the valves, as an economical valve operates at high currents
and low voltage. Usually SVC’s may operate at 18 kV up to 40 kV. Second,
the voltage of the bus to which the valve is connected will vary too much for
most loads. Fixed capacitors or reactors are usually connected to the high
voltage sides directly. However, some SVC's have been connected to
tertiaries of transformers. The tertiary should have a high enough voltage
rating for the SVC to operate in the transient mode. If the SVC has a
capacitive mode, the voltage rise is usually too great for most existing
tertiaries when the SVC is fully capacitive. Therefore, tertiaries are normally
used for inductive rated SVCs or modest size capacitive SVC's. High sized
capacitive SVC's are usually connected to the high buses directly.
6.6 SVC's Losses Evaluation:

Comparison of the different shunt static VAR compensators is
influenced by among other things the losses. Figure (6.7) shows the losses for
a dynamic control range from fully inductive to fully capacitive
compensation. The low losses of a combined TCR/TSC type over the
TCR/FC and the traditional synchronous condenser (SC), over the entire
control range are clearly apparent. The SVC transformer losses are included.
Chapter 6 741
Fig. 6.7 Losses versus reactive power for different SVC types
6.7 SVC's Harmonics Generation:

Reactors may be both switched and phase angle controlled (TSR or
TCR). TSR reactors do not generate harmonics as the sinusoidal wave passes
completely, when the compensator is on and it is prevented completely when
it is off. When phase angled or TCR type is used, a continuous change in the
reactive power consumption of the reactor is obtained, at the expense of the
generation of harmonics during control process. The change of the reactor
currents may only take place at discrete points of time, which means that
adjustments cannot be made more frequently than once per half cycle. For a
TCR SVC version, fig. (6.8) shows the voltage and the resulting current
waveforms for a certain firing angle . The figure shows the harmonic
currents that the controlled reactor injects into the system in addition to
absorbing a reactive power at the 50/60 Hz industrial power frequency.
Fig. 6.8 Voltage and current waveforms of a TCR at certain firing angle
Because of the discontinuous current conduction of the thyristor-controlled

reactor, shown in fig. (6.8), odd harmonic currents are generated. By using
Fourier series analysis, the amplitude of the TCR fundamental component I f,
and the n th, odd harmonics In, can be expressed as:
 V  1   π
If   π  2α  sin 2α  0α (6.3)
 ωL  π   2
The Fourier analysis gives harmonic current component the nth, by the
expression:
 V  4  
sin   cosn   n cos sin nα 
In    3
 ωL  
 n  n π 




(6.4)
Figure (6.9) gives the percentage of the harmonics orders as influenced by the
thyristor firing angles. The Figure shows the percentage amplitudes of the
fundamental component and the odd harmonic currents with respect to the
maximum reactor current against the firing angle, which is calculated from
eqns. (6.3), (6.4).
Fig. 6.9 Harmonic currents generated by a TCR as a function of thyristor

firing angles
The principle of controlling the conduction period of the thyristors means that
harmonics generated are 3rd, 5th, 7th, 9th, and 11th, 13th, and so on. The
maximum amplitudes of the 3rd, 5th, 7th, 9th, 11th, 13th, and 17th, harmonics are
13.78%, 5.0%, 2.5%, 1.57%, 1.05%, 0.75% and 0.57% of the fundamental
current of the reactor at full conduction, respectively. With balanced control,
the reactor branches may be connected in delta or if they are connected in
star, their transformers should be connected in delta so as to eliminate the zero
sequence components (or triplen harmonics); that are, the 3 rd, 9th, 15th, ... etc.,
and will not feed into the power system. Only very small parts of these
harmonics will be present in the line current owing to various bridge
asymmetries. Table (6.1) gives the maximum amplitudes of harmonic in
phase and line currents up to the order 37. Noting that triplen harmonics do
Chapter 6 741
not appear in line currents and these maximum amplitudes do not occur at the
same firing angles.
Table 6.1 Maximum amplitudes of TCR harmonic currents
6.7.1 SVC’s Harmonics Reduction Techniques:

Harmonic reduction may be accomplished by means of shunt (L-C-R)
filters or modification of circuits. Filters are capacitive at 60Hz power
frequency. The size of the filters is about 10% - 30% of the size of the TCR
rated MVAR at 50 or 60 Hz. They resonate at the harmonic order to be
eliminated, to assume a low impedance path for harmonic currents and
prevent them to penetrate into the power system network.
Another method of harmonic reduction is to use the splitting UM-

technique in which two thyristor-controlled reactors are used, each designed
for half the rated power. One of the reactors is phase-angle controlled (TCR)
and the other is TSR type. This scheme will halve the amplitudes of all the
harmonics. In general, if the large reactor bank of the TCR, having "L"
Henry, is split into "m" small reactor banks each of inductance "m.L" Henry.
Of the "m" reactor banks only one is to be phase-angle controlled, and the
other (m-1) are to be switched on or off; that is, only one is a thyristor-
controlled reactor (TCR) and the other (m-1) units are thyristor-switched
reactors (TSRs), each has "mL" Henry. Since the TCR inductance is increased
to "mL" Henry, then, from eqn. (6.4) the amplitude of each of the odd
harmonics are reduced by a factor "m". Therefore, the amplitudes of the 5 th,
7th, 11th, and 13th, harmonics of the splitted TCR's SVC’s became very small
than those resulting from a single TCR version. A third method, which also
requires two thyristor-controlled reactors, is the 12-pulse connection. This
means that two similar thyristor controlled reactors are used, one being
connected to a star connected secondary winding and the other to a delta–
connected secondary winding of a feeding transformer. Owing to the phase
shift (30 degree) between the voltages in the two windings, the 5 th, 7th, 17th,
and 19th, harmonics are reduced or theoretically eliminated, while the 11th and
13th remain the same as for single large reactor. Reduction of lower-order
harmonics is made also by using (TCR/ TSR/FC) or (TCR/ TSR/TSC) types
static VAR compensators, although (TCR/ FC) and (TCR/TSC) versions are
the more applicable.
6.8 SVC's Control Techniques:

Three methods for VAR output control are now in use, namely: feed-
forward (or open loop) control, feedback (or closed loop) control and hybrid
or (feed-forward in combination with feedback) control. Recent adaptive and
logical controls are also suggested. These techniques can be briefly explained
as:
6.8.1 Feed-Forward or Open-Loop Control:

In which required reactive power is calculated as a function of system
or load parameters and adjusted to this value. Unless the load or system
parameters varied it rest unchangeable, i.e. the required reactive power will
follow the load variations but not affect this variation. Practically
programmable digital controllers that can do this variation are implemented in
either microprocessors or digital computers provided with A/D cards. Open-
loop control is characterized by rapid response and therefore it is in use with
load balancing of unbalanced three-phase loads. The required susceptance for
each phase is calculated at each loading condition of the variable loads (such
as unbalanced train loads or arc furnace loads) and the corresponding firing
angle of the SVC is calculated and fed to its thyristors to adjust its output
reactive power to the required value, which satisfies the load balancing
conditions. Figure (6.10) shows a schematic diagram of a programmable
open-loop controller. It consists of measuring circuits for measuring all phase
currents and voltages. They are then fed to an A/D circuit, which transforms
the analog quantities into digital ones. Their output are fed to the input stages
which are provided with programs to calculate compensator B c's or ('s) and
Chapter 6 741
feeds this to the priority logic circuit unit which determine the priority of
operation of the SVC, which are either: voltage balancing or load currents
balancing or power factor correction or others. The output of the priority logic
circuit unit is fed to the firing angle calculation stage. Its output is sending to
the firing angle pulses generators for each gate of thyristors. Individual inter-
phases ’s: ab, bc, ca are calculated in this stage. Phase-locked loop or PLL
circuits are used to synchronize the controller to the positive sequence
reference voltage and to control the sequencing program. It synchronizes also
the controller sinusoidal functions outputs to the network voltages and
currents waves. As the programmable controllers run allover the hour,
synchronizing timing circuits are provided to synchronize the inputs with the
outputs in time spectrum.
Fig 6.10 Schematic diagram of an open-loop programmable controller

used for thee-phase load balancing
6.8.2 Feedback or Closed-loop Control:

6.8.2.1 Feedback Control System Configuration:
Nodes voltages magnitudes are mainly determined by reactive power
injected or consumed at that node. For a two node system having Thevenen’s
equivalent voltage E and reactance X, and a load voltage V and reactive
power Q, the voltage difference (V = E - V) is expressed by: V  XQ/V.
Therefore changement of load drawn Q will affect the value of its terminal
voltage V. This change in V will consequently change Q. Therefore the
process is a feedback process or a feedback control, and regulation of the

compensator node voltage is achieved by reactive power variation at that
node.
Fig 6.11 SVC closed loop or feedback control block diagram
Figure (6.11) shows the block diagram of a closed loop control system
for a thyristor controlled shunt SVC compensator. The input signal to its
automatic voltage regulator AVR is the terminal voltage V on the HV side of
the transformer. It is measured by conventional voltage transformer, one in
each phase, and converted to a direct-voltage signal in a signal converter #2.
This signal converter consists essentially of a voltage-matching transformer, a
6-pulse rectifier and a low-pass filter having a time constant of about 1.5 ms
to reduce rapid transients in the network voltage.
The voltage response V is compared in the summing junction of the

regulator with the voltage reference Vref. If the voltage response deviates from
the reference, an error signal V is obtained. This signal is fed to an
integrating amplifier, unit #4, whose output signal will be increased or
reduced, depending on the sign of V, until V becomes zero and V = Vref.
The output signal from the integrator constitutes the susceptance reference for
the shunt compensator SVC (the equivalent SVC variable susceptance). It is
in principle a measure of the reactive power generation or absorption needed
to maintain the compensator node voltage V at the desired value. The
reference or virtual variable SVC susceptance Bref, is converted in the
Chapter 6 717
distribution A/D unit #5 to digital signals (on/off order signals for TSC and
TSR) and an analog signal (control signal to TCR firing angles) whose
magnitude is such that the effective susceptance for the shunt SVC
compensator exactly corresponds to the susceptance reference B ref. It may be
desirable in certain applications to have a certain slope of the current/voltage
characteristics of the shunt compensator. This may be accomplished in the
way shown in, for example, in fig. (6.11), by means of a feed-back of the total
compensator current It (inductive current Ir plus the capacitive current Ic).
This current is then measured with conventional current transformer and
converted in a signal converter unit #1 to a direct current signal V 1. This
signal, which has different signs for inductive and capacitive current, is fed to
the summing junction of the regulator in such a way that it corresponds to an
increase or a decrease of the voltage reference for inductive and capacitive
current, respectively. The control system also include a synchronizing unit #3,
which ensures that the regulator signals are updated and that firing pulses are
given exactly the right instant. A linearization block may be added at the
output of Bref. Recent artificial neural network signals or adaptive self tuning
signals or fuzzy-logic signals or neuro-fuzzy signals or adaptive pole
placement or pole assigned signals may be added at the input summer of the
regulator in order to improve SVC effectiveness in improving power system
stabilities.
Fig. 6.12 Time response of a typical existing SVC compensator for a step
change in network voltage
A typical system time response of a large power system, provided by
TCR/TSC-SVC, for a step change in the SVC node voltage, for 0.25 sec is
shown in fig. (6.12). A substantial reduction in the network node voltage has
been brought about by switching of a 100 MVAR inductive load at the SVC
node. After 0.25 s the inductive load was switched out again so that the
conditions return to normal. From the oscillogram record it can be seen that
the total time response for both the voltage reduction and the subsequent
increase, is about 2 cycles (0.04 s). The oscillogram of fig. (6.12) shows also
the shape of variation of the virtual equivalent TCR reactance B ref, the shape
of the error signal V, together with the total compensator current It, the
TCR inductive current Ir, the TSC capacitive current Ic and the SVC node
voltage V.
6.8.2.2 Influence of Feedback Controlled SVC on Its Node

Voltage Sensitivity to Reactive Power Variations and on
Its Node No-load Voltage levels:
TCR/FC static VAR compensator controlled by a closed-loop control
system is the most used in practice .It is used in this analysis. Figure (6.13)
represents a simplified block diagram of the SVC and its controller shown
previously in fig. (6.11), and the power system equivalent Thevenen’s at the
compensator node. The measuring circuit represents the closed-loop feedback
link, having a transfer function H of gain KH and delay TH as:
V  kH 
H   (6.5)
VT  1  STH 
The automatic voltage regulator AVR is usually of the proportional element

of gain (1/slop) with certain delay T1, followed by the controller
compensation lead-lag circuit of the form:
1 slop   1  ST2 
G1  (6.6)
1  ST1   1  ST3 
Slop is the droop slope of the voltage regulator, (T 2, T3) are time constants of
the lead-lag regulator compensation circuits. The controller output is fed to
the firing angles circuits represented by a gain Kd and delay Td with transfer
function.
Chapter 6 713
kd
G2  k d e  STd  (6.7)
1  STd 
Fig. 6.13 (a) Equivalent power system provided by controlled SVC

(b) Transfer function block-diagram of power system and static VAR

compensator (SVC)
(c) Simplified block-diagram
The output of this block refers to the compensator reference
susceptance B=Bref, which upon multiplication by Vt, yields the compensator
inductive reactive current (Is = BVt). Which when multiplied by the system
impedance Zs gives the voltage drop Vc, due to the compensator current
flow through Zs (added or subtracted) from Thevenen’s voltage Vs. The load
node voltage is given by the Thevenen’s equivalent voltage Vs minus the link
voltage drop due to load powers (P, Q) at the SVC terminals represented
approximately by: (RsP+XsQ)/Vt, and the voltage drop Vc  |Is| |Zs| due to
the SVC current flow through the link. Therefore, the equivalent of the power
system, together with the SVC and the load can be represented by the transfer
function block diagram of fig. 6.13(b). For steady-state analysis, it can be
simplified to that of fig. 6.13(c). "S" is the Laplace operator, which vanishes
in steady-state analysis. The limiter is included to represent the control range
of the SVC equivalent reference susceptance "B" and is neglected in the
simplified block diagram; Zs tends to be X in the UHV network (R is
negligible). At no load conditions, the steady-state equations are:
Vt  Vo (6.8)
Vt  Vs  Vr  Vt H  GX (6.9)
Vt  1  GXH Vs  Vr GX (6.10)
 1   GX 
Vt  Vs    Vr   (6.11)
 1  GXH   1  GXH 
For small changes of terminal voltages:
 1   GX 
Vt  Vs    Vr   (6.12)
 1  GXH   1  GXH 
If Vr is constant, then Vr = 0, and;
At steady-state G=1/slop, H=1, S=0 then;
Vt  1 
  (6.13)
Vs  1  GXH 
Chapter 6 711
The SVC terminal voltage sensitivity to system voltage (V s) variations is then

given by:
 slop 0
 0
  
  X
Vt  1   slop
  0.5
  slop (6.14)
Vs  X     1
 1  slop 
   X 0
 1
Without compensator connection, the SVC no-load node voltage is given by

the relation (6.8):
Vt  Vs (6.15)
The no-load SVC node voltage after compensator connection is given by the
equation (6.9):
Vt  Vs  Vr  Vt H  GX (6.16)
This means that the controlled SVC alters its no-load node voltage. Eqn.
(6.14) decides that when the SVC characteristic slope is zero, its terminal
voltage will be constant irrespective on its current variations (Vt=0). The
SVC creates an infinite bus at its node. If the slope is very large, no control
exists and the controller input is nearly zero. All variations in system voltages
will completely appear at compensator node (Vt = Vs). If the system
equivalent series reactance X equals the controller droop slope, any variations
in system voltage at the compensator node will drop by 50% due to presence
of its controller. According to the ratio of the equivalent Thevenen's system's
reactance at compensator node to its controller’s droop slope, the compensator
terminal voltage variations sensitivity to system voltage variations ranges
from 0% to less than 100%. Without compensator, it becomes 100 %.
Example 6.2:
A static VAR compensator is connected to a 138kV (1.0 pu) load bus to
improve the network voltage stability. The short circuit-power of the load bus
is 4000MVA and the network frequency is 60Hz. Load flow studies show that
the voltage can be maintained at 1.0 pu at both no load and peak load, if
reactive power of 15MVAR (inductive) and 45MVAR (capacitive) are
injected respectively. The slope of the static VAR compensator is adjusted to
3. The time constants of the voltage regulator ate T 1 = 0.02sec, T2 = T3 = T4
=1.0 sec. The feedback time constant is 0.0008 sec. and its gain is 0.99 pu.
The reference voltage is 1.01pu. The delay of the gate circuit is 2.777 x 10 -3
sec. The controller gain is adjusted to 1.0. Find:
(a) The compensator node voltage variations as a percentage of the system
no load voltage. (Sensitivity of compensator terminal voltage to system
voltage variations (Vt/Vs)), with and without the controlled compensator.
(b) What will be this sensitivity when the equivalent network reactance is
very small and very large?
(c) What is the no-load voltage of the SVC node before and after
connecting the compensator?
(d) What will be these values when the slop is 0.846
Solution:
X (of the system) 
kV

1382
 4.761 
MVA sc 4000
G1=1/slop, and G2=1.0; Then: G=G1G2=0.333
ΔVt  1   1 
       0.389
ΔVs  1  X/slop   1  4.761 0.333 
ΔVt  100% of ΔVs (without the controlled compensator)
ΔVt  38.9% of ΔVs (with the controlled compensator)
(b) ΔVt  100% of ΔVs if X  0
ΔVt  0.0 % of ΔVs if X  
(c) V(no-load)=0.61 pu. (if there is no SVC connected)
V(no-load)=Vs+(Vr-VtH)GX=0.86 pu (when SVC is connected)
1 1
(d) G  G1G 2    1.182 ; Then:
slop 0.846
ΔVt  1 
    0.15
ΔVs  1  4.761 0.846 
ΔVt  15% ΔVs if slop  0.846
This means that at no-load conditions, the SVC node terminal voltage
variations will be only 38.9% of the node voltage variation without presence
of that controlled compensator. It will be 50% if the controller droop slope
equal the node equivalent reactance. It will be 15% of system voltage when
the slop goes to one-tenth its original value. The SVC node voltage variation
vanishes completely if the TCR/FC slope is zero. All system voltage variation
appear at the SVC node when there is no SVC controller (slope = infinity)
6.8.2.3 Influence of SVC Feedback Control on Its Rating

Needed for Voltage Maintenance at Certain Values:
Chapter 6 711
The rating of compensators needed for voltage maintenance at certain

values are given by:
Qcomp  Bcomp V 2 (6.17)
Therefore, the compensator rating will equal to B comp in pu at V=1.0 pu. Bcomp
equals the physical susceptance of the fixed uncontrolled capacitors and
equals to the equivalent Bref.
For the controlled TSC or TCR-controlled SVC, the rating of the controlled
SVC is given by:

   XQ  RP  
Bcomp  Bref  Vref  H Vs     I s X s  G (6.18)

   Vt  

I s  Bref Vt  Vref  HVt G  (6.19)
For the fixed uncontrolled capacitors, the rating required to maintain certain
voltage is given by:
Vt  Vs  
 
 X Q  Bcomp Vt 2  RP 
 (6.20)
 Vt 
 
From which:
  XQ  RP  
 Vs  Vt     
 
  Vt 
Bcomp
XV  (6.21)
 t 
 
 
Studies have proved that for maintaining the voltage at the same value, the
controlled SVC requires less rating than the uncontrolled fixed capacitors.
The rating is proportion to the gain G or to the inverse of the droop slope of
the compensator.
Example 6.3:
A power system is represented by its Thevenen’s equivalent at certain
node. It was E=1.004-3 pu, Zs=0.3275 pu. The system is loaded by a load
P+jQ = 0.3+j0.7 pu at that node and is provided by a static VAR compensator
whose G =1/8.9, KH =0.99, Vref =1.0 pu. Find the compensator rating when it
is controlled TSC type and when it is uncontrolled fixed capacitor, for

keeping the terminal voltage constant at 1.0 pu.
Solution:
From (6.18), the controlled SVC rating is:
   0.309  0.7  0.083  0.3  
B comp  1  0.991.004     3.138  0.309   0.1124
   1  
 0.135 pu.
From (6.21), The uncontrolled fixed capacitor rating is:

  0.309  0.7  0.083  0.3  
 1.004  1.0   
Bcomp    1.0    0.767pu.

 0.309  1.0 
 
Therefore, the controlled SVC needs less rating than the uncontrolled
capacitor for the same voltage maintenance purposes.
6.8.2.4 Relation of the TCR Variable Reference Susceptance

and Its Thyristors Firing Angles:
Virtual value of the compensator variable susceptance or reference
susceptance Bref = Bl (), which is required to keep the voltage at the reference
value (Vref). The corresponding required conduction angle  of the thyristor
gating is given by:
  2  2 (6.22)
Where  is the firing angle required to get certain Bl (); which is given by:
   sin      sin  
Bl         Bl . max (6.23)
 X l    
Where: Xl represents the fixed reactance X of the TCR compensator, B lmax its
reciprocal.  is the conduction angle. Therefore, the compensator current at
fundamental frequency still be:
   sin  
I l   V  Bl  V (6.24)
 X l 
Chapter 6 711
Noting that, the maximum value of B l () is (1/Xl) occurs at  = , or 180o

when the reactor is fully off or =0 ( = ). The compensator TCR current
against the thyristors firing angles , (/2    ) is shown in fig. (6.13).
The load line is described by:
V  Vk  jXI (6.25)
The point of intersection of the TCR voltage/current characteristics and

the load line defines the operating point. The central setting of the
compensator voltage or the knee voltage Vk governs it. Imax is the rated normal
current of the reactors. This is defined by the conduction angle or gating angle
 corresponding to each virtual value of of Bl. Having defined the required Bl,
 is to be calculated from eqn. (6.7) by a conduction angle calculator, which
calculates the required value of "". Therefore, the resulting Bl, which will be
seen by the system, is given by:
   sin  
Bl    Bl . max   (6.26)
  
Which has a nonlinear relation with the voltage, i.e. the characteristic V/I will
not be linear or straight characteristic as shown in fig. (6.3). In order get a
straight linear relation of V with I, a linearizer circuit should be incorporated
in the control circuit, just after the conduction angle calculator, its transfer
function will be: K2/(-sin). This will leave:
   sin    K 2 
Bl    Bl . max     K 2 Bl . max (6.27)
      sin  
Or it will be certain linear fraction of Bl.max (rated fixed value of the TCR at
V=1 pu). Therefore the current I will be:
I  K1BV K 2 Bl. max  KBV (6.28)
Where:
K  K1 K 2 Bl. max 
Where K1 is the regulator gain and BV is the variation in the reference SVC
susceptance multiplied by the TCR terminal voltage V.
The output of the linearizing network is fed to the gating pulse

generator to define the new corresponding values of  which guarantee a
linear value of Bl() which in turn guarantee a linear straight V/It relation.
The system short circuit level at compensator node affects its response
that is as the system short circuit level is low; the compensator response will
be faster, but less stable. On the other hand, with high short circuit levels,
compensator response will be slower or it will be not effective. Addition of
current control loop to the basic voltage control loop (fig.6.10), improves the
accuracy. If the gain of this loop is very high, then the current error is
negligible and the controlled reactive power will be proportional to the
voltage error, independent of the values of the TCR, TSC reactance’s and
independent of the gains of conduction angles calculators and the linearizing
networks and the gating pulse generation. The slope of the control
characteristic is determined by the gain K1. The current error amplifier K2
may be an integrator so that the current error is essentially zero.
6.8.3 Hybrid Control (Combined Open-Loop and Closed

Loop):
The open loop and closed loop control are sometimes combined
together, in what is called hybrid control. For example, in balancing a three-
phase load and improving its power factor in the same time to unity, a
balanced load voltage is firstly required. To do so, a closed-loop control is
used to adjust the load terminal voltage to be three balanced values with 120 o
phase difference firstly. Then the open-loop control accomplishes the job of
balancing the three-phase currents magnitude and adjust their phases to be
inphase with their correspondent voltages i.e. their power factors will be
improved simultaneously to unity. Only the speed of the response of the
closed-loop regulator should be slower (typically one second) than that of the
open loops one (typically 1 cycle).
6.8.4 Coordination with other controls:

The SVC is the fastest device to respond on the system. If not
coordinated with other controls, the SVC will control the bus voltage as long
as it has enough VAR output to do so. If this happens, a good part of the
capacity of the SVC will be consumed, in the same manner as for a fixed
capacitor bank. This is not the reason that most SVC's are placed in the
system. The SVC is to be available for regulating the voltage all time. There
are features in the controls of SVC that need to be coordinated with other
voltage control equipment so that the SVC will control the voltage for fast
changes and then allow the slower devices (such as mechanically switched
shunt reactors or shunt capacitors) to control the steady-state operation.
Chapter 6 767
Coordination with generators excitations systems and with other SVC’s is

always required.
6.9 SVC’s Modeling for Stability Studies:
6.9.1 Generalized Inertialess Machine Model:

In this model, a unified model is used for all types of static VAR
compensators, static VAR generators, the more recent static synchronous
generators and the static synchronous compensators. The model, as shown in
fig. (6.14) is a voltage source of controlled variable voltage magnitude E t
behind a fixed reactance Xs, which similar to inertialess synchronous machine
model. Et is always inphase with the terminal voltage V. Different parameters
of the model depend upon the specific type of static compensators. The model
can be used to represent the thyristor-controlled reactor, for this purpose h is
replaced by the firing angle alpha, Which is the phase angle of the thyristor.
Since the main concern lies in the reactive power flow from these devices, it
is sufficient to take into account the fundamental component of current as a
function of alpha.
Fig. 6.14 Inertialess SVC generalized model
This model is most suited for modern techniques of direct solution of power
system networks. If Et is greater than V, then it will represent a static VAR
generator or later static synchronous generator. For this model:
 V  Et 
I    (6.29)
 jX 
For TCR:
 2  sin 2  
E t  Vf    V   1 (6.30)
  
For other types Et should be defined as a function of the device control
system.
The basic feature of this model is that the SVC size (or rating) can be
represented in the linearized, as well as the nonlinear, systems models
implicitly in the fixed reactance X, which is the inverse of the SVC size at 1
pu rated voltage QSVC=V2B=B at (V=1pu), X=1/B, moreover the model can
represent all known types by simply changing its parameters. f(h) is usually
multiplied by a linearizing transfer function to get unity and f(h) block
vanishes.
6.9.2 Model of Loaded Power System Provided with

TCR/FC SVC:
Figure (6.15) shows an equivalent power system loaded by fixed
impedance load and provided by an inertialess model for a TCR, represented
by its fixed reactance or susceptance (Bd) and the voltage source behind that
reactance E=KV, with V is the SVC terminal voltage magnitude and K is the
control action factor given by the output of the controller of fig. (6.15).The
fixed capacitor is represented by its fixed capacitive susceptance Bc. The load
at the SVC bus is represented by its shunt admittance Y(load)=G l +jBl. The
feeding power system is represented by its Thevenen’s equivalent seen by the
SVC at its terminal bus or Node: (Es, jBs).
Fig. 6.15 Controlled TCR/FC with equivalent power system and load
The relation of the SVC terminal voltage V and the currents balance at
the SVC node gives the following relation which interrelates the system
Chapter 6 763
parameters, the load admittance (Gl +jBl), the TCR parameters (or rating Bd),
the controller action represented by the factor K, and the fixed capacitor
susceptance Bc, together with the system. Thevenen’s equivalent voltage Es
and susceptance Bs. The TCR static VAR compensator is represented by an
admittance Bd behind an ineritaless voltage source Ec=KV. K represents the
thyristor control action. K should be always less than one. K = 1 represents
the thyristor turn-off state. The actual TCR reactor fundamental current (Ic) is
given by:
 V  Ec 
I c      jBd V  KV  (6.31)
 max 
jX
Where:
Bd=1/Xmax
Therefore if the compensator controller gains is G = G1G2, and the reference

voltage is Vref, then:
V 1  K 
Ic 
jX max
 
  jBd V 1  K   jBref V  j Vref  VH GV (6.32)
Vref 
 HV G
K  1 (6.33)
Bd
A relation relating all system parameters (network, load and compensator) at a

load node having voltage V is given by:

 2   K  
2
 2
Gl   B s  Bl  Bd 1    Bc  V  B s E s
2 2
(6.34)

   V  
For TSC, Bc vanishes and K will be greater than one. The problem will be in
the value of K, as TSC enters in service in discrete manner and not has
continuous control. This model although seems simple, it presents a large
advantage for power system analyst and offer a good relation between system
parameters and control actions, for certain node voltages V and load
variations requirements.
6.9.3 CIGRE Model:

This model was proposed to represent the SVC by a combination of
reactive loads as either constant impedance or constant current if the study
concerns the first swing or steady-state voltage stability. The proposed
formula is:
Q  K1V 2  K 2V (6.35)
The constants K1, K2 must be calculated so as to obtain Q=0 at initial voltage
conditions. The load must be changed to a constant reactive load in the region
outside the control limits. For studies of system dynamics in the period of (0.1
to 5) seconds, the control circuitry are represented by block diagrams showing
all necessary functions and nonlinearties, such that shown in fig. (6.16),
which is a general of the SVC.
Fig 6.16 CIGRE model for SVC of general type
The output of the block diagram is the per unit admittance B of the
reactor where the per unit base is defined using the reactor’s maximum
output. The output is also shown multiplied by the voltage giving the
absorbed current of the SVC,. The nonlinear block specifies the maximum
and minimum admittance values. CIGRE gave typical values of (100 to 400)
for K and (40 to 150) m.sec for T. For this general model, CIGRE suggested
typical parameters as:
K=100, T=0.04Sec, T1=0.01Sec, T2=1.0Sec, Bmax =1.0pu, and Bmin = 0.0pu.

CIGRE gave a detailed model for each type of the SVC. For example, the
thyristor controlled reactor (TCR) type is represented by the functional block
diagram of fig. (6.17). The proposed parameters for this model were: K=400,
T1=T2=1.0Sec, T3=T4=5.0Sec, Tc=0.05Sec, Bmin=(-1.0)pu, Bmax=(-0.25)pu.
CIGRE has proposed also that the TCR block should include a small gating
transport delay Td, with the very small time constant Tc for changing
inductive current.
The block diagram becomes that of fig. 6.17(b). An approximate

typical value of 11m.sec, for Td and 4 m.sec for Tc and a pure gain of unity
are given for 60/50 Hz systems. The SVC size (or rating) is taken into
Chapter 6 761
consideration in this model through the value of B max and Bmin, which are the
nonlinear limits of the controller output. In linearized models, the limits are to
be omitted; therefore the size of the SVC cannot be represented explicitly in
the variables of the model. Moreover, taking the admittance of the SVC the
instantaneous value of B, as a system state, complicates the formulation of the
system equations, especially when the network is to be represented by its
passive elements and to be eliminated with the system auxiliary algebraic
variables.
(a) (b)
Fig. 6.17 CIGRE Model for thyristor controlled reactors (TCR)

(a) Without gating time delay (b) With gating time delay
6.9.4 Susceptance Regulator Model:

Many SVCs have a provision to regulate reactive power subject to
voltage constraints. Usually this is a slow, integrating type of control that
operates over tens of seconds or minute to return reactive power output to a
set point. This function should be modeled in longer time frame voltage
stability and voltage control studies including reactive power coordination
studies. The signal is an input to the voltage regulator. Figure (6.18) shows
the general structure of the susceptance regulator model. Susceptance is
regulated to a value Bset. The susceptance regulator limits provide the voltage
dead-band. Linearity, stability and accuracy of components are factors
affecting the control loop improve the accuracy. If the gain of this loop is very
high, then the current error is negligible and the controlled reactive power will
be proportional to the voltage error, independent of the values of X l, Xc and Xt
and independent of the gains of conduction angles calculators, the linearizing
networks and the gating pulse generation. The slope of the control
characteristic is accuracy of regulating scheme. Noting that Xl stands for
reactor reactance, Xc for capacitor reactance Xt is the total reactance of the

SVC.
Addition of current control loop to the basic voltage determined by the
gain K1. The current error amplifier K2 may be an integrator so that the
current error is essentially zero. Recently, the IEEE has published excessive
information about these controllers. The following is an extracts of the most
recent ones. Some SVCs have a susceptance/current/reactive power regulator
to slowly return the SVC to a desired steady-state operating point. This
prevents the SVC from drifting towards its limits during normal operating
conditions, preserving control margin for fast reaction during disturbances.
During normal operation, voltage is not regulated unless the voltage exceeds a
dead-band determined by the limits on the output of the susceptance regulator.
Fig. 6.18 General structure of the susceptance regulator model
6.9.5 IEEE Models for TCR Closed Loop Controller:

The structure of IEEE Model 1 and IEEE Model 2 are similar except
for the method of representing slope. The first model is the simplest and is
similar to models in most existing transient stability programs. Both are
suitable for continuously controlled SVCs. As described later, the models can
be modified to represent TSC/TSR types of compensators.
6.9.5.1 IEEE Model 1 For TCR Closed Loop

Controller:
Figure 6.19 (a) shows Basic IEEE Model 1. It consists of the following parts:
 The Voltage Regulator: Shown in fig. 6.19(b) is of the
proportional type and the gain KR, is the inverse of the slope. A gain of
100 pu Bsvc / puV on the SVC base means a 1% slope. The gain, KR is
the reciprocal of the slope setting. KR is usually between 20 per unit (5%
Chapter 6 761
slope) and 100 per unit (1% slope) on the SVC base. The time constant,
TR, is usually between 20 and 150 milliseconds.
 The Lead-Lag Terms: They are often zero. For preliminary
simulations, phase lead can be used to improve damping of oscillations (at
the expense of synchronizing support). The leading terms can also be used
to provide adequate phase and gain margins when high steady state gain is
used.
 Integrators: Should be non-windup and provided to feed integrated
signals over certain period instead of instantaneous signals.
 The Measurement Circuits: (Fig. 6.19(c))Which convert three
phase voltages and currents to a quasi-dc control signal that is proportional
to the amplitude of the positive sequences and fundamental frequency
content of the measured variable. This is done by instrument transformers,
A/D conversion and computation, and filtering. For fundamental
frequency simulation, the model is a single low pass filter with a time
constant of 1-8 milliseconds. The time constant depends on the actual filter
used. If the network exhibits strong resonance’s near fundamental
frequency, more elaborate filters can be required to maintain SVC control
stability; the low-frequency response of such filters should be modeled if
significant. Because of the small time constants, they are not considered
part of basic models.
 Thyristor Firing Circuits: Transfer function fig. 6.19(d) shows the
model for the delays associated with thyristor firing T d is the gating
transport delay with a value of about one millisecond and T b represents
the effect of thyristor firing sequence control with a value between three
and six milliseconds. It illustrates that SVC control has short
characteristics which, when combined with variation in power system
circuit can lead to control instability.
 The Thyristor Susceptance: Control module, fig.6.19(d),which can
be modified to represent discontinuous switching of TSC and TSR types of
SVCs.
 Linearizing Function: The nonlinear relationship between Bref and
the TCR firing angle is compensated by a linearizing function in the
thyristor susceptance control. Since firing angle is not represented
explicitly in fundamental frequency models, the linearizing function is not
represented explicitly.
 Damping Signals: Various local or remote input signals (with
appropriate phase compensation) can be used for damping .Possibilities
include line power or current, bus frequency or voltage, apparent
resistance, and speed or frequency differences from remote locations can
be included. They are called damping signals.
 Network Interface: The SVC interface with the network can be
either of two methods. The variable susceptance, B, can be used to update
the admittance matrix. Alternatively, B is multiplied by voltage to obtain

the SVC current. The SVC current is to be injected into the network at the
SVC bus. The choice depends on the network solution method.
Chapter 6 761
Fig 6.19 IEEE Model 1 of Closed Loop SVC Controller

(a) Block diagram of the full model (b) Voltage regulation model.
(c) Measurement circuit model (d) Thyristor susceptance control model
6.9.5.2 IEEE Model 2 For Closed Loop Controller:
Figure (6.20) shows Basic IEEE Model 2. It consists of:
 The Voltage Regulator: is of the integral, or proportional plus
integral type and the slope, KSL , is realized through current feedback. The
gain and slope settings are independent. In some equipment, current is
obtained by multiplication of voltage and susceptance. In other equipment,
reactive power rather than current is measured. Pure integral control is
most common. The time constant, Ts (0.01-0.05) sec, is usually adjusted to
improve SVC control stability. This model represents the physical
structure of most, installed SVCs.
 The Basic Differences Between The Two Models: Is in the method
of realizing the slope. Model 1 gives a voltage to susceptance linear
relation. Model 2 gives a voltage to current linear relation. For voltage
near one per unit, and for the usual small values of slope, there is not much
difference. Since both types of control are used, both models are included.
Figure (6.20) shows model 2. The proportional gain usually results in a
faster response. The time constant, Tp , may be zero.
 The Integrator: Is non-windup and used to integrate the input signal
over certain specified period to avoid feeding continuously variable signals
of spike form.
 Measuring Circuits: Their transfer functions as well as thyristor
susceptible control transfer functions (or modules and other signals) are
the same as with IEEE model 1.
(a) (b)
Fig. 6.20 IEEE model 2 of closed loop controller
(a) General Structure (b) Voltage regulator
6.9.6 Data Required For IEEE Models 1 and 2:
Data required for such controllers are: Qmax (Inductive) and Qmin
(Capacitive) in MVAR at one pu high-side voltage to selecting Bmin and Bmax
respectively. Total SVC MVAR is required beside the voltage regulators
parameters KR, TR, T1 and T2 for IEEE model 1 and KSL, K1 , Kp and Tp for
model 2. Correspondence of parameters of the two models can be made by
assuming Tm=T1=T2=Tp=Td=Tb=Ts=Kp=0 the KR=1/KSL and TR=1/(KSL K1).
Typically a gain of KR=33.3 per unit on the SVC base and a time constant of
TR=100 milliseconds may be used for a moderately strong system. All other
time constants may be neglected. The gain corresponds to a 3% slope. Line
outage disturbances may be simulated, and the time constant adjusted to
provide a fast, well-damped SVC response. Slope values in the range 1-5%
are usually used.
6.9.7 Modeling of the Controllers of the MSCs, MSRs,

and LTC Transformers:
Static VAR system (SVS) or VAR compensating system (VCS),
consist of static VAR compensators (SVC) and mechanically switched
reactors and capacitors (MSR, MSC), controlled by digital controllers. An
approach for application is to immediately switch available mechanically
switched capacitors MSCs following short circuit detection and use a TCR
with overload capability to regulate voltage. The MSCs are switched off, as
required, some ten seconds after energization. This type of SVS or VCS can
be modeled using basic SVC models with fixed elements represented
explicitly. Another application is switching of the proper number of MSCs or
MSRs to return the SVC to near the reactive power (susceptance) set point.
A SVC could also control load tap changing (LTC) transformers. Figure
(6.21) shows a susceptance regulator and mechanical equipment switching
schematic diagram.
Chapter 6 717
Fig. 6.21 Susceptance regulator and mechanical switching equipment

6.9.8 TSC Modeling For Stability Studies:
The TSC modeled here is equipped with a common voltage regulator
for all three phases; the controlled variable is the average value of the three
rectified bus voltages. A dead zone with hysteresis is introduced owing to the
discrete nature of the TSC. Figure (6.22) shows a detailed model of the
nonlinear sampled system. The equivalent sampling and holding block (SH)
should be explained in some detail. As can be seen for a single phase,
switching on or off can only be formed when the instantaneous fundamental
frequency voltage has its maximum value. If an order is given to decrease the
number of connected steps at a possible switching instant, it will be executed
immediately.
Fig. 6.22 Detailed model of a TSC system with closed –loop voltage
regulation
If an order is given to increase the number of connected steps at a

possible switching instant, the maximum number of steps which can be
switched on immediately is equal to the number of available standby steps
having the correct charge polarity. The remaining of steps required will be
switched on a half cycle later, if the order is still remains. The switching
technique described means that there are two possible switching instants per
phase and per cycle of the network voltage. As regards the control of the
average voltage of the three phases, there are six possible switching instants
per cycle of the network voltage. This switching performance is described by
an equivalent special sampling interval equal to one sixth of one cycle of the
network voltage (T/6, where T is the time for one cycle).
Figure (6.23) shows an approximate model. A device connected to the
bus concerned and having a linear and continuously controllable susceptance
B represents the main circuits. The control circuits are approximated
accordingly. The model can accept the dead time due to the filter time
constant (1/f) and the dead zone. This dead time may be short or long. For
small error signals, the average voltage is quite sufficient to be used. For very
large error signals, such as those appearing on network faults or load
rejections, the maximum time required to switch on or off all the capacitors
approaches one cycle of the network voltage. Based on the simulations shown
by many authors, the conclusion was drawn that the approximate model is
satisfactory for most transmission systems simulations for the fundamental
frequency effects.
Fig. 6.23 Approximate model of a TSC system with closed-loop voltage

regulation
6.10 SVC Representation in Power Flow and Voltage

Stability Studies:
Most power flow programs do not include a specific static VAR
compensator model. SVCs are often modeled as a conventional PV
(generator) bus with reactive power limits. This results in large errors if the
SVC is on limit, operating as a capacitor or reactor. If low voltage is the main
concern, the SVC can be modeled as a TCR-FC type of SVC (PV bus with
shunt capacitor).
Chapter 6 713
For example, for low voltage problems, a +200MVAR SVC can be

represented as a 200MVAR capacitor bank, and a PV bus with 400MVAR
inductive limit and zero capacitive limit, the capacitive limit is correctly
represented but not the inductive limit with conventional power flow
programs. With a conventional power flow program, the slope is represented
by connecting the SVC to an auxiliary or phantom bus separated from the
SVC high voltage bus by a reactance equal (on the SVC base) to the per unit
slope. The auxiliary bus is then the PV bus. If the SVC transformer is
represented, the reactance from the high voltage bus to the auxiliary bus is a
portion of the transformer leakage reactance; the medium voltage bus is a PV
bus with regulation of the auxiliary bus. Figure (6.24) shows the SVC models
with slope representation using conventional power flow PV busses.
Fig. 6.24 SVC models with slope representation using conventional power
flow PV bus
6.11 Applications of Static VAR Compensators:

Several applications of SVC are now in use. Briefly, they are:
(1) To maintain voltage levels at light and heavy load conditions.
(2) To reduce voltage flicker caused by arc furnaces loads.
(3) To compensate reactive powers at ac terminals of HVDC systems.
(4) To improve power system synchronous stability: steady state, dynamic
and transient.
(5) To improve power system voltage stability: steady state, and transient
(6) To balance the unbalanced three-phase systems.
(7) To control anode effect voltages in Aluminum smelter plants.
(8) For starting of large induction motors or groups of motors.
(9) For saving of energy losses in industrial firms and networks.
(10) For saving of lightning arrestors rating during system over voltages.
(11) For power systems control during abnormal operation conditions.
(12) For enhancement of load stabilities of large industrial loads

(13) For prevention of complete and partial networks blackouts.
(14) To support voltage of electric trains and large lefts of mining.
(15) For windmill isolated induction generators excitation.
(16) For super-conducting generators excitation and voltage control.
(17) For network voltage control at strategically optimum locations.
(18) For improvement of power quality of power systems
(19) For improvement of power factor of repetitive variable loads.
(20) For supporting with super-conducting coils.
(21) For balancing three-phase arc furnace loads
(22) For creating infinite bus node within weak systems networks.
(23) For countermeasure of subsynchronous resonance (SSR) due to series
capacitors or HVDC systems in AC systems.
(24) For alleviating voltage instability due to induction motor loads.
Problems
6.1 What are the main components of static VAR compensator?
6.2 What are the CIGRE and inertialess SVC models features?
6.3 State the types of static VAR compensators in use in industry.
6.4 Give the IEEE modeling of static VAR compensators controls?
6.5 What is the need for existence of transformers with static VAR
compensators?
6.6 State the practical application of static VAr compensators in power
systems
6.7 Static VAR compensators are important source of harmonics
generation. Quantify the maximum percentage of each harmonic order
generated from TCR type?
6.8 A static VAR compensator is connected to a 132kV-load bus to
improve the network voltage stability. The short circuit power of the load
bus is 5000MVA and the network frequency is 50Hz. Load flow studies
showed that the voltage can be maintained at 1.0 pu at no load and peak
load is reactive power of 100MVAR (inductive) and 40 MVAR
(capacitive) are injected. The slope is adjusted to 3%. The time constants
of the voltage regulator are T1 = 0.02 sec, T2 = T3 = T4 = 0. The feedback
time constant is 0.0008sec. The delay of the gate circuit is 2.777 X 10 -3
sec. Find:
(a) The maximum and minimum load voltage within control range. Draw
the compensator steady-state characteristics, when the compensator is
TCR/FC type and of TCR/TSC type.
Chapter 6 711
(b) Sensitivity of compensator terminal voltage to system voltage

variations (Vt/Vs). What will be this sensitivity when the equivalent
network reactance is doubled and when it is halved?
(c) Find Vt/Vs for slope 0.8 volt/Amp. and X of the system is 1, 5, 10,
20, 30, 40, and 50 ohms. Plot (Vt/Vs)/system X characteristics.
(d) Plot the transient response of the bus terminal voltage for a unit step
increase in the reference voltage =0.02 u(t) pu and for a unit step of 0.3u(t)
pu in the equivalent system voltage.
(e) When the system is loaded by a load of 200 MVA, 0.8 power factor,
find the bus terminal voltage for all the above conditions.
6.9 In Problem 6.8, find Vt/Vs for slopes of percentage 5%, 4%, 3%, 2%
and 1%. Plot (Vt/Vs)/slope characteristics.
6.10 Repeat problem (6.8) for a load of (1+j1) pu, fed through two parallel
lines each has impedance of (0.0+j0.185)pu. Bases are 275kV, 100MVA.
6.11 Repeat problem 6.8, when Zs = 0.323 90opu.
6.12 Repeat problem 6.8, when Zs = 0.3230pu.
6.13 A static VAR generator is used to control the voltage at a load terminal
to be constant at 0.99 pu at both no-load and 150% at full-load conditions.
Give the elements of its mathematical model (X, K). The load is
(0.3+j0.18) pu. The system Thevenen’s equivalent is E = 1.004-3.2o, Zs =
0.32375.43. E = KV, (Xmax=1/Bc max).
6.14 Derive a formula relating the controller factor K as a function of the
SVC controller gain G, SVC feedback H, SVC reference Vr, fixed
capacitance susceptance Bc and SVC fixed susceptance Bd.
6.15 In problem 6.8, use the inertia less model in getting the value of K as a
function in the controller parameters for V=E, V=0.95E. Plot V with K.
What will be the terminal voltage values when TCR is fully on (K=0) and
when it is fully off (k=1), as well as when it behaves as static synchronous
generator or as static VAR generator (k=2).
6.16 In problem 6.8, if H=0.99, G=10, Vref =1.002 pu, Vs =1.00 pu, X=5
ohm. Find the compensator node no load voltage, with and without static
VAR compensator. Find the compensator rating when:
(a) It is controlled TSC compensator
(b) It is a fixed uncontrolled capacitor
6.17 Repeat problem 6.16, when the load is: (0.3+j 0.6), (0.3+j0.18), (0.3+j
0.0), and (0.6+j0.18)pu. The gain is taken as G=0.01, 0.1, 1, 2, 5, 10 and
100.
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Enhancement Using Static VAR Compensator", 7 th International
Middle East Power Systems Conference MEPCON' 2000, Ain Shams
University, Cairo, Egypt, March 2000, pp. 223-2267.
[36] M. Z. El-Sadek, G. El-Saady, A. A. Ibrahim, M. E. Ahmed,
"Simultaneous Voltage Control and Power Factor Correction of
Balanced Loads Using Flexible AC Transmission Systems (FACTS)",
8th International Middle East Power Systems Conference, MEPCON'
2001, Hilwan University, Cairo, Egypt, 2001.
[37] M.Z. El-Sadek, G. El-Saady, A.M. Hemeida, “Non Linear Neuro-
Fuzzy Controllers For Enhancement of Multimachine Power System
Stability”, International Middle East Power Systems Conference
MEPCON, 2001, Helwan University, Cairo, Egypt, pp. 293-297.
[38] M.Z. El-Sadek, G. El-Saady, A. A. Ibrahim, M.E. Ahmed, “Flexible
AC Transmission Systems (FACTS) For Power Quality Improvement
of Unbalanced Systems Suffering From Voltage Instability”, Ibid, pp.
307-311.
[39] M.Z. El-Sadek, G. El-Saady, A.M. Hemeida, “Effects of Non Linear
Neuro-Fuzzy Controller on Stability Limits and Critical Clearing Times
of Multimachine Power Systems”, Ibid, pp. 491-496.
[40] M.Z. El-Sadek, G. El-Saady, A. A. Ibrahim, M.E. Ahmed,
“Simultaneous Loads Voltage Control and Power Factor Improvement
Chapter 6 711
Using Flexible AC Transmission Systems (FACTS)”, The 8 th

International Middle East Power Systems Conference 2001
MEPCON’2001, Helwan, Egypt.
Chapter 7 971
Chapter 7
Flexible AC Transmission Systems
FACTS
7.1 Introduction:
Flexible AC Transmission Systems abbreviated by FACTS forms a
new domain in power system control engineering, using power electronic
devices and circuits and the more recent available technologies in automatic
control and valves. Some of these FACTS are pure power electronic devices,
others are power electronic elements applied to conventional electrical
circuit's elements and connected to the electrical networks. Some devices are
to be connected in series; the majorities are shunt-connected devices. Few
versions of these FACTS are now in use. Numereous concepts are suggested
in the literature. They were named FACTS, as early as the beginning of the
1990’s. Recent IEEE convention gave definitions and a specific name for
each type of these FACTS so as to have unified terminology worldwide.
Static VAR compensator known since 1970’s was its first element. This
chapter aims to present briefly these new devices and to illustrate their
components, jobs, functions and role in power systems control. Their actual
and future possible applications in control of power systems electronically
and statically are clarified. Utilities will use extensively these devices and
new other concepts may appear in the near future, following to the progress in
power electronics and control engineering developments.
7.2 What are FACTS?

FACTS are alternating current transmission systems incorporating
power electronic-based and other static controllers to enhance controllability
and increase power transfer capability. They are either pure controlled
electronic devices or conventional elements such as resistors, reactors or
capacitors, controlled by electronic devices. The control here will be either
switching out and in or continuous phase angle control, according to these
control techniques, they are called switched or controlled devices.
These power electronic based systems provide control of one or more

AC transmission system parameters. The new technology of the thyristor
permitted these devices to be used extensively in power systems. The
elements of the FACTS are either series or shunt connected. They can enter in
service or being out of service, or may be phase controlled, statically at nearly
180 Flexible AC Transmission Systems FACTS
zero time or with time delay of thyristor operation. In these devices the
reactors are linear air-cored reactors connected in series with thyristor. The
amount of the inductive reactive power can be adjusted by changing the firing
angle of the thyristors. In switched versions, of reactors or capacitors
thyristors firing angles are zero and 180o.
7.3 FACTS Objectives:

In near future, FACTS will perform full control for power systems.
Actually, the two main objectives of FACTS are to increase transmission
capacity of lines and control power flow over designated transmission,
electronically and statically, without need of operator’s actions and without
need of mechanical manipulations or conventional breakers switching. They
can perform all objectives of reactive power control together with voltage
control within the transmission and distribution networks and at load
terminals.
7.4 FACTS Functions and Control:

FACTS presence in any network changes its effective elements,
resistances, reactance’s or capacitance’s, voltages, currents, phase angles and
phase sequences. Changes of network elements may be direct physical such as
electronic controlled addition or outage of (series or shunt) resistors or (series
or shunt) reactors or (series or shunt) capacitors or may be indirect such as
injection of certain specified inductive or capacitive reactive powers, which
correspond to equivalent changes in the system variables or elements values,
such as shunt static VAR compensator. In which a fixed reactance X
(inductive or capacitive) are connected in shunt to the network and controlled
by anti parallel thyristor groups in order to draw variable currents I, according
to their firing angles adjustments, to get variable reactive powers equal to
(I2X). This action of reactive power control is equivalent to a virtually
variable equivalent susceptance Bc() at each value of thyristor firing angle as
shown in fig. (7.1). The amount of the variable reactive powers consumed by
that equivalent susceptance equal to (B c()V2), at terminal voltage V.
Equating the FACTS actual fixed element reactive power (I 2X) and their
equivalent susceptance reactive powers (Bc()V2), an equivalent variable
FACTS susceptance at each thyristor firing angle () is given by:
I2X
Bc    (7.1)
V2
Chapter 7 989
a
b
c
Icb Ia Ib Ic
Icc c c
Bcab Bcbc
B bc B ab
Ica
Bcca
Control
Bcca system
Fig.7.1 Actual and the equivalent representation of a three-phase

static VAR compensator
7.5 Meaning of Flexibility of Electric Power

Transmission:
The flexibility of power systems means their ability to accommodate
changes in the electric transmission system or operating conditions while
maintaining sufficient steady state and transient margins. As all FACTS are
self-controlled electronic elements or devices, they are able to perform
continual fast automatic control and vary system parameters, variables and
states instantaneously according to programmed system needs and
requirements allover the hour. They respond automatically to any sudden
changes and make the necessary actions and measures to preserve stable and
secure operation condition, beside having best system performance and
highest output productivity. They preserve permanent service continuity
during different loadabilities and abnormal operational conditions.
7.5.1 Meaning of Flexibility of System Parameters:

It was shown in paragraph (7.4) that a shunt SVC controlled by
thyristors firing angles () yields shunt virtual variable susceptances B C() at
each firing angle given by BC()=I2()XC/V, with XC the fixed SVC
reactance, I() the actual SVC drawn fundamental current and V its terminal
voltage magnitude. Therefore changing the firing angles by flexible controls
is equivalent to entering shunt reactors or capacitors in and out, according to
the values of BC(), without any mechanical switching process. To show the
effects of such virtual continual variable shunt susceptances B C() on system
parameters, assume a load (P+jQ) is fed (at voltage VR) from a source of
controlled voltage VS through two series feeders (jXa, jXb). The transfer
reactance between the source and the load (fig. 7.2) is then given by:
jX tr  jX a  jX b (7.2)
The maximum transmitted load power is then:
VS V R
Pmax  (7.3)
X tr
Now connecting an SVC FACT of variable controlled susceptance B C() at

the feeders connection as shown in fig. (7.2).
X'tr
VS VR
jXa jXb VS VR
jXa jXb
 Load
P+jQ
 XS jBC() XR Load
P+jQ
(a) (b)
Fig. 7.2 (a) System without FACT

(b) System with FACT
Connection of shunt controlled BC(), and transforming the star to delta,

changes the transfer reactance between the source and the load to X'tr, given
by:
X tr'  X a  X b  X a X b BC   (7.4)
Thus if BC() is capacitive, X'tr will be less than Xtr, the maximum power of
eqn. (7.3) will be more than without FACT element. On the other hand if
BC() is inductive (or negative), the transfer reactance X 'tr will be more than
Xtr and the maximum transmitted power is less than that drawn without
FACTS. The network configuration is changed by addition of X S and XR at
the source and load terminals respectively. This will change the current
distribution and changes the load voltage VR, if VS is kept constant, according
to:
 P  jQ VR 
VR  VS      jX tr' (7.5)
* jX 
 V R R 
Which was without FACTS:

Chapter 7 981
 P  jQ 
VR  VS     j X a  X b  (7.6)
* 
 VR 
Therefore changing BC() by thyristor firing angle () control system

changes X'tr and consequently changes VR continuously. Noting that BC()
will has different values for various FACTS types at each thyristor firing
angle ().
7.6 Actual and Proposed FACTS Schemes:

Several schemes of flexible AC transmission systems FACTS are either
in use or are proposed by some authors or industrial firms, to be used in
future. Below is a complete list to the known schemes to date.
(1) Static VAR compensator (SVC)
Includes the following implementations:
 Thyristor Controlled Reactor (TCR)
 Thyristor Switched Reactor (TSR)
 Thyristor Switched Capacitor (TSC)
 Combined Thyristor Controlled Reactor and Thyristor Switched
Capacitor (TCR/TSC)
 Combined Thyristor Controlled Reactor and fixed capacitor
(TCR)/(FC)
 Combined TCR/TSC/TSR arrangement
(2) Static VAR System (SVS)
(3) VAR Compensating System (VCS)
(4) Static VAR Generator or absorber (SVG)
(5) Static Synchronous Generator (SSG)
(6) Static Synchronous Compensator (SSC or STATCOM or STATCON)
(7) Static Synchronous Series Compensator (SSSC or S3C).
(8) Unified Power Flow Controller (UPFC)
(9) Thyristor Controlled Phase Shifting Transformer (TCPST)
(10) Thyristorised Load Tap Changing Transformers (TLTCT)
(11) Interphase Power controller (IPC)
(12) Thyristor Controlled Voltage Limiter (TCVL).
(13) Loads Series Voltage Controllers (LSVC)
(14) Thyristor Controlled Series Capacitor (TCSC)
(15) Thyristor Switched Series Capacitor (TSSC)
(16) Thyristor Controlled Series Reactor (TCSR)
(17) Thyristor Switched Series Reactor (TSSR)
(18) Thyristor Controlled Series Compensation Circuits.
(19) Thyristor Switched Series Compensation Circuits.
(20) Battery Energy Storage System (BESS)
(21) Superconducting Magnetic Energy Storage (SMES)

7.7 Components and Principles of Operation of FACTS
Schemes:
Hereby, a brief description of each FACTS scheme is displayed. The
description comprises its concept, control system and its operation conditions.
7.7.1 Static VAR Compensators (SVC):

As early as the beginning of the 1970’s, the first thyristor -switched
shunt capacitors (TSC) was installed by ASEA for fast reactive power
compensation in conjunction with arc furnaces and rolling mills. Since then,
this technique has been further developed to permit the control of larger
powers and has been supplemented by phase angle-thyristor controlled
reactors (TCR) and followed by thyristor switched reactors (TSR).
Combinations of the TCR, TSC and TSR and fixed capacitors FC were used
afterwards in order to replace the synchronous condensers in most countries.
In that way, the thyristor-controlled shunt compensator was called static VAR
compensator (SVC). The SVC has the big advantages of fast response and
energy conversion with low losses. They were the earlier elements of what so
called FACTS in the past decade. Chapter 6 gives more details about SVC’s.
Figure (7.1) shows a schematic diagram of static VAR compensator.
7.7.2 Static VAR System (SVS):

CIGRE defines a static VAR system (SVS) as a combination of static
VAR compensator (SVC) and mechanically switched capacitors (MSC) and
mechanically switched reactors (MSR), all under coordinated control. Figure
(7.3) depicts a one-line diagram of a typical static VAR system for
transmission applications. Some LTC (Load tap changing) transformers
control may be included in the SVS control strategy.
TCR TSR TSC

FC FR
MSC MSR
Control
System
Fig. 7.3 Static VAR system schematic diagram

Chapter 7 981
7.7.3 VAR Compensating System (VCS):

VAR compensating system consists of a combination of different static
and rotating VAR compensators whose outputs are coordinated by PLC’s or
programmable controllers. Static VAR compensators SVC of all types shunt
fixed reactors (FR or MSR), shunt fixed capacitors (FC or MSC) and rotating
no-load synchronous motors (S.M) may be included. Figure (7.4) is a
schematic diagram of a typical VAR compensating system. Fixed reactors
may be included.
1:t
FR
FC MSR
AC bus MSC
S.M
TCR TSR TSC
Control
system
Fig. 7.4 VAR compensating system schematic diagram
7.7.4 Static VAR Generator or Absorber (SVG):

A static electrical device, equipment, or system that is capable of
drawing controlled capacitive and/or inductive current from an electrical
power system and thereby generating or absorbing reactive power. Generally
considered to consist of shunt connected thyristor-controlled reactor(s) and/or
thyristor-switched capacitors (TCR/TSC), as shown in fig (7.5). Its difference
from static VAR compensator is that the SVC is adjusted to exchange
capacitive or inductive reactive currents or powers so as to maintain or control
specific parameters such as bus voltages, while SVG is only designed to
generate or absorb reactive power from the system. In other words SVG
provides the system by its need of inductive or capacitive reactive powers,
while SVC's are designed to control some variables such as voltage, speeds,
torque's …etc, by injection or absorption of controlled reactive powers.
QSVG VT
Measurement of
voltage and current
Control Qref
Firing angles
Fig. 7.5 Static VAR generator schematic diagram

7.7.5 Static Synchronous Generator (SSG):
7.7.5.1 What is a Static Synchronous Generator?
The static synchronous generator is analogous to an ideal synchronous
machine, which generates a balanced set of (three) sinusoidal voltages, at the
fundamental frequency, with controllable amplitude and phase angle. This
ideal machine has no inertia, its response is practically instantaneous, it does
not significantly alter the existing system impedance, and it can internally
generate reactive (both capacitive and inductive) power. Furthermore, it can
dynamically exchange real power with the AC system if it is coupled to an
appropriate energy source that can supply or absorb the power it supplies to,
or absorbs from, the AC system. Static synchronous generators are employed
for the dynamic compensation and real time control of power flow in
transmission systems.
A functional diagram of the static synchronous generator is shown in fig.
7.6(a), in which reference signals Qr and Pr define the amplitudes of V and
phase angle ψr of the generated output voltage and there by the reactive and
real power exchange between the static synchronous generator and the AC
system. If the function of the dynamic real power exchange is not required,
the SSG becomes a self-sufficient reactive power source, like an ideal
synchronous condenser, and the external energy storage device can be
disposed of. It is then called static synchronous compensator (SSC or
STATCOM). In literature, they were also called static condensers
(STATCON) or advanced static VAR compensators (ASVC). Its modes of
operation as SSG or SSC are shown in fig. 7.6(c). Its components are given in
fig. 7.6(b).
AC System Vac At AC Terminal
Coupling Coupling Absorbs P Supplies P

Supplies Q Supplies Q
Transformer Transformer
Iq Iac
P Vac
Qref Iac AC Terminal
Ip
Q

Absorbs P Supplies P
v=Vsin(t-) V Control Multi-Pulse Absorbs Q Absorbs Q
Pref Inverter


P
At DC Terminal
Idc + Vdc - DC Terminal
Energy
-Vdc -Idc Idc Vdc
Source
Energy Storage
(a) (b) (c)
Fig. 7.6 Static synchronous generator (SSG) concept

Chapter 7 987
(a) Functional diagram (b) Components (c) Modes of operation

7.7.5.2 Static Synchronous Generator Mode of Operation:
Static synchronous generator forms a perfect sinusoidal voltage source
behind a coupling reactance provided by the leakage inductance of the
coupling transformer. It is capable of generating internally the reactive power
necessary for network compensation, and is also able to interface with an
appropriate energy storage device to negotiate real power exchange with the
AC system. If the energy storage is of suitable rating, the SSG can exchange
both reactive and real power with the AC system. The reactive and real
power, generated or absorbed by the SSG, can be controlled independently of
each other, and any combination of real power generation/absorption with
VAR generation/absorption is possible, as illustrates the modes of operation
of fig. 7.6(c). The real power that the SSG exchanges at its AC terminals with
the AC system must, of course, be supplied to, or absorbed from, its terminals
by the energy storage device. By contrast, the reactive power exchanged is
internally generated by the SSG, without DC energy storage device playing
any significant part in its generation.
7.7.5.3 Static Synchronous VAR Generation:

Three concepts for static synchronous generators (SSG’s) are available.
Current source type VAR generator, voltage source VAR generators using
DC/AC inverter and static voltage source type generator using AC/AC
frequency changer. The static frequency changer may be used in the power-
doubling configuration.
7.7.5.3.1 Current Source VAR Generator:

An inductively loaded AC/DC converter, shown in fig. 7.7(a), can
realize a simple current source VAR generator. The converter may be
naturally or forced commutated. The naturally commutated converter can only
provide lagging VAR’s, while the forced commutated one can provide both
lagging and leading VAR’s. Typical currents and voltage wave forms
illustrating the operation of the AC/DC converter for lagging and leading
VAR outputs are shown in fig.7.7 (b), (c). The AC/DC converter is one of the
simplest arrangements to provide controllable 3-phase VAR output. However,
the naturally commutated version shows no advantage over the conventional
known static VAR compensators.
7.7.5.3.2 Voltage Source VAR Generator:

The voltage source static synchronous VAR generator consists
basically of an inverter, with GTO thyristors, and a condenser and called
(VSI). It is separated from the feeding network by reactors or transformer
reactors. It is an equivalent to the rotating synchronous condenser. For purely
reactive power flow, the three-phase inverter output voltage E1, E2, E3 should
be in phase with the system bus or the three-phase terminal voltages V1, V2,
V3. By controlling the inverter output three-phase voltages E1, E2, E3 the
reactive power flow can be controlled; increasing E above the amplitude of V,
for any phase of the system phases, causes leading current to be drawn from
the AC system. Where as decreasing E below V produces a lagging current
flow from the system.
io
+
V1 i1
V2 i2 Vo
V3 i3
_
(a)
(b) (c)
Fig.7.7 Current source static synchronous generator

(a) Circuits diagram
(b) Voltage and current wave forms for providing lagging power factor
(c) Voltage and current wave forms for providing leading power factor
When the inverter is operated strictly as reactive power source, it

absorbs no real power from the AC system, and thus its losses have to
replenished from the DC supply. However, the DC supply can be dispensed
with a suitable DC reservoir capacitor, shown in fig. (7.8). And each inverter
output voltage is made to lag slightly the corresponding AC system voltage. A
real component of current will flow from the AC system to the inverter and
the losses will be covered from the AC system. The static voltage supply
Chapter 7 981
source inverter may be fed either from a DC voltage supply as shown in fig
7.8 (a) or from a fixed capacitor C as shown fig 7.8 (b)
V1 V2 V3
io1 E1 iDC
io2 E2 Static DC
Inverter Voltage 3-phase
io3 E3 VDC
Supply
AC lines
3-phase
Inverter
DC
Phase
Capacitor
io1 E1 iDC shifting
Transformer
io2 E2 Static
Inverter VDC C
io3 E3 Harmonic
Filter
(a) (b)
Fig. 7.8 Static voltage source inverter with

(a) Separate DC source (b) Storage capacitor
7.7.5.3.3 Static Voltage Source Using AC/AC Frequency

Changer:
An alternate version of static voltage sources consists of generators of
relatively high frequency (150-300) Hz, feeds a static AC/AC frequency
changer (such as cycloconverters), which converts the generator frequency f g
to the system frequency fs is shown in fig. (7.9). The frequency changer is
controlled to produce fundamental output voltages, which are inphase with
the system voltages. It is evident that reactive power can be supplied in either
direction to the AC system by simple amplitude control of the frequency
changer output voltages. The well-known phase controlled cycloconverters,
draws lagging input current regardless of whether the output load is lagging or
leading.
Other types may supply a nonunity power factor loads with a unity
input power factors supply. Two arrangements can be used; conventional with
separate high frequency AC source, fig. 7.9(a) or with self-sufficient LC tank
circuits on HF base, fig. 7.9(b). The voltage source VAR generators are
excellent solution to the controllable shunt compensation problems. This new
type of VAR generator using a static frequency changer requires practically
no passive reactive power storage components such as capacitors or reactors
and can produce both leading and lagging VAR output. The static frequency
changer can be used in a "Power Doubling" configuration in which the VA
rating of the converter is one half of the maximum leading or lagging output
provided. This is simply done by simple connections of the converters with
the supply in a feedback manner, as shown in fig. 7.9(b). The power doubling
circuit diagram using three-phase, 6-pulse bridge type frequency changer is
given fig. 7.9(c).
V1 V2 V3
VL1 IL1
io1 E1
io2 E2 Static VL2 IL2
AC to AC
io3 E3 Changer
VL3 IL3
a(i) High frequency

generator
io1 E1 VL1 IL1

io2 E2 Static
AC to AC VL2 IL2
io3 E3 frequency
changer VL3 IL3
High-frequency base
(oscillating tank circuit)
a(ii)
AC system
0
V1 V2 V3 1
I01 L E1=kV1 VL1=V1
Static
I02 L E2=kV2 Frequency VL2=V2
I03 L E3=kV3 Changer
(L=-0) VL3=V3
I01 V1 L kV1 V1
Static
I02 V2 L kV2 Frequency V2
Changer
I1 I03 V3 L kV3 (L=-0)
V3
I2
IL1
I3 IL2
IL3
(b) (c)
Fig. 7.9 (a) Static voltage source using AC/AC frequency changer
(i) Conventional arrangement with separate high-frequency AC source
(ii) Self-sufficient operation from LC tank circuits (HF base)
(b) Power doubling arrangement
Chapter 7 919
(c) Power doubling VAR generator using a three-phase six-pulse

bridge type frequency changer
7.7.5.4 SSG's Implementation and Voltage Generation:
An elementary, six-pulse, voltage-sourced inverter is shown in fig.
7.11(a). It consists of six self-commutated semiconductor (GTO) switches,
each of which is shunted by a reverse-parallel connected diode. It should be
noted that in a high power inverter, each solid-state switch consists of a
number of series-connected (GTO thyristor/diode arms). With DC voltage
source, which may be a charged capacitor, the inverter can produce balanced
set of three quasi-square voltage waveforms of a given frequency, as
illustrated in fig. (7.10), by connecting the DC source sequentially to the three
output terminals.
Fig 7.10 Voltage-wave forms of a six-pulse voltage-sourced inverter

io
+
Vo,a i1
Vo,b i2 Vdc
Vo,c i3
_
(a)
Coupling
Transformer
Magnetic structure
for multi-pulse waveform fabrication
Inverter 1 Inverter 2 Inverter n
multi-pulse inverter
+Vdc
(b)
Fig. 7.11 Shunt-connected static synchronous generator

(a) Basic six-pulse inverter (b) GTO multi-pulse inverters
Static synchronous generator can be implemented by multi-pulse
inverters using n six-pulse inverters with gate turn-off (GTO) thyristors,
which are shown in fig. 7.11 (a, b). Various switching power converters can
implement the static synchronous generator. Voltage-sourced inverter (VSI),
given before is one of the known DC to AC switching power converters,
using gate turn-off (GTO) thyristors in appropriate multi-pulse circuit
configurations.
7.7.5.5 Real and Reactive Powers Generation:

The reactive power exchange between the inverter and the AC system is
controlled by varying the amplitude of the three-phase inverter output voltage.
That is, if the amplitude of the output voltage is increased above that of the
AC system voltage, then the current flows through the reactance from the
inverter to the AC system, and the inverter generates capacitive reactive
power for the AC system. If the amplitude of the output voltage is decreased
below that of the AC system, then the reactive current flows from the AC
system to the inverter and the inverter absorbs inductive reactive power from
the system. If the output voltage is equal to the AC system voltage, the
reactive power exchange is zero.
Similarly, the real power exchange between the inverter and the system
is made by phase shifting the inverter output voltage with respect to the AC
system voltage by a special control system. That is, the inverter supplies real
power to the AC system, from its DC energy storage, if the inverter output
voltage is made to lead the corresponding AC system voltage. By the same
way, the inverter absorbs real power from the AC system to its DC energy
storage, if the inverter output voltage is made to lag the AC system voltage.
7.7.5.6 Mechanism of Voltage and Reactive Power Generation:

The mechanism by which the inverter internally generates reactive
power can be explained, without considering the detailed operation of the
solid-state switch array(s). The key to this explanation resides in the physical
fact that the process of energy transfer through the inverter, consisting of
arrays of solid-state switches, is absolutely direct, and thus it is inherent that
the net instantaneous power at the AC output terminals must always be equal
to the net instantaneous power at the DC input terminals (neglecting losses).
Assume that the inverter is operated to supply only reactive output power. In
this case, the real input power provided by the DC source has to be zero.
Furthermore, since reactive power at zero frequency by definition is

zero, the DC source supplies no input power and therefore it clearly plays no
Chapter 7 911
part in the generation of the reactive power. In other words, the inverter
simply interconnects the three output terminals in such a way that the reactive
output currents can flow freely between them. Viewing this from the
terminals of the AC system, one could say that the inverter establishes a
circulating power exchange among the phases, although reactive power is
internally generated by the action of the solid-state switches, it is still
necessary to have a relatively small DC capacitor connected across the input
terminals of the inverter, to cover the SSG losses or to provide active power
to the AC system.
7.7.5.7 DC Capacitor’s Role in Real Power Generation:

The need for the DC capacitor is primarily to satisfy the equality of the
instantaneous output and input active powers. The output voltage waveform
of the inverter is not a perfect sine wave, as shown in fig. 7.12 (b), it is a
staircase approximation of a sine wave. However, the multi-pulse inverter,
fig. 7.12 (a), draws a smooth, almost sinusoidal current from the AC system
through the tie reactance. As result, the net three-phase instantaneous power
(VA) at the output terminals of the inverter slightly fluctuates. Thus, in order
not to violate the equality of the instantaneous output and input powers, the
inverter must draw a fluctuating "ripple" current from the DC storage
capacitor that provides a constant terminal voltage at the input.
Coupling
Transformer
Magnetic structure
for multi-pulse waveform fabrication
Inverter 1 Inverter 2 Inverter 8
+Vdc multi-pulse inverter
(a) (b)
Fig. 7.12 (a) A 48-pulse inverter using 8 six-pulse inverter modules

(b) Output voltage and current waveforms of a 48-pulse inverter when
generating reactive capacitive power
The presence of the input ripple current components is thus entirely

due to the ripple components of the output voltage, which are a function of
the output waveform fabrication technique used. In a high power inverter,
using a sufficiently high pulse number, the output voltage distortion and,
thereby, capacitor ripple current can be theoretically reduced to any desired

degree. Thus, a perfect inverter could generate sinusoidal output voltage and
draw pure DC input current without harmonics. Evidently, for purely reactive
output, the input current of the perfect inverter is zero. In practice, due to
system unbalance and other imperfections, as well as to economic
considerations, these ideal conditions are not achieved, but approximated
satisfactorily by inverters of sufficiently high pulse numbers (24 or higher).
7.7.5.8 Advantages of Static Synchronous Generators over

Static VAR Compensator or Generators SVC or SVG and
over Synchronous Motors SM’s:
(a) Comparison of the static synchronous generator approach with the more
conventional compensation method of employing thyristor-switched
capacitors and reactors shows its superior performance (including the
unmatched capability of using both reactive and real power compensation to
counteract dynamic disturbances), uniform applicability, smaller physical
size, and potentially lower overall cost.
(b) The static synchronous generator (SSG), when compared to
conventional static VAR compensators SVC, using thyristor-switched
capacitors and thyristor-controlled reactors, provides vastly superior
performance characteristics and uniform applicability for transmission
voltage, impedance, and angle control. It also offers the unique potential to
directly exchange real power with the AC system, in addition to the
independently controllable reactive power compensation, thereby giving a
powerful new option for the counteraction of dynamic disturbances.
(c) Although the rotating synchronous compensator or synchronous motor
(SM) has a number of desirable functional characteristics such as high
capacitive output current at low system voltage levels and an essentially
inductive source impedance that cannot cause harmonic resonance with the
transmission network. It suffers from a number of operating shortcomings
such as slow response, potential for rotational instability, low short circuit
impedance and high maintenance and lacks the application flexibility
implemented to meet the power control requirements of modern transmission
systems with fast repetitive variations.
(d) When compared to the conventional thyristor-controlled static VAR
compensator or to the static VAR generator, which can exchange only
reactive power with the AC system, the static synchronous generator clearly
has significant operating and application advantages. The bi-directional real
power exchange capability of the SSG; that is, the ability to absorb energy
from the AC system and deliver it to the DC energy storage device, which
can be (large storage capacitor, battery, superconducting magnet) and to
reverse. This process and deliver power for the AC system from the energy
storage device makes complete, temporary system support possible.
Chapter 7 911
Specifically, this capability may be used to improve system efficiency and

prevent power outages.
(e) Also, in combination of fast reactive power control, dynamic real power
exchange provides an extremely effective tool for transient and dynamic
stability improvement, especially during solid short-circuits with complete
loss of active power delivered from AC generators.
(f) SSG has no reactors, which has copper losses and its single DC
capacitor has relatively small size.
7.7.5.9 SSG Harmonic Generation and Elimination:

The output voltage waveform of the elementary six-pulse inverter
contains voltage harmonic components with frequencies of (6k±1)f and its
input current has related harmonic components with frequencies of (6kf),
where f is the fundamental output frequency and k is an integer (= 1,2,3,..).
The high harmonic content of the output voltage makes this simple inverter
unpractical for high power applications. Using the principle of harmonic
neutralization, the input and output of n basic six-pulse inverters (which are
operated with appropriate relative phase-displacements) can be combined so
as to obtain an overall p pulses=6n multi-pulse structure. The frequencies of
the harmonics present in the output voltage are (Pk±1)f and input current
(Pkf)of this P-pulse inverter, respectively.
As can be seen, the harmonic spectrum improves rapidly with

increasing pulse number, since the order of the lowest harmonic present in the
output voltage is equal to the pulse number minus one (Pk-1)f and the lowest
harmonic in the input current is equal to the pulse number itself (Pkf). Very
low order harmonics disappear completely. In addition, the amplitude of these
harmonics is inversely related to the pulse number; that is, the amplitude of
the kth harmonic of the output voltage wave is proportional to 1/(Pk±1) and
that of the DC supplies current equals (l/Pk). Harmonics with large
amplitudes vanishes. Multi-pulse or what is called "harmonic neutralized"
inverters can be implemented by a variety of circuit arrangements using
different magnetic devices. Although specific implementations may be
significantly different, the output voltage (and DC supply current) waveforms
obtained are essentially the same. A n 6-pulse inverter structure is shown
schematically fig. 7.12(a) and the output voltage and current waveforms for
P=48 (n=8) are shown in fig. 7.12(b).
7.7.5.10 Importance of SSG FACTS:

(a) The static synchronous generator can be considered as an ideal 60 Hz
generator that has no inertia and produces an almost sinusoidal output
voltage with independently variable amplitude and phase angle, thus
fluctuating rapid, decoupled controls for reactive and real power exchange.
(b) Static synchronous generators represent the next technology for AC

transmission system compensation and power flow control. This technology
offers new flexible functional performance, which can not be attained by the
presently used thyristor-controlled shunt or series static VAR compensators.
(c) Pure electronic static synchronous generators, which uses self-
commutated inverters, provided with gate turn-off thyristors GTO's can
internally generate capacitive and inductive reactive power for transmission
line compensation, without the need of the AC capacitors or reactors. The
inverter can be interfaced with a DC energy storage device, such as a DC
storage capacitor, battery, or super conductive reactor, in order to exchange
real power with the AC system, in addition to the independently controllable
reactive power exchange.
(d) It can be used to control transmission line voltage, impedance, and
angle by providing reactive shunt compensation or reactance series
compensation, or by phase shifting.
(e) When used for only reactive shunt compensation without energy
storage devices the static synchronous generator acts like an ideal static
condenser, with special characteristics
7.7.6 Static Synchronous Compensator (SSC STATCOM

or Static Condenser STATCON or ASVC):
7.7.6.1 What is Static Synchronous Compensator?
It is a static synchronous generator operated as a shunt-connected
static VAR compensator whose reactive capacitive or inductive output current
is controlled independent of the AC system voltage. When the SSG is used
only for reactive shunt compensation, like a conventional static VAR
compensator, then the DC energy storage device is to be replaced by a
relatively small DC capacitor, as shown in fig. 7.13(a). In this case, the
steady-state power exchange between the SSG and the AC system can only be
reactive and it is called static synchronous compensator SSC, or in some
literature static condenser STATCON. The modes of operation of that SSC or
STATCOM is shown in fig. 7.13(b). When the SSC is used for reactive power
generation, the inverter itself can keep the capacitor charged to the required
voltage level. This is accomplished by making the output voltages of the
inverter lag the system voltages by a small angle. In this way the inverter
absorbs a small amount of real power from the AC system to cover its internal
losses and to keep the capacitor voltage at the desired level. The same control
mechanism can be used to increase or decrease the capacitor voltage, and
thereby the amplitude of the output voltage of the inverter, for the purpose of
controlling the VAR generation or absorption. The SSC, exhibits operating
and performance characteristics similar to those of an ideal rotating
Chapter 7 917
synchronous condenser. For this reason that specific SSG arrangement which
generates only reactive power, is called static synchronous compensator
(SSC) or static compensator (STATCOM) or static condenser (STATCON) or
advanced static VAR compensator (ASVC).
AC system VT At the AC terminal
Iq Supplies Q
Coupling V1>VT Vac
Q Transformer
V1 V1<VT Absorbs Q
Iq
Multi-pulse
At the DC terminal
inverter
Idc=0 +Vdc
Vdc
Idc=0 - DC Terminal
+
0
(a) (b)
Fig. 7.13 Static synchronous compensator or static compensator or static
condenser (a) Configuration (b) Modes of operation
7.7.6.2 Characteristics of Static Synchronous Compensator and

Its Advantages over Static VAR Compensator:
The V-I characteristic of the STATCOM is shown in fig. 7.14(a) and
that of the static VAR compensator in fig. 7.14(b). As can be seen, the
STATCOM can provide both as an SVC of considerably higher rating,
capacitive and inductive compensation and it is able to control its output
current over the rated maximum capacitive or inductive range independently
of the AC system voltage. That is, the STATCOM can provide full capacitive
output current at any system voltage, practically down to zero. SVC output at
that zero voltage is zero. By contrast, the SVC, being composed of thyristor-
switched capacitors and reactors, can supply only diminishing output current
with decreasing system voltage determined by its maximum equivalent
capacitive admittance. STATCOM is, therefore, superior to the SVC in
providing voltage support. Indeed, studies indicate that a STATCOM in a
variety of applications has performed the same dynamic compensation as
SVC. As fig. (7.14) illustrates, the STATCOM has an increased transient
rating in both the inductive and capacitive operating regions.
The conventional SVC has no means to increase transiently the VAR

generation since the maximum capacitive current it can draw is strictly
determined by the size of the capacitor and the magnitude of the system
voltage. The inherently available transient rating of the STATCOM is
dependent on the characteristics of the power semiconductors used and the
junction temperature at which the devices are operated. The ability of the
STATCOM to produce full capacitive output current at low system voltage
also makes it highly effective in improving the transient or first swings
stability. The characteristics of the STATCOM are superior to those attainable
with the conventional thyristor-controlled static VAR compensator (SVC).
Transient
Transient Rating
Rating VT
Transient
VT
Rating 1.0
1.0 0.9
0.9 0.8
0.8 0.7
0.7
0.6
0.6
0.5 0.5
0.4 0.4
0.3 0.3
IC ICmax ILmax IL
0 ICmax 0 ILmax IL
IC
(a) (b)
Fig. 7.14 (a) V-I characteristic of static synchronous compensator

(b) V-I characteristic of static VAR compensator
7.7.6.3 Control Systems of Static Synchronous Compensators

and Generators:
A functional scheme to control a static synchronous generator used
as a shunt compensator is shown in fig. (7.15), together with the Thevenen’s
equivalent of the AC power system. The terminal voltage VT of the AC
system is subjected to dynamic amplitude and frequency variations due to
load and system changes, as well as disturbance. If the SSG is equipped with
an energy storage device, then it can exchange reactive as well as real power
with the AC system. In this case, the internal inverter control that derives the
gating signals for the GTO thyristors accepts a reference signal V R for the
desired reactive output current (representing the VAR demand of the AC sys-
tem), and an independent reference signal IR for the desired real output
current (representing the required real power exchange with the AC system).
From these reference signals the internal control computes and sets the
amplitude and phase angle of the (three-phase) voltage source with respect to
the AC system voltage so that the output current of the SSG is composed of
the desired reactive and real components. If the SSG is not equipped with an
energy storage device, then the reference signal VR is kept at zero and the
Chapter 7 911
SSG is operated as a static condenser. The function of the shunt-connected

SSG is to minimize the magnitude and duration of system disturbances by
regulating the terminal voltage and damping power oscillations. To
accomplish this, an external control is used that derives the necessary refer-
ence signals for the internal control of the SSG to produce the desired reactive
and, if the SSG has energy storage capability, real power output for the AC
system to counteract the disturbances.
IL CT
Z()
PT
Pm
VT IL
 V, 
Voltage Frequency
Measuring Variation or
and Power Flow
Internal Processing Measuring
AC Power System Inverter Circuits Circuits
Control
- VT
V + V*R f or
Error
∫Pdt
+ - I*dR Amplifier
Energy I*qR
External Control
Storage
Synchronous Voltage Source + Auxiliary + Inputs Slope + VR
Fig. 7.15 Control system scheme of the static synchronous compensator
The basic control loop of the external control is set up to regulate the
terminal voltage by means of controlling the reactive component of the output
current is shown in fig (7.15). The amplitude VT of the terminal voltage is
measured by the voltage measuring and processing circuits. This measured
voltage amplitude is compared with the reference voltage V R. The difference
between these two, the error signal V is amplified and processed in the error
processor and amplifier to provide the reference signal Q R for the reactive
output current. Power oscillation damping and the minimization of the first
rotational swing can be accomplished by the modulation of the reactive
component of output current, or by the modulation of the real component of
output current, or by the modulation of both. The control of the real power
exchange between the SSG and the AC system is done by modulating the real
component of the output current around zero (or around a fixed real power
reference). If the SSG is set to absorb from, or supply to, the AC system real
power during disturbances.
7.7.6.4 Importance of STATCOM or SSC:

(a) SSC or the static synchronous compensator acts like an ideal controlled
static condenser. It is able to maintain the maximum capacitive output
current at any system voltage down to zero. Its V-I characteristic is superior
to that obtainable the thyristor-controlled static VAR compensator whose
maximum capacitive output current decreases linearly with the system
voltage.
(b) Because of this V-I characteristic, the VA rating of the static
compensator, used for voltage support and transient stability improvement,
can be reduced significantly below that required for a static VAR
compensator.
(c) If the static compensator is equipped with a suitable energy storage
device, it can also be used for load leveling and the minimization of power
outages.
7.7.7 Static Synchronous Series Compensator (SSSC or

S3C):
The static synchronous series compensator SSSC is a static
synchronous generator connected as a series compensator whose output
voltage is in quadrature with the network voltage and controllable
independently of the line current for the purpose of increasing or decreasing
the overall reactive voltage drop across the line and thereby controlling the
transmitted electric power.
7.7.7.1 SSSC Components and Operation Principles:

It consists of a static synchronous generator SSG, provided with a DC
energy storage device and connected in series with the transmission line
through a current transformer as shown in fig. 7.16 (a). SSSC multi-pulse
inverter operating modes is illustrated in fig. 7.16(b). In general, the real and
reactive power exchange is controlled by the phase displacement of the
injected voltage with respect to the line current. For example, if the injected
voltage is in phase with the line current, then only real power is exchanged,
and if it is in quadrature with the line current then only reactive power is
exchanged. Its phasor diagram is shown in fig. (7.17).
The series-connected static synchronous generator is an extremely

powerful tool for power flow control and, it is able to control both the
transmission line impedance and angle. Its capability to exchange real power
with the AC system makes it much more effective than the conventional
thyristor-controlled series capacitive compensator in augmenting damping of
power oscillations. This is because it is not only able to change the series
reactive impedance of the line but also to alternately insert a virtual positive
and negative damping resistor in series with the line which directly affects the
Chapter 7 109
angular acceleration and deceleration of generators, during disturbances.

At AC Terminal
Vpq Iload
Transmission
Line Absorbs Q Absorbs Q
Insertion Vq Vpq
Transformer Iload
Iload
Vp
AC Terminal Absorbs P Supplies P
Supplies Q Supplies Q
Multi-Pulse Inverter
At DC Terminal
Idc Vdc
DC Terminal
+ - -Idc Idc +Vdc
Energy Storage Absorbs P Supplies P

(Positive Resistance (Negative Resistance
for the AC System) for the AC System)
(a) (b)
Fig. 7.16 Series static synchronous generator
(a) Configuration (b) Possible operating modes
Vpq Va
V0 +V0 VC
V0 VC V0 Va
V0
V0 Vpq
V0 V0 
V0 V0
V0 +V0+VC V0 +V0+Va

I
(a) (b) (c) (d) (e)
Fig. 7.17 Phasor diagram illustrating the general concept of:

(a) Series voltage injection
(b) Attainable power flow control functions terminal voltage regulation
(c) Terminal voltage and line impedance regulation
(d) Terminal voltage and phase angle regulation
(e) Simultaneous regulation of terminal voltage, line impedance, and
phase angle
7.7.7.2 Advantages of Series Static Synchronous Compensator

Over Traditional Series Capacitors:
The concept of using static synchronous generator for series reactive
compensation is based on the fact that the impedance versus frequency

characteristic of the conventionally employed series capacitor, in contrast to
filter applications, plays no part in accomplishing the desired line
compensation. The function of the series capacitor is simply to produce an
appropriate voltage at the fundamental frequency (50/60 Hz) in series with the
line to partially cancel the voltage drop developed across the inductive line
impedance by the fundamental component of the line current so that the
resultant total voltage drop of the compensated line becomes electrically
equivalent to that of a shorter line. Therefore, if an AC voltage source of
fundamental frequency, which is locked with a quadrature (lagging)
relationship to the line current and whose amplitude is made proportional to
that of the line current is injected in series with the line, a series compensation
equivalent to that provided by a series capacitor at the fundamental frequency
is obtained. Mathematically, this voltage source can be defined as follows:
V   jKXI  (7.7)
Where: V is the injected compensating voltage phasor, I is the current phasor,

X is the series inductive reactive line impedance, K is the degree of series
compensation.
For conventional series compensation, it is defined as:
V   jIKX c (7.8)
Where: Xc is the impedance of the series capacitor, and V/I is the voltage drop
by the capacitor current.
The series reactive compensation scheme based on this principle is shown in
fig. (7.18). The effect of this compensation on the transmittable power can be
seen from the expression for a simple two machine:
 V2 
P    sin 
 (7.9)
 X 1  K  
With K is a continuous variable (0<K<1), V is the terminal voltage,  is the
load angle, X is the inductive reactive series line reactance. For normal
capacitive compensation, the output voltage must lag the line current by 90
degrees, as illustrated in fig. (7.18), in order to directly oppose the inductive
voltage drop of the line impedance. However, the output voltage of the
inverter can be reversed by simple control action to make it lead the line
current by 90o. In this case, the injected voltage is in phase with the voltage
developed across the inductive line impedance and thus the series
compensation has the same effect as if the reactive line impedance was
increased. This capability can be exploited to increase the effectiveness of
Chapter 7 101
power oscillation damping and, with sufficient inverter rating; it can also be
used for fault current limitation.
VC
i CT Vac
Transmission
Line
Vac PT
I
VC
Multi-Pulse Inverter Control VC=-jkXLI

XL=XL() Line reactance
Vdc K=XC/XL =VC/IXL Degree of series compensation
k XC=Virtual 60Hz (capacitive) compensating impedance
+ -
Fig.7.18 Series capacitive compensators schematic diagram and
voltage/current phasors
Series compensation by a static synchronous compensator that can be

restricted to the fundamental frequency is superior to that obtained by series
capacitive compensation in that it is, with proper implementation, unable to
produce undesired electrical resonance’s with transmission network, and for
this reason it cannot cause sub-synchronous resonance. However, by suitable
controls it can damp sub-synchronous oscillations (due to existing series
capacitive compensation) by injection of fundamental voltage components
with appropriate amplitudes, frequencies, and phase angles, in addition to the
fundamental component, in series with the line.
7.7.7.3 Static Series Synchronous Compensator Controls:

The control scheme of the static series synchronous compensator has
two major functions. One function is to establish the desired series reactive
(capacitive or inductive) compensation. The second function is to modulate
the series reactive compensation, so as to improve transient system stability
and to provide power oscillation damping by injecting voltage inphase with
line currents. Basic control scheme for the static series synchronous
compensator SSSC to control reactive and real, line impedance and to
improve system stability is shown in fig. (7.19). If the SSSC is provided with
a DC energy storage device then its capability for transient stability
improvement and oscillation damping can be significantly enhanced. The
SSSC with its internal controls can be considered a perfect AC voltage
source, it is synchronized to the AC system and its output voltage can be
controlled with respect to the line current by two voltage reference inputs, V R
and ZR. Signal VR controls the output voltage component that is in quadrature
with the line current and therefore it determines the (capacitive or inductive)
reactive series compensation. It is derived as the product of the reference
impedance input ZR and the RMS amplitude of the line current I obtained via
the current measuring and processing circuits.
I L
CT
Z()
PT
Pm
IL VT
 V, 
Current Frequency
Measuring Variation
and or Power
Internal Processing Flow
AC Power System Inverter Circuits Measuring
Control Circuits
IL
+ Z*R f or
∫Pdt
+ - V*qR X
Energy V*dR
External Control
Storage
Solid-State Series Compensator + Auxiliary + Inputs + ZR
Fig. 7.19 Basic control scheme for static synchronous series compensator
Transient stability improvement and oscillation damping can be

achieved by modulating the reference ZR (which may be set to zero in steady
state). The static series synchronous compensator SSSC can also be used to
equalize the currents in parallel lines. A simple control loop can be added to
provide an error signal for changing the reference Z R so as to achieve the
desired current in each of the lines compensated.
7.7.7.4 Principle Advantages of SSSC FACTS:

(a) The static series synchronous compensator can provide controllable
series capacitive compensation without the inherent danger of sub-
synchronous resonance.
(b) Furthermore, because of its fast response, it can be effective in the
mitigation of sub-synchronous resonance caused by conventional series
capacitive compensation.
(c) Its capability to capacitive as well as inductive compensation makes it
highly effective in power oscillation damping and, with sufficient rating; it
may also be used for fault current limitation.
(d) When equipped with an energy storage device, it can insert virtual
positive and negative resistive impedance in series with the line, and thereby
it can dramatically improve the dynamic and transient stability of power
systems.
7.7.8 Unified Power Flow Controller (UPFC):

Chapter 7 101
A combination of a static shunt synchronous compensator

(STATCOM) and a static synchronous series compensator (SSSC), which are
coupled via a common DC link, to allow bi-directional flow of real power
between the series output terminals of the (SSSC) and the shunt output
terminals of the STATCOM and are controlled to provide real and reactive
series line compensation without an external electric energy source. Figure
(7.20) illustrates this device. The following power flow control functions can
be accomplished:
(a) Terminal voltage regulation.
(b) Series line compensation with terminal voltage control.
(c) Phase angle regulation with terminal voltage control.
(d) Terminal voltage regulation with series line compensation and phase
angle regulation.
The static synchronous generator represents a fundamentally different

approach to transmission angle control. The concept of unrestricted series
voltage injection, via the use a static synchronous generator opens up new
possibilities for power flow control. This approach allows not only the
combined application of phase angle control with controllable series reactive
compensations and voltage regulation, but also the real-time transition from
certain selected compensation mode into another one to handle particular
system contingencies more effectively. (For example, series reactive
compensation could be replaced by phase-angle control or vice versa). The
approach would also provide considerable operating flexibility by its inherent
adaptability to power system expansions and changes without any hardware
alterations.
Vpq
Input Transmission line I
Supply transformer Series transformer V0 V/0
Inverter 1 Inverter 2
DC Link
Cap.
GTO GTO
AC AC
DC DC
Measured variables VRef.

ZRef.
Parameter Control Ref.
settings QRef.
Fig. 7.20 Basic circuit of the unified power flow controller (UPFC)
The implementation problem of the unrestricted series compensation is

simply that of supplying or absorbing the real power that it exchanges with
the AC system at its AC terminals, to or from the DC input terminals of the
inverter employed in the static synchronous generator.
7.7.8.1 UPFC Operation and Control:

The implementation of the called unified power flow controller (UPFC)
employs two voltage-sourced inverters operated from a common DC link
capacitor; it is shown schematically as fig. (7.20). The implemented unified
power flow controller uses two "back-to-back" voltage-sourced inverters with
a common DC terminal capacitor or insertion transformer. The inverter output
voltage injected in series with the line acts essentially as an AC voltage
source. The current flowing through the injected voltage source is the
transmission line current; it is a function of the transmitted electric power and
the impedance of the transmission line. The VA rating of the injected voltage
source, (i.e., rating of transformer of inverter 2) is determined by the product
of the maximum injected voltage and the maximum line current.
The UPFC would be controlled to provide phase angle control and/or

direct real power exchange to stabilize the AC system. The internal control of
UPFC the solid-state power flow controller is structured so as to accept
externally derived reference signals, for the desired reactive shunt
compensation, and reactive series compensation for transmission angle, and
for output voltage. These reference signals are used in closed control-loops to
force the inverters to produce the AC voltages at the input (shunt-connected)
terminals and output (series-connected) terminals of the power flow
controller. The control also maintains the necessary DC link voltage and
ensures smooth real power transfer between the two inverters. It is evident
that if the unified power flow controller is operated only with the phase angle
reference input, it automatically becomes a perfect phase shifter.
7.7.8.2 Importance of UPFC FACTS:

The special arrangement of two static synchronous generators, one in
shunt connection and the other in series-connection, results in the novel
unified power flow controller. This arrangement can provide controlled
current or selectable voltage, impedance, and angle regulation. The
parameters selected for regulation can be changed without hard-ware
alteration, e.g., series reactive compensation can be changed or phase angle
regulation or vice versa, to adapt to particular short-term contingencies or
future system modifications.
Chapter 7 107
7.7.9 Thyristor Controlled Phase Shifting Transformer

(TCPST):
The phase-shifting transformer, illustrated by fig. (7.21) is a device
adjusted by thyristor switches to provide a rapidly variable phase angle.
Conventional thyristor-controlled tap-changing transformer provides the
phase shifting by injecting a voltage in quadrature with the line to neutral
system voltage. The magnitude of the injected voltage can be varied in a step-
like manner by the tap changing switch arrangement. Since the phase
relationship between the injected voltage and the line current is arbitrary, the
phase shifter must, in general, be able to exchange (supply or absorb) both
real power and VAR's.
Since the tap changing transformer type phase shifter has no internal
capability to generate or absorb either, it follows that both the real power and
VAR's, it supplies to, or absorbs from, the line when it injects quadrature
voltage must be absorbed from it, or supplied to it, by the AC system. To
avoid the voltage variation associated with the reactive power flow, this type
of phase shifters often require the voltage support of a controllable VAR
source, such as a static VAR compensator.
Fast Switch for Bypass
753 A
150 MVA Load
T1 T3 T7 T5
TS TS
Fast Switch for

Reverse Polarity
115 kV
Exciting Transformer
(As element can also be WYE connected)
Fig. 7.21 Thyristor Controlled Phase Shifting Transformer (TCPST)
7.7.10 Thyristorised Load Tap-Changing Transformers

(TLTCT):
This is the more recent technology for changing the transformers taps
automatically on load condition. It will replace the ancient resistor or reactor
combination method with complicated long sequence of tap changing on load.
Transformer coil is divided into segments; two anti parallel thyristors shunts
each of them. If these two anti-parallel thyristors are fully on, the segment is
energized. If they are fully off, the segment is denergized. Figure (7.22)
shows a schematic diagram of such TLTCT arrangements.
Tapped
Transformer Load
Fig. 7.22 A schematic diagram of a thyristor on-load tap changing

transformer (TLTCT)
6.7.11 Interphase Power Controller (IPC):

Interphase power controller consists, in each phase, of inductive and
capacitive branches subjected to separately phase-shifted voltages. The active
and reactive power can be set independently by adjusting the phase shifts
and/or the branch impedance’s, using mechanical or electronic switches, fig.
(7.23) shows the components of this device.
VsB
R side S side VB1
a
IB1
IrA

S side
) IB2 sr
VrA
R side
b VB2
VsA
c
Fig. 7.23 Inter-phase power controller (IPC)
7.7.12 Thyristor Controlled Voltage Limiter (TCVL):

A thyristor-switched metal-oxide varistor (MOV) used to limit the
voltage across its terminals during transient conditions. These voltage limiters
are usually used with series capacitors protection as well as with the field
windings of the AC alternators. Figure (7.24) shows a schematic diagram for
such voltage limiters.
Generator
Varistor
Field
Armature
 Varistor
(a) (b)
Spark gap
Chapter 7 101
Fig.7.24 schematic diagram for thyristor controlled voltage limiters

(a) For series capacitors (b) For AC generator DC field windings
7.7.13 Load Series Voltage Controllers (LSVC):
Load series voltage controllers consist of two anti parallel thyristors (or
thyristor groups connected in series) used to control the large or important or
repetitively variable loads voltages. Figure (7.25) shows one of these load
series voltage controllers. Voltages are also controlled for loads, which
require variable voltages during their operative cycles. Controlled GTO
thyristors with variable firing angles will be extensively used for important
loads applying these voltage controllers in the near future.
a
b
c
Three-phase
supply
Control system
VLoad
Zload Zload Zload
Firing angles
Fig. 7.25 Thyristorised three-phase load series voltage controllers
7.7.14 Thyristor Controlled Series Capacitor (TCSC):

It is a capacitive reactance compensator which consists of a series
capacitor bank shunted by thyristor controlled reactor TCR, in order to
provide a smoothly variable series capacitive reactance. It is shown in fig.
(7.26). The fixed series capacitors are provided so as to guarantee service
continuity during control actions.
Fig. 7.26 Thyristor controlled series capacitor (TCSC)
7. 7.15 Thyristor Switched Series Capacitor (TSSC):

It is a capacitive reactance compensator, which comprises a series
capacitor bank shunted by a thyristor switched reactor TSR to provide a step-
wise control of series capacitive reactance, fig (7.26) represents also this
device. The same concept of service continuity by fixed series capacitor is

made. Thyristor phase angles are either (0o, 180o) or without any gating at all.
7.7.16 Thyristor Controlled Series Reactor (TCSR):
Figure (7.27) shows an inductive reactance compensator, which is
composed of a series reactor, shunted by a thyristor-controlled reactor TCR,
in order to provide a smoothly variable series inductive reactance. Series
fixed reactor is provided to have continual service during control periods.
Fig. 7.27 Thyristor controlled or switched series reactor (TCSR)

schematic diagram
7.7.17 Thyristor Switched Series Reactor (TSSR):

An inductive reactance compensator, which consists of a series fixed
reactor shunted by thyristor switched reactor TSR, in order to provide a step-
wise control of series inductive reactance, it has no control, either fully on or
fully off and it has the same schematic diagram of fig. (7.27).
7.7.18 Thyristor Controlled Series Compensation

Circuits (TCSCC):
It is an impedance compensator, which is applied in series on an AC
transmission system to provide smooth control of series reactance as shown in
fig. (7.28). Series capacitors and reactors are used. Some of them are fixed,
others are controlled by thyristors such as TCR's.
7.7.19 Thyristor Switched Series Compensation Circuits

(TSSCC):
It is an impedance compensator, which is applied in series on an AC
transmission system to provide a step-wise control of series reactance’s
(either inductive or capacitive). No thyristor control is required. Only
thyristors are used as switches. They are either fully off or fully on. Figure
(7.28) shows a schematic diagram of such device.
Fig. 7.28 Thyristor controlled or switched series compensation circuits

(TSSCC)
Chapter 7 199
7.7.20 Battery Energy Storage System (BESS):

A chemical-based energy storage system using shunt connected,
voltage source converters of energy, which is supplied to or absorbed from an
AC system. The uninterruptable power-supply (UPS) is the more typical
version of such systems. Figure (7.29) shows the configurations of such
UPS's. Mainly it consists of a rectifier, an inverter and a battery and a reversal
automatically operating switch. During presence of supply, the rectifier
charges the battery. When supply drops, the battery operates the inverter to
covert its DC to the AC supply. This is done by the reversal switch.
Power flow Normally on
Normally off
AC Rectifier
DC/AC Inverter
Main
Supply
Static
Switches Critical
Load
Batteries
Fig. 7.29 UPS system configuration
7.7.21 Superconducting Magnetic Energy Storage

(SMES):
The superconducting electromagnetic energy device contains electronic
converters that rapidly injects reactive power to the system. Figure (7.30)
shows a schematic diagram of the superconducting magnetic energy storage.
It consists of a DC bridge and a coil working in the superconducting condition
with special cooling system.
Idc (DC current)
Super-
conductive
coil
Three-phase
system
Fig. 7.30 Schematic diagram of superconducting magnetic energy storage
This device may be the energy storage reservoir of the previously

mentioned static synchronous generators or static series synchronous
compensation (SSSC). Cooling system is required to achieve the super
conductivity state of the device coil. Having state of super conductivity at the
ambient temperature is the dream of the power systems engineers.
7.8 FACTS Representation in Steady-State System

Studies:
Each shunt or series FACTS element can be represented by an
equivalent variable susceptance Bc, given by (7.1) or by other formula for
each FACTS type. The value of Bc is a function in thyristors firing angles and
in controller’s parameters, which create these firing angles. However
changing both series and shunt elements lead to change in voltage phase
angles at system nodes and inherently change the power flow direction.
Figure (7.1) shows the actual and the equivalent representation of a

static VAR compensator, which are the most famous FACTS known to day.
In general, these devices can be simulated as an automatically adjustable
admittance "Bcm" in function of the input signals of the controllers of the
thyristor, yielding a reactive power BcmV2 equal to the actual I2X, where: I is
the actual flowing reactive current magnitude and X is the fixed compensator
reactance.
7.9 Static Synchronous Generators Modeling:

The inertia less model used previously for static VAR compensators
and generators can be used here for SSG modeling. Only the value of K will
range between (0 to 2) or more. This is shown in fig. (7.31) CIGRE model of
variable susceptances B can be used also, but with different controller gains.
VT
ْjBs GL ْjX
BL
Es kV
System Load SSG

Chapter 7 191
Fig 7.31 Static synchronous generator modeling

7.10 Future Applications of FACTS:
Some FACTS are currently in use such as SVC's of various
configurations, STATCOM (1995 at Sullivan, USA "100MVAR", 1997 in
Inuyama Japan "80MVAR"), UPFC (Inez, USA 1997, "170MVAR"),
TSSC/TCSC (Slatt, USA 1993 Kanawa River). It is expected that in the near
future static synchronous generators, which are pure electronic devices, will
replace the static VAR compensators in order to eliminate completely the
reactors, which have energy losses and requires cooling, and suffer from
forces problems during short circuit periods.
On the other hand controlled series capacitors or circuits and switched

series capacitors or circuits will found more applications in practice. The
unified power flow controller (UPFC) will be used extensively to control load
flow without any physical manipulating in network elements or circuits.
superconducting magnetic energy storage (SMES) will be used extensively
for stabilization of power systems and for other recent uses with static
synchronous generators or with static series synchronous compensator.
Recent advances in high power semiconductor technology resulted in

gate turn-off (GTO) thyristors of sufficient rating to realize high power
inverters. More advanced devices, such as the (MOS) controlled thyristor
(MCT) are under development. These devices combined with recent
developments in power circuit topology and control techniques, as well as
developments in control theory, will enable new FACTS generations to
appear.
7.11 FACTS Effects on Systems Stability and Security:

It is a well-established practice to use reactive power compensation to
increase the transmittable power in AC power systems. Fixed or mechanically
switched capacitors and reactors have long been employed to increase the
steady-state power transmission by controlling the voltage profile along the
lines. During the last decade it has been convincingly proved that both the
transient and dynamic stabilities (i.e., first swing stability and damping of the
power system oscillations) can be improved, and voltage collapse can be
prevented, if the reactive compensation of the transmission lines is made
rapidly variable by static, thyristor switches and electronic control.
In recent years, the need for fast reactive compensation in power

transmission systems has become increasingly evident. Power exportation and
importation require the interconnection of power systems into unified grids, in
which individual transmission systems may play no other part but to "wheel"
the power from the exporting system to the importing one. Their impedance
determines the power flow in the individual lines of the transmission grid and
it often cannot be restricted to the desired power corridors. As a consequence,
power flow loops develop and certain lines become overloaded, with the
overall effect of deteriorating voltage profiles and decreased system stability.
FACTS present new concepts that allow the full utilization of existing power
generation and transmission facilities without decreasing system availability
and security. They perform power flow control using static synchronous
generators for shunt compensation, series compensation, and phase angle
control and prevent system instabilities and lead to more system security.
7.12 Summary:
Implementation of static synchronous generators, static synchronous
compensators, static synchronous phase shifters and unified power flow
controllers will result in a significant reduction in equipment size and
installation labor, as well as in eliminating the reactors and power capacitors
associated with losses and heating. Furthermore, the uniform all electronic
devices can greatly reduce manufacturing cost and time by allowing the use of
standard, pre-fabricated power inverter modules for different applications.
The static electronic series devices offer fast responses and damp power
system oscillations and counter measure the harmful subsynchronous
resonance problems initiated by traditional series capacitors or of HVDC
systems in AC networks.
Problems
7.1 What are the meanings of flexible AC systems?
7.2 What are the elements of any flexible AC transmission system?
7.3 What is the difference between controlled and switched elements?
7.4 What will be the future of applications of the FACTS?
7.5 Static synchronous generators will soon replace static VAR
compensators. Explain?
7.6 What are the main differences between static VAR generators and static
VAR compensators and static synchronous generators?
7.7 Describe all known schemes of FACTS
Chapter 7 191
7.8 What is the role of FACTS in power systems voltage control?

7.9 Give the future expected applications of the FACTS.
7.10 What is the effect of FACTS on synchronous and voltage stability?
7.11 Neutralization systems reduce FACTS harmonics. Explain?
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[19] Mehta, H., et al, “Static Condenser for Flexible AC Transmission Sys-
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[20] G. D. Galanos, "Advanced Static Compensator for Flexible AC
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conference, Swan Sea, UK, September 2001.
 Unified Power Flow, Phase shifters:
[29] L. Gyugyi, "A Unified Power Flow Control Concept for Flexible AC
Transmission Systems", lEE Proceedings part C, Vol.139, No.4, July
1992.
[30] Mehta, H., et al, "Unified Power Flow Controller for Flexible AC
Transmission Systems", EPRI Flexible AC Transmission System
(FACTS) Conference, 18-20 May 1992, Boston, MA.
[31] L. Gyugyi, C. D. Schauder, S. L. Williams, T. R. Reitman, D. R.
Torgerson, A. Edris, "The Unified Power Flow Controller: A New
Approach to Power Transmission Control", IEEE Transactions on
Power delivery, Vol. 10, No. 2, April 1995, pp.1085-1097.
 Interphase Power Controller IPC:
[32] J. Brouchu, P. Pelletier, G. Beauregard, G. Morin, "Interphase Power
Controller Adaptive to the Operating Conditions of Networks", IEEE
Trans. on Power Delivery, Vol. 10, No. 2, April 1995, pp. 961-969.
 Controlled Transformers and Loads Voltage Control and
Voltage Limiters:
[33] J.R. Hamann, S. A. Miske, I. B. Jonson, A. L. Courts, "A Zinc Oxide
Varistor Protective System for Series Capacitors", IEEE Trans. on
Power Apparatus and Systems, Vol. PAS-100, March 1981, pp.929-937
[34] S. Nyatti et al, "Design Issues for A Single Core Transformer
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Compensation (ASC) with Thyristor Controlled Impedance", CIGRE
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[36] Chamia, M., and Angquist, L., "Thyristor-Controlled Series Capacitor

Design and Field Tests", EPRI Flexible AC Transmission System
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[37] A. J.E. Kari, R.A. Byron, B. J. War, A.S. Mehhraban , M. Chamia, P.
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[38] Juette, G., et al., "Advanced Series Compensation (ASC)-Main Circuit
and Related Components", EPRI Flexible AC Transmission System
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[39] J. Urbanek, R. Piwki, E. Larsen, B. Damsky, B. Furumasu, W.
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[40] L. Gyugi, C. D. Schauder, K. K. Sen, "Static Synchronous Series
Compensators: A Solid-State Approach to the Series Compensation of
Transmission Lines", IEEE/PES Winter Power Meeting Baltimore,
MD, January 1996.
[41] M. Noroozian et al., "Improving Power System Dynamics by Series-
Connected FACTS Devices", IEEE Trans. on Power Delivery, Vol. 12,
No. 4, October 1997.
 SMES –BESS(UPS):
[42] Yoshishige and Masataro, "Identification of Control System of
Superconducting Magnet", IEEE Transaction on Magnetic, Vol. MAG.
17, No.1, January 1981.
[43] E. Hoffmann et al., "Design of the BPA Superconducting 30 MJ
Energy Storage Coil", IEEE Trans. on Magnetic, Vol. MAG. 17, No.1,
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Superconducting Coil", IEEE Transaction on Power Apparatus and
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[45] J. F. Hauer, H. J. Boeing, "Control Aspects of The TACOMA
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[46] I. M. El-Amin and M. Mushtaq Hussain, "Application of A
Superconducting Coil for Transient Stability Enhancement", Electric
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[47] Y. S. Lee, "Application of Superconducting Magnetic Energy Storage
Unit Damping of Turbogenerator Subsynchronous Oscillation", IEE
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Chapter 7 191
[49] Griffith David C, "Uninterruptible Power Supplies", Marcel Dekker,

1989.
[50] Chapter 6 ''Static VAR Compensators'' references.
Chapter 8 912
Chapter 8
HVDC Systems Operation and Control
8.1 Introduction:
High voltage direct current HVDC systems are widely used in power
systems transmission industry. They solve most of power system synchronous
stability with long distance transmission of electric power from waterfalls
hydraulic generation stations to large load centers. They are the only means of
power transmission in the cases of connection of different frequency areas,
connection of areas having different control systems philosophies and
connection of areas with under sea connections between their countries and
Islands. Also, DC transmissions save conductors, towers and eliminate
inductance and virtual capacitances from transmission links calculations.
Recent progress of industrial electronic devices, circuits and controls
encouraged strongly the use of HVDC systems. The ease of power control of
HVDC systems by firing angle variations is another important factor. The
progress of power electronics will also solve the problem of the DC circuit
breakers and large power capacities will be available in the near future.
Recently the problems of the multi-terminal HVDC systems have found

several solutions. They are displayed in this chapter.
8.2 Historical:
Initial applications of electricity were lighting and traction, utilizing
DC in relatively confined geographical locations that did not required
transmission distances. The early designed lighting supply stations installed
by Edison on 1882 in London (80kW at 110V), in New York (600kW at
110V), and the London underground supply of 600kW at 500V. They were all
DC power stations. In 1890 since 1891 and invention of AC transformers, the
three-phase AC transmission lines were built every where. While it seems
obvious to us now that AC should be the predominant means of power
transmission, this was not so obvious in the 1890’s. Edison’s Pearl street
station which was indeed 110V DC, and the Edison-Westing-House debates
between DC and AC transmission a forward by the invention of AC power
transformer. Concurrently, the thury system of series connected DC machines
found acceptance in Europe-at least 19 of these were installed between 1880
and 1911.
220 HVDC Systems Operation and Control
Table 8.1 Main HVDC systems in service or under construction
Ref Project MW kV Km Date Main purpose

1 Vancouver Island 312  260 74 1969
(NDC) 470 -280 74 1979 Underwater
2 Nelson River (CDN) 1620  450 890 1973 Transmission
900  250 937 1978
3 Pacific Intertie (US) 1600  400 1362 1970
2000  500 --- 1985 Overhead
4 Square Butte (US) 500  250 750 1977 transmission
5 Cu Power (US) 1000  400 910 1979
6 Intermountain (US) 1600  500 800 1987
7 Eel River (CDN) 320 802 --- 1972
8 Kingsnorth (GB) 640  266 82 1974
9 David A. Hamil USA 100 50 --- 1977
10 Vyborg (USSR- 170  853 --- 1982
Finland)
11 Eddy County (USA) 200 80 0 1983
12 Oklaunion (US) 200 82 --- 1984 Asynchronous
13 Chateauguay (CDN) 1000 140 0 1984 tie
14 Madawaska (CDN) 350 144 --- 1985
15 Highgate (US) 200 56 --- 1985
16 Walker County (US) 500  400 255 1985
17 Miles City (US) 200 80 0 1985
18 Vindhyachal (India) 500 70 --- 1988
19 Quebec-New England 690  450 175 1986
2070  450 375 1992
20 Cabora Bassa-Apollo 1920  533 1414 1979
(MOC-ZA)
21 Inga Shaba (ZAIRE) 560  500 1700 1982
22 Itaipu (BR) 1575  300 806 1984
23 Cross Ch. 2 (GB-F) 2000  540 72 1986
24 Cantons-Camerford 690  450 175 1986
25 Rihand-Delhi (India) 1000  500 1000 1987 Overhead
26 South Finland East 420 350 220 1990 transmission
Sweden
27 Liberty Mead (US) 2200  500 400 1990
28 Chicoasen (MEX) 1800  500 720 1990
29 Gezhouba-Nan Qiao 1200  500 1080 1991
(China)
30 Nelson River Bipole 2000  500 930 1997
Chapter 8 991
They were curiously similar to modern day HVDC system having

series connected converter bridges at both ends of the link. Therefore, the idea
of the DC transmission systems dates to the last two centaries. By 1930 the
way paved for the introduction of AC-DC converters and hence the use of DC
links within an essentially AC system such as the 20MW, 100kV, 100km
underwater cable between Gotland and Mainland, Sweden, which entered the
service in 1954. Until 1970, the converter stations utilized mercury arc valves
for rectification. The successful use of thyristors for power control in
industrial devices encouraged its adoption in HVDC converters, afterwards.
The first HVDC system using thyristor valves was the Eel River
scheme commissioned in 1972, terming a 320MW back-to-back DC (40kV,
2000A) interconnection between the power systems of the Canadian
Provinces of New Brunswick and Quebec. The more recent Nelson River Bi-
pole 2 in Canada, established in 1997 on HVDC link of power 2000MW,
 500kV, 1800A, 930km using thyristor, water cooled and air insulated. The
largest device rating is now in the range of (  450kV, 2070MW) in Quebec-
New England 375km Overhead line established in 1992. More than 20 of
operational DC links are now in service worldwide. In North America in
Canada, in Russia, in Africa, in Asia, in China, in Japan and in north and
south Europe, several other projects have been or are under active
consideration. Briefly the salient projects are given in table (8.1).
Largest future international HVDC system is projected to install the

largest hydraulic power station in Zaier, Africa, because of the excessive
rainfalls at the region and their water are totally lost in South Atlantic Ocean.
The location of that station is shown in the geographical map shown in
fig.(8.1). The generated power will be transmitted through four Main DC lines
to the three continents: Africa, Asia and Europe. The inter continental four
lines will have the following ways:
(a) The first starts from Zaier to Sudan to Egypt, under sea to
Jordan to Syria - to Turkey - Romania - Yugoslavia to Italy to
France to Spain. This line will be extended from Syria to Iraq to
Kuwait to Qatar to Arabic U.A.E to Oman to Yemen to Saudi
Arabia and back to Jordan.
(b) The second one: starts from Zaier to Kongo to Gabon to
Cameroon to Nigeria to Benin to Togo to Ghana to Coute D'Ivoire
to Ghenia to Senegal to Mauritania to Morocco to Spain to France to
Italy to Yugoslavia to Romania and back to Turkey.
(c) The third one: starts from Zaier to Congo to Cameroon to
Nigeria to Niger to Mali to Algeria to Morocco (Ribat) to Spain to
Europe. A branch will be taken to Algeria to Tunisia and undersea
to Italy and from Tunisia to Libya to Egypt, parallel to the
Mediterranean seashore.
(d) The fourth one: starts from Zaier to republic of Middle Africa
to Chad to Sudan and back to the first line at Aswan in Egypt.
Egypt will be connected to Libya to Tunisia to Morocco. Three
connections between Africa and Europe: The first between Morocco and
Spain, the second between Tunisia and Italy and the third between Egypt to
Jordan to Syria to Turkey and Europe. Three other DC lines will transmit a
projection of that power to the southern countries of Africa, to form a multi-
terminal African DC network by three circuits.
(a) The first through: Zaier to Angola to Namibia to South Africa.
(b) The second is through Zaier to Uganda to Kinia to Tanzania to
Mouzambiek to Zimbabwe to Zambia to South Africa (Britoria).
(c) The third one is through Zaier to Zambia to Zimbabwe to
Botswana to South Africa (Britoria). Africa will be connected to Asia
by the interconnection Egypt to Jordan, to Iraq and Iraq to Iran and
Jordan to Saudi Arabia to Golf Emirate from the Asian extensions.
Line (2) Line (1)

Zaier 2 Turkey Zaier
Kongo Sudan
Gabon
Morocco
3 Egypt
Cameroon Senegal Jordan
Nigeria Syria
Benin Turkey
Togo Egypt
Saudi Romania
Ghana Yugoslavia
Senegal Arabic Italy
Mauritania 4 France
Morocco Spain
Spain Syria
France Iraq
Italy 1 Kuwait
Yugoslavia Qatar
Romania Arabic UAE
Turkey Oman
Yemen
Saudi Arabic
Line (3) Zaier Jordan
Zaier
Congo
Cameroon Line (4)
Nigeria Zaier
Niger R.M. Africa
Mali Chad
Algeria Sudan
Morocco Egypt
Spain (Aswan)
Fig. 8.1 The three continent HVDC systems connections
8.3 AC and DC Transmission Systems:

Chapter 8 992
Two modes of transmission systems are now considered by system

planners (AC, and DC). Comparison between these two systems are based on
the following:
8.3.1 Economics of Power Transmission:

The cost of a transmission line includes the investment and operational
costs. The investment includes costs of right of way (row), transmission
towers, conductors, insulators and terminal equipment. The operational costs
include mainly the cost of losses. For lines designed with the same insulation
level, a DC line can carry as much power with two conductors as an AC line
with three conductors of the same size. This implies that for a given power
level, DC line requires less (row), less losses (about 67% of that for AC with
same current carrying capacity of conductors), simpler and cheaper towers
and reduced conductor and insulator costs. The absence of skin effect with
DC is also beneficial in reducing power losses marginally. The dielectric
losses in case of power cables are also very less for DC transmission than for
AC ones.
Figure (8.2) shows the variation of costs of transmission with distance

for AC and DC transmission. AC tends to be more economical than DC for
distance less than (breakeven) distance and costlier for longer distances. The
breakeven distances can vary from (500 to 800) km. in overhead lines
depending on the per unit line costs. On the other hand, figure (8.3) shows the
power capacity with distance for both AC and DC systems. DC systems can
have more capacities for longer distances owing to control facilities of
converters to overcome voltage drops in long DC lines.
AC Power
Cost
DC DC
Break-even
AC
Distance Distance
Fig. 8.2 Cost/Distance relation Fig. 8.3 Power capacity with

of AC and DC line distance of AC and DC line
8.3.2 Technical Performance:

The DC transmission has some positive features, which are lacking in
AC transmission, which are:
(a) Full control over power transmitted.
(b) Enhancement of transient stability in associated AC systems.

(c) Fast control to limit fault currents in DC lines, which makes it feasible
to avoid DC breakers in two terminal DC links.
(d) No participation in system short circuit levels.
8.3.3 Stability Limits:
Power transfer in AC lines is dependent on the angle difference
between the voltage phasors at the two ends. This angle increases with
distance. The maximum power transfer is limited by the considerations of
steady state and transient stability. The power carrying capability of an AC
line as a function of distance is less than that of DC line after certain value as
shown in fig. (8.3). No stability limits exist with DC lines.
8.3.4 Voltage Control:

The line charging and inductive voltage drops complicate the voltage
control in AC lines. The maintenance of constant voltages at the two ends
requires reactive power control from inductive to capacitive as the line
loading is increased. The reactive power requirements increase with the
increase in line lengths. Although DC converter stations require reactive
power related to the line loading, the line itself does not require reactive
power. Voltage can be easily controlled in DC network through thyristors
firing angles of rectifiers and inverters.
8.3.5 Line Compensation:

AC lines require shunt and series compensation in long distance
transmission, mainly to overcome the problems of line charging and stability
limitations. The increase in power transfer and voltage control is also possible
through the use of static VAR compensators (SVC’s). In AC cable
transmission, it is necessary to provide shunt compensation at regular
intervals. This is impossible with underwater cables. Use of DC is obligatory
in this case, as DC lines do not require any intermediate compensation.
8.3.6 AC and DC Interconnections:

When two power systems are connected through AC ties (synchronous
interconnection), the automatic generation control (AGC) of both systems has
to be coordinated using tie-line power and frequency signals. The operation of
AC ties can be problematic due to:
(a) Presence of power oscillations which can lead to frequent tripping.
(b) Increase in fault level.
(c) Transmission of disturbances from one system to the other.
(d) Presence of different control techniques in adjacent systems.
Chapter 8 992
For asynchronous DC ties, there is no need of coordinated control, and

any two systems, of different nominal frequencies, cannot be interconnected
directly with AC ties and necessitates the use of DC links.
8.3.7 Ground Impedance:

In AC transmission, the existence of ground (zero sequence) current
cannot be permitted in steady state due to high magnitudes of ground
impedance which will not only affect efficient power transfer, but also result
in telephone interference and in dangerous step voltages. The ground
impedance is negligible for DC currents and a DC link can operate using one
conductor with ground return as in Mono-polar DC systems operation.
8.4 Disadvantages of DC Transmission:

DC transmission applications are limited due to the following factors:
(a) High cost of DC breakers and converters.
(b) Change of voltage levels requires costlier choppers.
(c) Generation of harmonics, which require AC and DC filters.
(d) Sophistication of control, with costlies telemetering techniques.
(e) Reactive power requirements at both ends are high, which necessitates
using static VAR compensators at both ends with excessive ratings and
costs.
8.5 Reliability of DC Systems:

Reliability of DC transmission systems is quite good and comparable to
that of AC systems. The performance of thyristor valves is much more
reliable than mercury arc valves and further developments in devices, control
and protection is likely to improve the reliability level. There are two
measures of over all system reliability: Energy availability and transient
reliability. Both energy availability and transient reliability of existing DC
systems with thyristor valves is 95% or more. In the event of a fault on one
pole (+ or – conductor) of a DC system, earth return can be utilized to carry
the current of the healthy pole, and in excess of 50% of rated power can be
transmitted. Further, since most DC systems are series connected converter
bridges, operation with reduced voltage can be achieved, if pollution caused
insulator flashover at nominal system voltage.
8.6 Necessities of Using DC Transmission:

DC transmission is necessary and obligatory used in:

(a) Interconnection of AC systems operating at different frequencies
(50/60Hz).
(b) Interconnection of AC systems operating with different control
techniques.
(c) Underground or underwater cables longer than 30km.
(d) With AC systems with very high short-circuit levels.
(e) Long distance bulk power transmission for more than 800km.
8.7 DC Transmission System Connections:

The DC links are classified into three main types, the basic
configurations of three main types are shown in fig. (8.4). Mono-polar links
(fig. 8.4(a)), which has one conductor usually of negative polarity and uses
ground or sea-return. Instead of ground return, a metallic return may be used
in situations where the earth resistivity is too high or possible interference
with underground/underwater metallic structures is objectionable. Bipolar link
(fig. 8.4(b)) is that which has two conductors, one positive and the other
negative. Each terminal has two sets of converters of identical ratings. The
two poles can operate independently.
(-)
AC (+) AC
System System
Optional
(a)
(+)
AC AC
System ( ) ( ) System
(-)
(b)
(-)
AC
(+) (+) AC
System
System
(-)
(c)
Chapter 8 992
A bipolar HVDC line is considered to be effectively equivalent to a double

circuit AC transmission line. Homo-polar link (fig. 8.4(c)) is that which has
two or more conductors all having the same polarity (usually negative), and
always operated with ground or metallic return. Because of the desirability of
operating a DC link without ground return, bipolar links are most commonly
used. Homo-polar link has the advantage of reduced insulation costs, but the
disadvantages of earth return outweigh that advantage.
8.8 Two-Terminals DC Links Components:

The principle components of an HVDC transmission system are
converter stations and DC transmission link. A point to point transmission
requires two converter stations. The role of rectifier and inverter station can
be reversed (resulting in power reversals) by suitable converter control. The
main components of a bipolar HVDC system are shown in fig. (8.5). The
following is a brief description of each component.
8.8.1 Converters:
They perform AC/DC and DC/AC conversion, consist of valve bridges
and transformers with tap changers. Converter transformers connected in
star/star and star/delta arrangements feed the converter. The ratings of a valve
group are limited more by the permissible short circuits than steady state load
requirement.
AC power AC power
system #1 DC DC system #2
smoothing smoothing
reactor reactor Circuit
Converter breaker
Id
Y/Y Y/Y
Transformer Transformer
Earthling Electrodes
Y/   /Y
DC line
AC filter DC filter Inverter
Rectifier DC filter AC filter
static VAR static VAR
compensator compensator
(SVC) (SVC)
Valve firing signals are generated in the converter control at ground potential
and are transmitted to each thyristor in the valve through a fiber-optic light
guide system. Rectifier and inverter are controllable by firing circuits
generation.
8.8.2 Converters Transformer:

Converters transformer may be either: Three-phase two winding, or
single phases three winding, or single phases two winding. The leakage
reactance of the transformer is chosen to limit the short circuit currents
through any valve. The converter transformer is designed to withstand DC
voltage stresses and increased eddy current losses due to harmonic currents.
8.8.3 Harmonic Filters:

Three types of filters are usually used: AC, DC filters and High
Frequency (HF) filters. AC filters are passive circuits used to provide low
impedance shunt paths for AC harmonic currents. Both single tuned and
damped filter arrangements are used for AC harmonic filtering. DC filters are
used for filtering of DC harmonics. High frequency (HF) or damped filters are
connected between the converter transformer and the station AC bus, to
suppress any high frequency currents.
8.8.4 Reactive Power Compensators:

Converter stations require reactive power supplies which ratings
dependent on the active power loading (about 50 to 60 % of the active
power). AC filters provide part of this capacitive reactive power requirement.
In addition, shunt capacitors, synchronous condensers or recently static VAR
systems are used depending on the speed of control desired. Reactive power
sources are essential components with DC systems and must be provided at
both AC converter terminals.
8.8.5 Smoothing Reactors:

A sufficiently large series reactor is used on DC sides to smooth DC
current and also for protection against faults in a DC line. The reactor is
designed as a linear reactor and is connected on the line side, neutral side, or
at intermediate location.
Chapter 8 992
8.8.6 Electrodes:
The connection to the earth requires a large surface area conductor to
minimize current densities and surface voltage gradients. If it is necessary to
restrict the current flow through the earth, a metallic return conductor may be
provided as part of the DC line.
8.8.7 DC Lines:
Overhead lines or cables, DC lines are very similar to AC lines, except
for the number of conductors and spacing required as well as insulators
numbers. Towers are different than those with AC lines.
8.8.8 AC Circuit Breakers:

For clearing faults in the transformers and for taking the DC link out of
service. They are not used for clearing DC faults, since these faults can be
cleared more rapidly by converter control actions.
8.8.9 Controllers:
Both rectifiers and inverters are provided with sophisticated control
systems. P, PI, and PID controllers are used. Recent control systems include
voltage dependent current order limits (VDCOL), compensators and firing
angles calculators in sinusoid forms cos or cos . DC current controllers are
also used. Local controllers are provided for each side. A master control
controlling the two sides simultaneously is a must.
8.8.10 Telecommunication System:

Coordination of controls between rectifier and inverter stations
necessitates efficient telecommunication systems, with which microwaves,
optical fibers, coaxial cables are used. Not seen in fig. (8.5), these systems
should be provided to each HVDC system.
8.8.11 Protection System:

Not seen in fig. (8.5), a sophisticated protection system should be used
with HVDC systems. All new protection systems are applied with such
systems.
8.9 HVDC Systems Configurations:

HVDC systems have two forms: HVDC transmission systems and
back-to-back HVDC systems. HVDC transmission systems are used for long
distance bulk power transmission or for interconnection between two adjacent
systems, with different frequencies or for existence of under seas

interconnections.
While Back-to-Back systems are used mainly for adjacent systems with
different frequencies or adjacent systems with different control techniques
8.10 HVDC Loadability Features:

HVDC systems are used with heavy loadabilities, because of the high
costs of the DC converters, the sophisticated controls, the sophisticated
telemetering and telecommunication systems. Recent types of thyristors and
their implementation require excessive investments, which corresponds to
heavy loadability. HVDC systems loads range between hundreds of MW's up
to several Gigawatts. Feasibility of such loadability should be assured
economically and technically.
8.11 DC to AC Losses:
A DC transmission system when compared with a three phase AC
system transmitting the same power and having the same size of conductor.
The ratio of AC line loss to the corresponding DC loss is 1.333, assuming
equal power transfer and equal peak voltages for both options.
8.12 Operation of Converter Circuits:

Figure (8.5) shows the three-phase bridge used with HVDC systems
identifying main components. Most two-terminal HVDC links involving lines
are bipolar, with mono-polar operation used only during contingencies. They
are normally designed to provide maximum independence between poles to
avoid bipolar shutdowns, due to the inductance Lc of the AC source.

  Anode voltage of valve 1

after commutation
ea eb
Common anode voltage of
valve 1 and 3 during A
commutation ea  eb 2
t
A
0 3
A0
Fig. 8.6 Voltage waveforms showing the effect of overlap during
commutation
Chapter 8 921
The transfer of current from one phase to another requires a finite time, called
the commutation time or overlap time. The corresponding overlap or
commutation angle is denoted by , shown in fig. (8.6). During each
commutation period, the current in the incoming valve increases from (0 to
Id), and the current in the outgoing valve reduces from (Id to 0).
In normal operation, the overlap angle is less than 60; typical full load
values are in the range of (15o to 25o). If (60o    120o), an abnormal mode
of operation occurs in which alternately three and four valve conduct. In
fig.(8.6) the effect of the overlap is measured by subtracting an area A  from
the area Ao, once every 60o (/3rad). The voltage reduction due to
commutation overlap, the corresponding average voltage drop (due to
overlap) is given by, Vd=3A/ then:
Vdo
Vd  cos  cos  (8.1)
2
3 
Or: Vd   Lc  I d (8.2)
 
With commutation overlap and ignition delay, the direct voltage is given by:
Vd  Vdo cos  Vd

(8.3)
Vd  Vdo cos  Rc I d
Where:
3 2
Vdo  Vll

3 3
Rc  Xc  Lc  6 fLc
 
Vdo the ideal no load voltage
 extinction angle (equal to the sum of the delay angle  and
commutation angle )
Rc called the “equivalent commutating resistance.” It accounts for
the voltage drop due to commutation overlap. It does not,
however, represent a real resistance and consumes no power
The peak value of the fundamental frequency component of the AC line

current and the RMS value respectively are:

I lm  2 3  I d  (8.4)
I l1   
6  Id (8.5)
With losses in the converter neglected, the AC power must equal the DC
power. Therefore:
3Ell I l1 cos  Vd I d  (Vdo cos ) I d
Substituting for Vdo from above and for Il1 from equation (8.5) we have:
3Ell    
6  I d cos  3 2  Ell I d cos
Hence: the power factor of the fundamental wave is:
cos  cos (8.6)
The term cos is referred to by some authors as the (vector power factor) or,
(displacement factor). The converter thus operates as a device that converts
alternating to direct current (or direct to alternating current) so that the current
ratio is fixed but the voltage ratio varies with the ignition delay caused by grid
or gate control.
8.13 Relationship between AC and DC Quantities and

AC Side Power Factor:
From equation (8.1), the average direct voltage Vd is given by:
 cos  cos 
Vd  Vdo cos  Vd  Vdo   (8.7)
 2 
Substituting for Vdo in terms of RMS line to line voltage then:
 3 2   cos  cos 
Vd   
   Ell
   2 
With losses neglected, AC power is equal to the DC power: Pac = Pdc, hence,
Chapter 8 922
3Ell I l1 cos  Vd I d
 3 2   cos  cos 
  
   Ell I d
   2 
 6   cos  cos 
I l1 cos   
   (8.8)
   2 
 
With =0o, I l1  6  I d denoting this value of Il1 when =0o by Il1o,
equation (8.8) can be written as:
 cos  cos 
I l1 cos  I l1o   (8.9)
 2 
Where:
I l1o   6  Id 
As an approximation Il1 may be considered equal to Il1o:
I l1  I l1o   
6  Id (8.10)
The converter has essentially fixed current ratio (Id/Il1), the variation with load
being only a few percent. It follows that the power factor is given by:
cos   cos 
cos   (8.11)
2
As a result of the approximation:
Vd  Vdo cos  (8.12)
Hence:
V
cos   d (8.13)
Vdo
The power factor cos, depends on load in addition to ignition delay angle ,
from rectifier DC voltage (equation 8.3), hence:
Rc I d
cos  cos  (8.14)
Vdo
Substituting for Vdo in equation 8.14, we get:
3 2 
Vd    Ell cos
 (8.15)
  
8.14 Converter Transformer Rating:

The RMS value of the transformer secondary current, fundamental
frequency component of amplitude direct current, the RMS value of the line
to line transformer secondary voltage, and transformer volt-ampere rating are
given by equations (8.16), (8.17), and (8.18) respectively:
2
I trms  Id (8.16)
3
  
Ell   Vdo (8.17)
3 2 
3- converter transformer rating (MVA)=

 3Ell I trms
    2 
 3 Vdo Id (8.18)
 3 2   3 
 
  Vdo I d
3
8.15 Multiple Bridge Converters Operation:

Two or more bridges are connected in series on the DC side and
parallel on the AC side to obtain as high a direct voltage as required.
In practice, multiple bridge converters have an even number of bridges

arranged in pairs so as to result in a 12-pulse arrangement. As shown in fig.
8.7(a) for 6-pulse bridge converter and fig. 8.7(b) for 12-pulse bridge. For
converters having more than two bridges, higher pulse numbers are possible:
18-pulse, three bridge converter, 24-pulse, four bridge converters. The
Chapter 8 922
transformer connections required are more complex than those for 12-pulse
converters are. Therefore, it is more practical to use 12-pulse converters and
provide the necessary filtering.
The relationships between AC and DC quantities, with multiple

bridges, the ideal no load voltage is:
3 2 
V do    BaEll
 (8.19)
  
Since voltage drop per bridge is (3Xc/)Id and there are (B) bridges in series,
the DC voltage is given by:
Vd  Vdo cos  3 X C  BI d (8.20)
Vd  Vdo cos   3 X C BId (8.21)
Where: B, and a are the number of converter bridges, and off nominal tap
ratio of transformers respectively. The average DC output voltage of a 12-
pulse bridge is twice that of a 6-pulse bridge converter, the RMS value of the
fundamental frequency component of the total alternating current and the
power factor are given by:
I L1   
6  BaId (8.22)
AC system Smoothing
reactor
+
Ld
DC system Vd
Y-Y -
(a)
AC system
Smoothing
reactor
Y- 
Ld
+
DC Vd
system
-
Y-Y
(b)
Fig. 8.7 Six and twelve-pulse bridge converter
(a) Six pulse (b) Twelve pulse
8.16 Basic Rectifier Model:

The equivalent circuit of the bridge rectifier based on the above
analysis is given in fig. (8.8). The internal voltage is a function of the thyristor
ignition or firing angle , and the no-load DC voltage at rectifier side is
represented by Vdor. The overlap angle  does not explicitly appear in the
equivalent circuit; the effect of commutation overlap is represented by R cr.
Large rectifier loads generally consist of a number of series and/or parallel
connected bridges, each bridge being phase shifted relative to the others. With
these configurations high pulse numbers can be achieved resulting in minimal
distortion of the supply voltage without filtering. Rectifier loads can therefore
be modelled as a single equivalent bridge with a sinusoidal supply voltage at
the terminals but without representation of passive filters.
Rcr
+ Id +
Vdor cos  Vdr
- -
Fig. 8.8 Bridge rectifier equivalent circuit
The main assumptions made in the development of the basic rectifier model
are: Control action on delay angle is considered to be instantaneous, no tap
changing takes place during or after the disturbance, the DC current is
smooth, and There is no harmonic distortion. The output voltage is thus
obtained:
Vdr  Vdor cos  Rcr I d (8.23)
Example 8.1:
The transformer primary line voltage to a three phase connected
rectifier is 220kV, and the off nominal tap ratio is 0.8, the rectifier delay angle
is 15o. Calculate:
(a) The direct voltage output for: Overlap commutation angle (=0o,
=20o, and=40o)o.
(b) The effective reactance XC if the rectifier is delivering 1000A, AC
voltage is 250kV, (=20o, and =0o)o.
(c) Repeat parts (b) for (=30o).
Chapter 8 922
Solution:
(a) Given that, Vll = 220kV, and a = 0.8,then we have equation:
 
Vdo  3 2 π aVll , then Vdo  237.68 kV
Using equation:
V
Vd  do cosα  cosα  μ 
2
Then: for =0o, Vd  229.58 kV , =20o, Vd  212.14 kV , and =40o,
Vd  182.95 kV .
(b) For equation:
 
Vdor  3 2 π aVll  270.09 kV
V
Vd  do cosα  cosα  μ , then Vd  261.95 kV
2
And rectifier equation is:
Vdr  Vdor cosα  3X cr π I d , then X cr  8.52 Ohm
(c) For =30o. Vdr  203.75 kV , and then; X cr  31.57 Ohm
8.17 Basic Inverter Model:

If there is no commutation overlap, Vd  Vdo cos  , therefore, Vd
reverses when   90 o, with overlap, Vd  Vdo cos   Vd . Substituting for
ΔVd from equation (8.1), we have:
V
Vd  Vdo cos   do cos   cos 
2
V
Vd  do cos   cos  (8.24)
2
The transitional value of the ignition delay angle, t beyond which inversion
takes place is given by: cos  t  cos  t  0 , or  t     t     t   , thus
the delay angle corresponding to start of inversion is:

t  (8.25)
2
This angle is less than 90o. The effect of the overlap is thus to reduce t from
90o to (90o -/2). Since valves conduct in only one direction, the current in a
converter cannot be reversed. A reversal of Vd results in a reversal of power,
an alternating voltage must exist on the primary side of the transformer for
inverter operation. The direct voltage of the inverter opposes the current, as in
a DC motor, and is called a counter voltage or back voltage, shown in fig.
(8.9) for description of rectifier operation, we use the following angles:
 ignition delay angle

 overlap angle =-= β - γ
 extinction delay angle, and =+
β Ignition advance angle, β =-
γ extinction angle, γ=-
Vac Iac Commutating voltage
Vll Current during
commutating perriod
Il1
t
Rectifier Inverter
Iac
Id
t
r   
 
i


Fig. 8.9 Angles used in the description of rectifier and inverter operations
The inverter operation may also be described in terms of  and  defined in

the same way as for the rectifier, but having values between 90 ˚ and 180˚.
However, the common practice is to use ignition advance angle  and
extinction advance angle  for describing inverter performance  and the no-
load DC voltage at inverter side is represented by V doi. When the
commutating voltage is zero and decreasing. Since cos=(-cos), and cos=(-
cos) equation (8.24) may be written in terms of , and  as follows:
 cos   cos  
Vd  Vdo  
 2 
Or: Vdi  Vdoi cos   Rci I d (8.26)
Or: Vdi  Vdoi cos   Rci I d (8.27)

Chapter 8 922
Based on the above equations, the inverter may be represented by the two
alternative equivalent circuits shown in fig. (8.10).
Rci - Rci
+ Id + + Id +
Vdi Vdo cos Vdi Vdo cos

- - - -
(a) In terms of () (b) In terms of ()

Fig. 8.10 Inverter equivalent circuits “with (Vdi) positive”
Example 8.2:
The primary AC line voltage of a three-phase bridge inverter has a
commutation reactance of 50 ohms. The current and voltage at the DC side
are 800A and 200kV respectively. The AC line voltage is 220kV, and off
nominal tap ratio is 0.88. Calculate:
(a) The extinction angle  , and the overlap angle 
(b) The output DC power and the power factor of the fundamental
component of the inverter AC line
(c) The magnetizing VAR input to the inverter, and check the results with
the expressed as:
Q i  Pdc Vdoi Vdi 2  1
Solution:
(a) For inverter equation is
Vdi  Vdoi cosγ  3X ci π I d
 
Vdoi  3 2 π aVll  261.45 kV
Then: γ  cos1 0.911  24.35o
The overlap angle for equation
V
Vd  do (cosγ  cos(γ  μ))
2
cos(γ  μ)  0.6188 and μ  27.416o
(b) The output inverter DC power and power factor are:
Pdi  Vdi I d  160 MW
V
cosφ i  d  0.765o
Vdo
(c) The magnetizing VAR input to the inverter
Q i  Pdi tanφ i  134.71 MVAR
For the relations is:
Q i  Pdi Vdoi Vdi 2  1  134.71 MVAR
8.18 HVDC Link Operation:

Figure (8.11) shows the equivalent circuit for a simple DC transmission
link. Here, the DC link may be a transmission line, a cable, or a link with
negligible length. The subscript's (r) and (i) signify rectifier and inverter,
respectively.
The direct current Id that flows from the rectifier to the inverter and, the
sending end power can be expressed as:
V  Vdi
I d  dr (8.28)
Rdc
Pdc  Vdr I d (8.29)
Since, it is possible for a converter to become a rectifier or an inverter by

firing angle control, the direction of the power flow can be reversible: This
can be accomplished by reversing the direct voltage. The average direct
voltages of a rectifier and an inverter, respectively, can be expressed as:
Vdr  I d Rdc  Vdi

Vdi  I d Rdc  Vdr
cos Rcr Pr Rdc Pi - Rci cos
+ +
Id
Vdr Vdi
Vdor Vdoi cos Vdoi
Vdor cos
- -
Rectifier side DC line Inverter side
Fig. 8.11 HVDC transmission link
Therefore, it can be shown in either case that.
I d Rdc  Vdr  Vdi (8.30)

Where:
Vdr  Vdor cos  Rcr I d
And:
Chapter 8 941
Vdi   Vdoi  cos  Rci I d
Thus, for constant extinction angle ():
Vdor cos  Vdoi cos 

Id  (8.31)
Rcr  Rdc  Rci
Or, for constant ignition angle ():
Vdor cos  Vdoi cos 

Id  (8.32)
Rcr  Rdc  Rci
8.19 Two-Terminal HVDC Link Control:
The direct voltage and current can be controlled by either of two
different methods: Firing angle control  and . Or control of alternating
voltage and hence Vdor, and Vdoi. The later is done through transformer tap
changing, which is slower (in the neighborhood of 5 seconds per step) in
comparison with grid or firing angle control (1 to 10ms). The rectifier's most
desirable mode of control is current control that requires a control action that
adjusts the angle of ignition or delay angle so that the current is maintained at
a set value. The (CC) control raises the direct voltage either to its initial value
or until the minimum  limit is reached. When the later happens, the rectifier
operates on the constant ignition angle or constant delay angle (CIA)
characteristic corresponding to the minimum ignition angle. Then;
Vdr  Vdor cos min  I d Rcr
When the converter operates as an inverter, commutation must be completed

prior to reversal of the commutating voltage at =0o to avoid commutation
failure. The angle of advance =+. On the other hand, if is too large, then
the power factor becomes poor. Thus we should keep  and hence  to a
minimum. Such a control is referred to as the constant extinction angle
control (CEA).
Thus the Vd/Id characteristic is shows in fig. (8.12) for converter

characteristics rectifier, and inverter. The characteristics of the converter in
both modes of operation are shown in fig. (8.13) on the same plot. The
difference between the current setting for operation as an inverter from that
for operation as a rectifier is denoted by Imarg in the neighborhood of 0 to
20% of rated current. Under steady state conditions, such systems control
each valve with constant commutation margin, irrespective of load and
voltage variations or unbalance. The control scheme for an HVDC link is

Vd Vd
CEA. Control
CIA. Control
CC Control CC Control
Id Id
(a) Rectifier control (b) Inverter control

Fig. 8.12 Converter
3
characteristics
Vd Vdr  Vdor cos min  X Cr I d

Rectifier
Id
Imarg
Inverter
3
Vdi  Vdoi cos min  X Ci I d

Fig. 8.13 Complete control of a converter, from inversion to

rectification
Rectifier station Inverter station
Iordr
Id Id
Vr CIA Phase Phase CEA Vi
Control advance advance control
CC CC
control control
Fig. 8.14 Schematic control diagram of HVDC with CIA, CC and CEA
control
8.20 Steady-State Analysis of Two-Terminal HVDC

Links:
Chapter 8 942
Consider the basic model of a DC link shown schematically in or its

equivalent circuit is shown in fig. (8.15) on the AC side, the link is
represented by two nodes (r) and (i), whose voltages are V r r and Vi i
respectively. The AC currents at the rectifier and inverter terminals are
denoted by Ir r and Iii respectively. The tap-changing transformers (off-
nominal tap transformers) have tap ratios a r and ai. The numbers of bridges
are Br and Bi. Commutating reactance per bridge for rectifier and inverter side
is Xcr, Xci, we have already at our disposal all the relations necessary to model
the link for performance applications purposes. The line voltage on the
secondary side of the rectifier transformer is (a rVr), and the line current is
(Ir/ar).
Id

Rdc
Ir
 Ii
1:ar ai:1
Vdr Vdi
ISr ISi
Vr Vi
AC. System Rectifier side DC line Inverter side AC. System
Fig. 8.15 Schematic or single line diagram of DC link
The direct voltage at the rectifier terminal Vdr is given:
 
Vdr  3 2  Br a r Vr  cos r  3Br X cr  I d (8.33)
The direct current Id is related to the secondary AC line current thus:

I sr  6  I d 
Where:
I sr  I r a r 
Then:

I r  ar 6  I d 
Here r is the rectifier’s delay angle, and Xcr is its commutating reactance per
bridge. The application of KVL in the DC link gives:
Vdr  Vdi  I d Rdc (8.34)
The inverter voltage equation is given by:

 
Vdi  3 2  Bi aiVi  cos  i  3Bi X ci  I d (8.35)
Here i is the inverter’s extinction angle, and Xci is its commutating reactance
per bridge. The power relations are given by:
Vdr I d  3Vr I r cos r (8.36)
Vdi I d  3Vi I i cos i (8.37)
The AC line current on the inverter side is:


I i  ai 6  I d 
8.21 Per Unit System of HVDC Systems Variables:
Several per unit systems are used in HVDC systems analysis studies.
One of those systems is displayed hereafter. The system is chosen such that
the same base MVA and voltage are used on the AC and DC sides. Thus:
(Pac)B = (Pdc)B = PBase and (Vac)B = (Vdc)B = VBase
The base AC and DC current can thus be calculated, we concluded that the
base DC current is 3 times the base AC current.
I dc B  3I ac B (8.38)
This system enables us to write the condition that power in AC side is equal
to the power on the DC side in a computationally simple way.
Vd I d  3Vll I l cos
Then:
Vd  pu V B  I d  pu I dc B  3Vll  pu V B  I l  pu I ac B  cos
 3I ac  B 
Or: Vd  pu  I d  pu  V   I l  cos
 I dc   ll pu pu
 B 
Vd  pu  I d  pu  Vll  pu  I l  pu cos
The relation between AC and DC currents in per unit is given by:

Chapter 8 942
I l  pu  
 3 2   I d  pu (8.39)
8.22 Analysis of Two-Terminal HVDC System in Per

Unit Quantities:
Define the constant (K1) and (K2) by: K1 = (32/) and K2 = (3/).
Analysis in terms of per unit quantities, the direct voltage on the system side
of the rectifier transformers is:
Vdr  K1a r Vr cos r  K 2 I d X cr (8.40)
 r  cos1 Vdr K1a r Vr  (8.41)

Vdr  Vdi
Id  (8.42)
Rdc
Vdi  K1aiVi cos i  K 2 I d X ci (8.43)
 i  cos1 Vdi K1aiVi  (8.44)
The model developed so far consists of five independent equation (8.40) to

(8.44) in terms of the following nine variables: V dr, Vdi, ar, ai, cosr, cosi, r,
i, and Id. To solve for nine variables, four equations giving the control
specifications are needed, thus:
Vdi  Vdisp (8.45)
cos r  cos rsp (8.46)
cos  i  cos  isp (8.47)
Vdi I d  Pdisp (8.48)
Rectifier on CC control and inverter on CEA control: The extinction angle is

equals i = min, and DC current is Id = Iordr. But inverter on CC control and
rectifier on CEA Control: The firing delay angle for rectifier is r = min, and
DC current is Id = Iordr - Imarg.
Example 8.3:
A HVDC link has the following parameters: Xcr = 45 ohms, Rdc = 4.5
ohms, and Xci = 42 ohms. The transformer primary AC line voltage terminals
to a three-phase connected rectifier is 260 kV, and the off nominal tap ratio
for rectifier, inverter side are 1.05, and 1.03 respectively. When delivering
400MW at 300kV DC. The inverter operates with an extinction angle of 24 o.
Calculate:
(a) The delay angle of the rectifier.
(b) The AC line current and power factor at the rectifier terminals.
(c) The power factor at the inverter terminals.
(d) The extinction angle  at 0.25 full load current.
Solution:
(a) The DC current Id is obtained as:
400 10 3
Id   1333.33 Amp.
300
The rectifier equation is applied. Thus,
 
Vdr  3 2 π a r Vr cosα r  3X cr π I d
As a result, the delay angle is r =14.275o
(b) The AC line current is related to the DC current by
 
I l  6 π I d , thus I1 = 1039.59Amp.
The AC power at the rectifier satisfies
Pac  3a r Vl I l cosφ r , then cosr =0.8137
(c) The voltage equation of the DC line is:
Vdr  Vdi  I d R dc , then Vdi=294.0kV
The inverter equation is applied. Thus,
 
Vdi  3 2 π a i Vi cosγ i  3X ci π I d , then Vi=273.44kV
The AC line current is the same as that for the rectifier. The power at the
inverter is given by: Pdi  Vdi I d , then Pdi=358.565MW
For a loss-free inverter, the AC line power is Pac=392.0 MW
The power factor at the inverter AC terminals is obtained as:
cosi  0.773
(d) The extinction angle  at 0.25 full load current is obtained from:
V cosα r  Vdoi cosγ i
I d  dor then;  =21.1o
R cr  R dc  R ci
These results are shown in figure 8.16(a) the curve between the extinction
angle  and DC load current
Example 8.4:
Chapter 8 942
The output power of the DC link of example 8.3 is maintained at 500

MW at an AC line voltage of 300 kV and a power factor of 0.8. Calculate:
(a) The necessary AC line voltage, current, and power factor at the
rectifier terminals when operating with a 8o delay angle.
(b) Find the delay angle of the rectifier when half load is passed through
that link.
Solution:
(a) From the data at the inverter we have
500 10 3
Il   1167.78 Amp.

3 1.03 0.8  300 10 3

Thus:
 
I d  π 6 I l  1497.73 Amp.
The DC voltage at the inverter terminals is calculated using
Pdi  Vdi I d
Vdi  333.83 kV
The inverter voltage equation is
 
Vdi  3 2 π a i Vi cosγ i  3X ci π I d
As a result, γ i  19.27 
The rectifier voltage is now obtained using
Vdr  Vdi  I d R dc , then Vdr  340.57 kV
The rectifier voltage equation is
 
Vdr  3 2 π a r Vr cosα r  3X cr π I d
As a result, Vr  288.37 kV
This is the required line voltage at the rectifier AC terminals. The power input
to the rectifier is obtained from
Pdr  Vdr I d , then Pdr  510.09 MW
The line current at the rectifier is the same as that at the inverter, and for a
loss-free rectifier,
Pac  Pdc , then cosφ r  0.8328
(b) The delay angle of the rectifier when half load is passed through that
link is obtained from equation,
V cosα r  Vdoi cosγ i
I d  dor
R cr  R dc  R ci
α r  12.37 
These results are shown in figure 8.16(b) the curve between the firing delay
angle  and DC load current.
n angle[Deg]
30 20
angle [Deg.]
25 16
12
20
(a) (b)
Fig 8.16 The effects of DC load currents on the extinction, and firing
delay angle (, and )
(a) Extinction angle () (b) Firing delay angle ()
8.23 Multi-Terminals HVDC Systems (MTDC Systems):
A multi-terminal DC (MTDC) system has more than two converter
stations, some of them operating as rectifiers and others as inverters. The
simplest way of building a MTDC system from an existing two terminals
system is to introduce tapping some where in the DC line. Parallel operation
of converters and bipolar can also be viewed as multi-terminal operation. The
complexities of control and operation increase considerably. The specific
areas of applications for MTDC systems: bulk power transmission from
several remote-generating stations to several load centers, asynchronous
interconnection between adjacent power systems, and reinforcing of an AC
network which is heavily loaded.
A successful application of two terminal DC systems worldwide has

led power system planners to consider the use of DC systems with more than
two terminals. It is increasing being realized that multi-terminal DC (MTDC)
system will be more attractive in many cases to fully exploit the economic
and technical advantages of HVDC technology. Two schemes are available;
series and parallel.
Multi-terminal DC (MTDC) systems configurations and basic principle

of controlling are given hereafter. The first MTDC system designed for
continuous operation is the Sardinia-Corsica-Italy scheme. This is an
expansion of the Sardinia-Italy two-terminal DC system built in 1967. A third
terminal tap was added at Corsica in 1991. The two-terminal DC system
between Des Cantons in Quebec and Comerford in New Hampshire built in
1986 is being extended to a three-terminal and then possibly to a five-terminal
scheme.
Chapter 8 942
8.23.1 Series and Parallel MTDC Systems:

Two possible schemes of MTDC systems are series, and parallel. The
majority of studies and proposed applications of MTDC systems have
considered parallel configuration with radial-type connection. The mesh
connection, although offering more redundancy, requires greater length of DC
lines. The converters are connected in parallel and operate at common
voltage. Figure 8.17(a) depicts the simple diagram of parallel MTDC bipolar
scheme with radial DC network. The series scheme is shown in fig. 8.17(b),
with a common direct current flowing through all terminals.
Chapter 8 942
1 2 1 2
3 4 3 4
AC system
AC system
(a) (b)
Fig. 8.17 Simple diagram of the MTDC bipolar scheme connection
(a) Parallel (b) Series
8.23.2 Series MTDC System:

In series connected system, the current is set by one converter station
and is common for all the stations. The remaining stations operate at constant
angle (extinction or delay) or voltage control. In order to minimize the
reactive power requirements and the losses in valve damper circuits, the
normal operating values of firing angles may be adjusted using tap changer
control. At all times, the sum of the voltages across the rectifier stations must
be larger than the sum of the voltages across the inverter station. In case of a
drop in the voltage at the current controlling rectifier station, the inverter with
the larger current reference takes over the current control.
8.23.3 Parallel MTDC System:

The operating philosophy of constant voltage AC systems is extended
to DC systems. The currents in all the converter stations except one are
adjusted according to the power requirement. One of the terminals operates as
a voltage setting terminal at constant angle or voltage. The main drawbacks of
parallel-connected MTDC systems are that: Any disturbance on the DC
system affects the entire DC system, station consisting, and commutation
failure at an inverter can draw current from other terminals and this may
affect recovery.
8.23.4 Comparison of Series and Parallel MTDC

Systems:
Parallel connection is more versatile and is expected to be widely used
as in AC systems, and comparisons are:
- High-speed reversal of power is possible in series systems without

mechanical switching, this is not possible in parallel systems.
- The valve voltage rating in a series system is related to the power
rating, while the current rating in a parallel connected system is related to
power.
- Increased losses in the line and valves in series systems in comparison
to parallel systems.
- Insulation coordination is a problem in series systems as the voltage
along the line varies.
- The permanent fault in a line section would lead to complete shutdown
in a series connected system while it would lead to only the shutdown of a
converter station connected to the line section in a parallel MTDC system.
- The reduction in AC voltages and commutation failures in an inverter
can lead to overloading of converters as current is transferred from other
terminals in a parallel system. The problem is severe if the rating of the
inverter is relatively small. Increased values of smoothing reactor and
voltage dependent current order limits "VDCOL" can reduce the severity
- The control in series connection is appropriate for taps of rating less
than 20% of the major inverter terminal.
8.24 Analysis of Parallel Multi-Terminal Systems for

Steady-State in Per Unit Quantities:
The majority of studies and proposed applications of MTDC systems
have considered parallel configuration with radial-type connection. The mesh
connection, although offering more redundancy, requires greater length of DC
lines. Consider the basic model of the four terminal DC systems shown
schematically in fig. (8.18) or its equivalent circuit. On the AC side, the link
is represented by four nodes (1), (2), (3), and (4), whose voltages are (V11),
(V22), (V33), and (V44) respectively. The AC currents at the rectifiers
and inverters terminals are denoted by (I 11), (I22), (I33), and (I44)
respectively. The tap-changing transformers have tap ratios (a1), (a2), (a3) and
(a4). The numbers of bridges are (B1), (B2), (B3) and (B4). We have already at
our disposal all the relations necessary to model the link for performance
analysis purposes. It is assumed that two of the terminals are operating as
rectifier at nodes (1), (2) and the other two as inverters for nodes (3), (4).
8.24.1 Multi-Terminal Parallel Systems Equations in Per

Unit:
Analysis in terms of per unit quantities of this system is. The direct
voltage on the system side of the rectifier (1) transformer is:
Chapter 8 952
Vd1  K1a1B1V1 cos 1  K2 B1X c1I d1  0 (8.49)

(1) V1 V2 (2)
Rectifier
AC system
I1 side I2
a1 a2
P1, Q1, Xc1 P2, Q2, Xc2

1 2
Vd1 Vd2
R12 Id21
R24 Id24
R13 Id13
DC system
Vd3 side Vd4
P3, Q3, Xc3 P4, Q4, Xc4

1 2
I3 I4
a3 Inverter a4
Ac system
(3) side (4)
V4
V3
Fig. 8.18 Schematically or equivalent circuit parallel

MTDC bipolar scheme with radial DC network
The active power balance between the AC and DC sides gives
( Vd1I d1  V1I p1 cos 1), where the primary side of the rectifier (1) transformer
( I p1  a1I s1 ) and the fundamental current magnitude on the converter side is
related to the direct current by ( I s1  K1I d1 ) we get:
Vd1  K1a1B1V1 cos 1  0 (8.50)
The rectifier (1) voltage and inverter (1) voltage on the DC part of the system
are related by:
Vd1  Vd 3  R13I d 3 (8.51)
The model of the inverter (1) is similar to that of the rectifier (1). Thus the
following equations apply:
Vd 3  K1a3B3V3 cos 3  K2 I d 3B3 X c3  0 (8.52)

Vd 3  K1a3B3V3 cos 3  0 (8.53)

The direct voltage on the system side of the rectifier (2) transformer is:
Vd 2  K1a2 B2V2 cos 2  K2 I d 2 B2 X c2  0 (8.54)
The active power balance between the AC and DC side gives

( Vd 2 I d 2  V2 I p 2 cos 2 ), where the primary side of the rectifier (2)
transformer ( I p 2  a2 I s 2 ) and the fundamental current magnitude on the
converter side is related to the direct current by: ( I s 2  K1I d 2 ) we get:
Vd 2  K1a2 B2V2 cos 2  0 (8.55)
The rectifier (2) voltage and inverter (2) voltage on the DC part of the system
are related by:
Vd 2  Vd 4  R24 I d 4 (8.56)
The model of the inverter (2) is similar to that of the rectifier (2). Thus the
following equations apply:
Vd 4  K1a4 B4V4 cos 4  K2 I d 4 B4 X c4  0 (8.57)
Vd 4  K1a4 B4V4 cos 4  0 (8.58)
The DC current relations are:
I d1  I d 3  I d12 , and I d 4  I d12  I d 2

Then:
I d 3  I d 4  I d1  I d 2  0 (8.59)
Where:
I d12  I d1  I d 3 or I d12  I d 4  I d 2
The rectifier (1) voltage and rectifier (2) voltage on the DC part of the system
are related by:
Vd1  Vd 2  R12 I d1  I d 3   R12 I d 4  I d 2  (8.60)
The model developed so far consists of twelve independent equation's (8.49)

to (8.60) in terms of the following twenty variables: (Vd1), to (Vd4), (a1), to
(a4), ( cos1 ), ( cos 2 ), ( cos 1 ), ( cos 2 ), ( 1 ), to (  4 ), and ( I d1 ) to ( I d 4 ).
Chapter 8 952
To solve for twenty variables, eight equations giving the control

specifications are needed, Thus:
Vdsp3  Vd 3  0 (8.61)
Vdsp4  Vd 4  0 (8.62)
cos 1sp  cos 1  0 (8.63)
cos 2sp  cos 2  0 (8.64)
cos 1sp  cos 1  0 (8.65)
cos  2sp  cos  2  0 (8.66)
Vd 3I d 3  Pdsp3  0 (8.67)
Vd 4 I d 4  Pdsp4  0 (8.68)
In parallel-connected systems one of the terminals establishes the

operating voltage of the DC system, and all other terminals operate on
constant-current (CC) control. The voltage setting terminal is the one with the
smallest ceiling voltage. This may be either a rectifier (1) on (CIA) control or
an inverter on (CEA) control. To maintain stable control operation, a positive-
current margin must be maintained. If an inverter is the voltage-controlling
station, it is vulnerable to inadvertent overloading. It is unable to control the
current at its terminals in the event of a system disturbance or load change.
Disconnection of a current-controlled inverter will require reallocation of
rectifier current settings to prevent overloading the voltage-controlled
inverter.
On the other hand, if a rectifier defines the system voltage, the

operation is more stable. All inverters control current, thereby avoiding
operation in the less stable CEA control mode. The voltage-controlling
rectifier is capable of protecting itself without causing overloading of other
stations. The system is less dependent on high-speed commutation and hence
is more secure. In general, voltage control at a large rectifier terminal should
provide better performance.
8.25 Analysis of Series MTDC Systems for Steady-State

Studies in Per Unit Quantities:
Figure (8.19) shows a four terminal series DC system in which
converter #3 DC side is connected to converter #4 by a DC line of resistance
R34. In series connected system, the current is set by one converter station and
is common for all the stations. The remaining stations operate at constant
angle (extinction or delay) or voltage control. In this study commute #1 is
selected for this propose. In order to minimize the reactive power
requirements and the losses in valve damper circuits, the normal operating
valves of firing angles may be adjusted using tap changer control.
8.25.1 Series Multi-Terminal System Equations in Per

Unit:
From figure (8.19), we have already at our disposal all the relations
necessary to model the link for performance analysis purposes. It is assumed
that two of the terminals are operating as rectifier at node (1), (2) and the
other two as inverters for node (3), (4), as the same of the parallel models.
(1) V1 V2 (2)
Rectifier
AC system
I1 side I2
a1 a2
P1, Q1, Xc1 P2, Q2, Xc2

1 2
Vd1 R12 Id Vd2
R24 Id
R13 Id DC system
side
Vd3 R34 Id Vd4
P3, Q3, Xc3 P4, Q4, Xc4

1 2
I3 I4
a3 Inverter a4
Ac system
(3) side (4)
V4
V3
Fig. 8.19 Schematically or equivalent circuit series

MTDC bipolar scheme DC network
Chapter 8 955
Analysis in terms of per unit quantities of this system is the active

power balance between the AC and DC sides gives ( Vd1 I d  V1 I p1 cos 1 ),
where the primary side of the rectifier (1) transformer ( I p1  a1I s1 ) and the
fundamental current magnitude on the converter side is related to the direct
current by ( I s1  K1 I d ) we get:
Vd1  K1a1 B1V1 cos 1  0 (8.69)
Then the direct current from the DC voltage on the system side of the rectifier
(1) can be obtained by:
Vd1  K1a1 B1V1 cos 1  K 2 B1 X c1 I d  0 (8.70)
Where, (Id) is the DC current related from the rectifier #1, and constant of the
all network. The DC voltages of all the other rectifier and inverter are related
from the DC line equations and related by:
Vd1  Vd 2  R12 I d
Vd 2  Vd 4  R24 I d
Vd 3  Vd 4  R34 I d
Vd 3  Vd1  R13 I d
Then the summations of the DC voltages are equally zero, or related by:
V d 1  V d 2  V d 3  Vd 4  0 (8.71)
From the models of the rectifier and the inverter, the firing angles and the
extinction angles are obtained from the following equations:
Vd 2  K1a2 B2V2 cos 2  K 2 I d B2 X c 2  0 (8.72)
Vd 3  K1a3 B3V3 cos 1  K 2 I d B3 X c3  0 (8.73)
Vd 4  K1a4 B4V4 cos 2  K 2 I d B4 X c 4  0 (8.74)
From the direct voltage of all DC sides of the converters and the active power
balance between the AC and DC sides the following equations apply:
Vd 2  K1a2 B2V2 cos 2  0 (8.75)
Vd 3  K1a3B3V3 cos 3  0 (8.76)
Vd 4  K1a4 B4V4 cos 4  0 (8.77)
The model developed so far consists of nine independent equation's (8.69) to

(8.77) in terms of the following seventeen variables: (V d1), to (Vd4), (a1), to
(a4), ( cos1 ), ( cos 2 ), ( cos 1 ), ( cos 2 ), ( 1 ), to (  4 ), and ( I d ). To solve
for seventeen variables, eight equations giving the control specifications are
needed, Thus:
Vdsp3  Vd 3  0 (8.78)
Vd 4  Vdsp3  I d R34
Vd 2  Vdsp3  I d R31  R12  (8.79)
Vd1  Vdsp3  I d R31
cos 1sp  cos 1  0 (8.80)
cos 2sp  cos 2  0 (8.81)
cos 1sp  cos 1  0 (8.82)
cos  2sp  cos  2  0 (8.83)
Vd 3 I d  Pdsp3  0 (8.84)
Pdsp4  Pdsp3  I d R34 (8.85)
8.26 AC/DC Load Flow for Parallel and Series MTDC

Systems:
The series MTDC system of four terminal HVDC system solutions
programs flow chart as the same of the parallel system as shown in fig. (8.20).
The studied four terminal MTDC HVDC link description is given in sections
(8.24) and (8.25).
Chapter 8 952
Start
Read AC and DC data
Calculate P, Q at converter buses
Solve AC equations
Solve DC equations, and

compute P, Q
No
cos   1, and cos   1
Yes
Stop
Fig. 8.20 Flow chart AC/DC load flow for MTDC systems
8.27 Multi-Terminals HVDC System Solution:

The formulation of power flow equations developed in the above
section for the two-terminal DC systems, are readily extended to multi-
terminal systems, in this chapter. Two approaches have evolved for the
solution of power flow equations. One is the sequential solution approach in
which the AC and DC equations are solved separately at each iteration. The
other is the unified solution approach in which the AC and DC systems are
combined and solved as one set of equations during each iteration.
Example 8.5:
Figure (8.21) shows a single line diagram of a four terminal HVDC
system. Assuming that the current generated from rectifier station #2 is
divided equally between lines (2-1) and (2-4). Find:
(a) The extinction angle of inverter station # 3.
(b) The extinction angle of inverter station # 4 when its AC voltage is 100
kV, 200 kV, and 300 kV and the power of this inverter.
(c) The total system losses.
(1) 300 kV AC System (2) 300 kV
I1 I2
a1 = ? a2 =1.04
P1 = 400 MW XC1 =20  XC2 =25  P2 =500 MW

1 = 8.0  2 = 14.3
Vd1 Vd2
R12 =20  Id21
Id13 R13 = 10  I24 R24 = 20 

DC System
Vd3 Vd4
P3 = ? Xc3 = 25  XC4 = 20  P4 = ?
3= ? 4= ?
I3 I4
a3 =1.03 a4 = 1.04
V3 (3) AC System (4) V4
Fig. 8.21 A four terminal HVDC system for example 8.5
Solution:
(a) We start at the rectifier labeled #2. The DC current is related to the voltage
by: Vd2Id2  500  103
As a result, the rectifier is voltage equation is written as:
 
500 103 Id2  3 2 π 1.04  300cos14.3 3  25 π  103 Id2
Solving the quadratic equation, we get Id2  1328.24 A
From which,
500  103
Vd2   376.44 kV
1328.2347
The current Id21 is equal to the Id24 .As a result:
Id21  Id24  Id2 2  664.12 A
Vd1  Vd2  Id21R 21
Then Vd1  363.16 kV
` Vd4  Vd2  Id24R 24
The current Id1 is obtained from: Pd1  Vd1Id1
Chapter 8 952
Thus, Id1  1101.45 A

The rectifier equations at the station #1 is:
 
Vd1  3 2 π a1V1cosα1  3Xc1 π Id1
 
363.16  3 2 π a1  300cos8  3  20 π  1101.45 103
Then a1  0.958
The current Id13 is:
Id13  Id1  Id21
Then Id13  1765.57 A
The DC voltage at the inverter station # 3 terminal is:
Vd3  Vd1  Id13R13
The DC power at the inverter station # 3, and inverter station # 4 are
Pd3  Vd3Id13 , as the results Pd3  610.007 MW
Pd4  Vd4Id24 , as the results Pd4  241.179 MW
The extinction angle of inverter's station # 3 is obtained from
 
Vd3  3 2 π a 3V3cosγ3  3Xc3 π Id3
As a result, we obtain γ3  19.085
(b) The extinction angle of inverter station # 4 when the AC voltage is: -
(i) The AC voltage of inverter station # 4 is 100 kV
 
Vd4  3 2 π a 4V4cosγ 4  3Xc4 π Id4
 
363.16  3 2 π  1.04  100cosγ 4  3  20 π   664.12  103
cosγ4  2.677  1.0
Then, the station # 4 is operating as rectifier
(ii) The AC voltage of inverter station # 4 is 200 kV
 
363.16  3 2 π  1.04  200cosγ 4  3  20 π   664.12  103
cosγ4  1.338  1.0
Then, the station # 4 is operating as rectifier
(iii) The AC voltage of inverter station # 4 is 300 kV
 
363.16  3 2 π  1.04  300cosγ 4  3  20 π   664.12  103
cosγ4  0.892
γ 4  26.835
Then, the station # 4 is operating as inverter
(c) The total system losses are calculated: -
Ploss  Id21 2  R 21  Id13 2  R13  Id24 2  R 24
Ploss  79.99 MW
Example 8.6:
Solve example 8.5, when the system is operated as series multi-
terminal HVDC system. The converter #2 controls the system DC voltage and
current. Converters #3, #4 are connected with line has R 34 = 10 ohms, the DC
current flows from station #2 towards station #1. Assume that a 1=1.02,
1=19.085o and 2=26.835o. and all other data are the same. Find the stations
AC voltages V1, V3, V4 and the power factor at inverter #4.
Solution:
The DC voltage and currents of station #2 are the same as in example
8.5, then: Vd2 = 376.44 kV, Id = 1328.24 Amp.
Then:
Vd1 = Vd2 - 20 Id/1000 = 349.875 kV
Vd3 = Vd2 - 30 Id/1000 = 336.593 kV
Vd4 = Vd2 - 40 Id/1000 = 323.310 kV
Then the AC voltages are calculated from:
3 2 
V1  Vd1  R c1Id   a1cosα1   275.19 kV
 π 
3 2 
V3  Vd3  R c3Id   a 3cosγ1   280.28 kV
 π 
Similarly:
3 2 
V4  Vd4  R c4 Id   a 4cosγ 2   278.32 kV
 π 
To get power factor of inverter #4:
 6
I4   Id  1035.6 Amp.

 π 
Pd4  Vd4Id  429.433 MW
cosφ4  Pd4 3V4I4  0.86
8.28 HVDC Controllability Features:

Power systems are uniquely (controllable). The reason for that
controllability is the variable voltage converter bridge, the heart of which is
the thyristor valve. The nature of HVDC system, beginning with the converter
valve and leads to the system implications of the controllability feature.
Important property of HVDC controllability feature is that, the DC link does
not contribute to the short circuit of the interconnected AC system.
Chapter 8 962
8.29 HVDC Systems Controls:

The HVDC system is basically a constant current controller for the
following two important reasons: to limit over current and minimize damage
due to faults, and to prevent the system from running down damage due to
fluctuations of the AC voltages. It is because of the high-speed constant
current control characteristic that the HVDC system operation is very stable.
The value of the direct current (Id) can be controlled by changing either the
rectifier DC voltage (Vdor) or the inverter DC voltage (Vdoi) values or rectifier
delay angle (  ) or inverter extinction angle (  ). The value of the rectifier DC
voltage (Vdor) and the inverter DC voltage (Vdoi) can be governed by using the
load tap changers (LTCs) of the supply transformers to change the ratio
between the DC and AC voltage.
This method is very slow to be practical. Whereas the delay angle can
be controlled very fast by using the grid or gate control system. However, this
method causes the converter to consume an excessively large amount of
reactive power. Therefore, it is usual to operate the rectifier with minimum
delay angle and the inverter with minimum extinction angle in order to
achieve the control with minimum amount of reactive power consumption.
Figures (8.22), (8.23) shows the elements of a recent converter controller.
8.29.1 Modern HVDC Control Systems:

Figure (8.22) shows the basic type of controls used for the generation
of converter firing pulses in individual phase control (IPC) mode. The
following are the significant aspects of the recent fixed elements control
system:
(a) The rectifier is provided with a constant current control (CC) and the
() limit control. ( is the rectifier firing angle). The minimum ()
reference is set at about (5o) so that sufficient positive voltage across
the valve exists at the time of firing, to ensure successful commutation.
In the current control mode, a closed loop regulator controls the firing
angle and hence the DC voltages are controlled to maintain the direct
current equals to the current order (reference current value). Tap
change control of the converter transformer brings () within the range
of (8o to 20o). A time delay is used to prevent unnecessary tap
movements during transient excursions of (), as shown in the V/I
characteristic of fig. (8.23).
(b) The inverter is provided with a constant extinction angle (CEA)
control and a constant current control (CC). In the (CEA) control mode.
The extinction angle () is regulated to a value of about (15 o). This
value represents a trade off between acceptable VAR consumption and
a low risk of commutation failure. While (CEA) control is the norm,

there are variations which include voltage control and ignition advance
angle () control. Tap changer control is used to bring the value of ()
close to the desired range of (15o to 20o) as shows the V/I characteristic
of fig. (8.24).
(c) Under normal condition, the rectifier is on (CC) mode and the
inverter is on (CEA) control mode. If there is a reduction in AC voltage
at the rectifier end, the rectifier firing angle decreases until it hits the
(min) limit. At this point, the rectifier switches to (min) control and the
inverter will assume constant current control, as shows fig. (8.23).
V Constant power mode Constant current mode

1 P
I desr  desr
DC voltage 1  STv V
transducer
I'MAX Iord Vdo
I'MAX I'MA
1 IMAX X
DC current 1  STc
IMIN Ides 1
transducer V
IMIN V
V IMIN I'MAX
1  STd
Determine MAX Determine current
current order Commutation
Current voltage
compensation 2 Rc transducer
Eo (cos  o  cos  min )  Vcea
unit +Id Eo
-Iord 1
+Vcc
+Idmar
 K
1  STr 
V V
 cos  o
cos 
Eo
0
Current regulator +Vcea -1
Delay angle
determination
Fig. 8.22 Detailed modern HVDC systems converter controller
Vd Vd Rectifier E operating
Inverter CEA E operating CIA Point
Point
 min Inverter
1 Inverter CEA
2 CC
Rectifier
Rectifier 3 CC
CC
Id Id
Imarg
Fig. 8.23 Idealized steady Fig. 8.24 Normal converter

state converter V-I curves control steady state V-I curves
Chapter 8 962
(d) To ensure satisfactory operation and equipment safety, several limits

such as: minimum current limit, and voltage dependent current order
limit (VDCOL), should be provided to the controller.
(e) Higher level controls may be used, in addition to the above basic
controls, to improve AC/DC system interaction and enhance AC
system performance. (Vdr) measured at the rectifier side and fed to the
maximum current determinator which in turn fed to the current order
determinator which generates the negative current order signal which
fed the regulator input. Current commutation unit includes (R cId) drop
should be used to fed the (Vcea) signal as shown in fig. (8.22).
(f) The controller should generate directly (cos) and (cos) and not (
and ). Inter-arrangement between the values of ( and ) should be
made by telecommunication system and a master controller.
(g) The flow of (CC) and (CEA) signals should be fed through a logic
circuit to choose the required mode, whether they are used separately or
they summed together. Their V/I characteristic is shown in fig. (8.23).
(h) Additional signal called (Iord) is used to augment the controller
stability.
(i) Possibility of addition of new signals such as the fuzzy logic signals.
(j) Use of local and master remoted controller between sending and
receiving ends of the DC system, to coordinate their functions.
Most schemes used to date have used the above modes of operation for
the rectifier and the inverter (fig. 8.14). However, there are some situations
that may warrant serious investigation of a control scheme in which, the
inverter is operated continuously in current control mode and the rectifier in
(min) control mode. Each DC converter operates in the required mode of
control: constant current (CC), constant ignition or delay angle (CIA), or
constant extinction angle (CEA).
8.29.2 Constant Extinction Angle (CEA) Control with

Individual Phase Control (IPC):
The control has to satisfy the condition that the voltage integral (2X cId)
is available between () and (-), as shown in fig. (8.8). The direct current
and the commutating voltage vary with changes in operating conditions. With
extinction angle equal to a set value (o) and (Xc). The control system consists
of three units: The first unit giving a DC output proportional to the direct
current; the second giving an output proportional to (E o coso); and the third
giving an alternating voltage proportional to the commutating voltage but
with a phase lag of (90o). The three outputs are added, and a firing pulse is
generated when the sum passes through zero. Under steady state conditions,
such systems control each valve with constant commutation margin,

irrespective of load and voltage variations or unbalance.
8.29.3 Constant Current (CC) Control with Individual
Phase Control (IPC):
An additional signal Vcc=K(Iord-Id) is generated, where (Iord) current
order; (Id) actual direct line current; (K) gain of (CC) control. The error (I ord -
Id) is amplified only when (Id) is less than (Iord) i.e. when (Iord-Id)>0, when (Id)
is greater than (Iord), the amplifier output is clamped to zero, and the converter
operates on (CEA) control while, when (Iord-Id)>0, it operates on (CC) control.
The realization of (CIA) control is similar to that of (CEA) controls and
8.30 Controls of MTDC Systems:

The basic control principle for MTDC systems is a generalization of
that for two-terminal systems. The control characteristic for each converter is
composed of segment representing constant-current control and constant-
extinction angle control CEA for inverter and CIA for rectifier. The following
is a general discussion of significant aspects related to control of parallel, and
series connected systems.
8.30.1 Control of Parallel Connected (MTDC) Systems:

One of the terminals establishes the operating voltage of the DC
system, and all other terminals operate on constant current control. This may
be either a rectifier on CIA control or an inverter on CEA control. The V-I
characteristics for a four terminals DC system are shown in fig. (8.25) for two
of the terminals are operating as rectifiers and the other two terminals as
inverters. If a rectifier defines the system voltage, the operation is more
stable. All inverters control current, thereby avoiding operation in the less
stable CEA control mode.
8.30.2 Control of Series Connected (MTDC) Systems:

In a series connected system, current is controlled by one terminal, and
all other terminals either operate at constant angle ( or ) control or
regulated voltage, as shown in fig. (8.26). The operation of converters in
series requires converter operation with high firing angles. This can be
minimized by tap-changer control and backing off one bridge against another.
Chapter 8 965
Vd Vd CIA Vd CEA Vd CEA

CIA
CC CC CC CC
I1 I2 I3 I4 Id
Rectifier #1 Rectifier #2 Inverter #1 Inverter #2
(a)
Vd
Combined
rectifier C/C.
Combined
Imar
inverter C/C.
I2 I3+ I4 I1+ I2 Id
(b)
Fig. 8.25 Control characteristics of parallel connected MTDC system
(a) Individual converter characteristics (b) Overall characteristics
Vd
CIA
CC
Vd Combined
Vd I1
rectifier C/C.
CIA
Combined
inverter C/C.
CC
Vd I2
CEA Imar
CC Id
I3 I4 I2 I1
I3
Vd
CEA
(b)
CC
I4 Id
(a)
Fig. 8.26 Control characteristics of series connected MTDC system
(a) Individual converter characteristics (b) Overall characteristics
8.31 DC System Controls Representation in Steady-State

Studies:
8.31.1 DC System Characteristics with Recent Controls

Modes:
DC rectifier converters of DC system can be controlled either by
constant DC current (CC) and variable firing angles (r) or by fixing the
firing angle constant ignition angle control (CIA) and allowing the DC current
(Id) to change. While for inverter constant current (CC) control can be used
together with or without constant extinction angle (i) control (CEA) control.
These control are shown in fig. (8.27). Usually, an HVDC link is required to
transmit a scheduled power.
Vd
CIA Vd Operating points
 min Operating points
CEA
1 CIA
 min
CEA
2 1
2
CC
CC CC CC
Imarg Imarg
Iord Id Iord Id
(a) (b)
Vd Recent characteristics
CIA
Operating points
Iord-Imarg I*d Iord Id
(c)
Fig. 8.27 Constant current, constant ignition angle and constant

extinction angle controls V/I characteristics of DC systems
(a) Mode 1 (b) Mode 2 (c) Mode 3
Chapter 8 962
In such an application, the corresponding current order (I ord) is

determined as being equal to the power order ( Pdisp ) divided by the measured
direct voltage ( Vdisp ). The current order so computed is used as input signal to
the current control. The current control of the rectifier acts to reduce the direct
voltage and bring back the current to its normal set value (I ord). At the
inverter, the current becomes less than its current controller reference setting
(Iord-Imarg). Consequently, the inverter mode of operation changes from (CEA)
control to (CC) control. Then the difference between the rectifier current
order ( Pr Vdr ) and the inverter current order ( Pdisp Vdisp ) is called the current
margin, denoted by (Imarg), it is usually set at (0 to 15)% of the rated current.
So as to ensure that the two constant current characteristics do not cross each
other due to errors in measurement or other causes. Rectifier on (CC) control
and inverter on (CEA) control. The extinction angle equals (  i   min ), and
DC current is (Id=Iord). But inverter on (CC) control and rectifier on (CEA)
control: The firing delay angle for rectifier is (  r   min ), and DC current is
(Id=Iord-Imarg).
8.31.2 Modes of Operation with Different Controls:

The dependent and independent variables in the solution of DC
equations depend on rectifier and inverter of the three control modes of
operation are:
8.31.2.1 Mode 1: Rectifier on (CC) Control and Inverter

on (CEA) Control:
Where inverter extinction angle    min and rectifier firing angle
adjusted to give Id=Iord then the rectifier off nominal transformer tap ratio is
adjusted to give  desired and inverter off nominal transformer tap ratio gives
desired voltage. Then form the above equations, the inverter equations are:
Vdi  K1aiVi cos  min  K2 I ord Bi X ci  0
i  cos1Vdi K1ai BiVi 

(8.86)
Pi  Vdi I ord
Qi  Pi tan i
Since  min and Iord are known, for equations (8.43), (8.45), and (8.42) the
rectifier equations are:
Vdr  Vdi  Rdc Iord
Then:
 V K B X I 
 r  cos 1 dr  2 r cr ord 
 K1arVr K1arVr 
r  cos1Vdr K1ar BrVr  (8.87)
Pr  Vdr Iord
Qr  Pr tan r
8.31.2.2 Mode 2: Inverter on (CC) Control and Rectifier

on (CIA) Control:
Where rectifier firing angle    min , and inverter extinction angle
adjusted to give Id=Iord-Imarg. Then the rectifier equation are
 
Vdr  K1arVr cos min  K2 I ord  I m arg Br X cr  0
r  cos1Vdr K1ar BrVr 

Pr  Vdr I ord  I m arg  (8.88)
Qr  Pr tan r
With (Vr) known from AC solution, the inverter equations are the following:

Vdr  Vdi  Rdc I ord  I m arg 
 V
 i  cos 1 di 

K 2 Bi X ci I ord  I m arg 

 K1aiVi K1aiVi 
i  cos1Vdi K1ai BiVi  (8.89)

Pi  Vdi I ord  I m arg 
Chapter 8 962
Qi  Pi tan i
8.31.2.3 Mode 3: Rectifier on (CIA) Control and Inverter

Control on Recent Characteristic:
One method of realizing this recent characteristic is to operate the
inverter in the constant ignition angle . Rectifier ignition delay angle is equal
to  min , and inverter ignition advance angle equal . Such that Id = I*d where
Iord>I*d>(Iord-Imarg), and values are known for the DC line current:
 
 K a B V cos  K1ai BiVi cos  
*  1 r r r 
Id  min
 3 3
Br X cr  Rdc  Bi X ci 
 
   
r  cos1Vdr K1ar BrVr 
i  cos1Vdi K1ai BiVi 
Pr  Vdr I d* (8.90)
Pi  Vdi I d*
Qr  Pr tan r
Qi  Pi tan i
8.32 AC/DC Load Flow with Controlled Two-Terminals

HVDC System:
The rectifier and inverter modes of operation may not be known prior
to the solution of system equations. Therefore, the following procedure may
be used to establish operating modes and solve the AC and DC equations.
Having known the specified values of Vdisp ,  rsp ,  isp , Pdisp , and tolerance
(  ) , the solution procedure is the following:
(1) Solve for AC equation output (Vr), (Vi).
(2) Solve mode (1) DC equations.
(i) If (  r   min ), mode (1) condition is satisfied, go to step (3).
(ii) If (  r   min ), solve for mode (2) DC equations.
If ( i   min ), mode (1) condition is satisfied, go to step (3).

(iii) If (  i   min ), solve for mode (3) equations.
(3) Calculate (Pr), (Qr), (Pi) and (Qi). If mismatch is greater than tolerance, go
back to step (1) and solve AC equations.
(4) If mismatch is less than tolerance, solution is complete.
Providing the interface between the AC and DC equations. As

illustrated in fig. (8.28), they are known from the previous steps in AC
solution. The dependent and independent variables in the solution of DC
equations depend on rectifier and inverter control modes.
Read
 desired ,  min , Iordr, Imarg, and  min
 min
 desired Iordr  min Imarg
Rectifier equation Vdr DC line equation Vdi Inverter equation

1  Vdr  K 2 Rcr I d   V  K 2 Rci I d 
 r  cos  Vdr  Vdi  Rdc I d  i  cos 1  di 

 K1ar BrVr 
    K1ai BiVi 
Vr Iac Id
 r   min Vi
 i   min  i   min
 r   min
r Pr AC system solution Pi i
Pr  Vdr I d
Qi Qr i Pr tanQ
Q r
i
Qr Pi  Vdi I d Mode
Mode Qi
Mode
1
Qi  Pi tan i 1 Mode
2 3
Mode (1):
i   min , Id=Iord
Mode (2):
r  min , Id=Iord-Imarg
Mode (3):
r  min ,Iord>Id>Iord-Imarg
Fig. 8.28 Program power flow solution of AC/DC interface
8.32 General Features of Steady-State Performance of

HVDC Systems:
The usually operates rectifier with minimum delay angle and the inverter
operates with minimum extinction angle in order to achieve the control with
minimum amount of reactive power consumption.
Chapter 8 922
(a) The HVDC system cannot operate at some of controllers

parameters when they deviate from those obtained by steady-state load
flow results.
(b) The most critical parameter is the rectifier-firing angle. There is a
limit beyond which unbelievable DC voltages are expected. They can
damage the system equipment and insulators. Low values of  r are
associated with poor power factors and the working value has a
moderate power factor of (0.86) and (0.84). This shows the necessity of
installing VAR compensators at both ends. More values of rectifier
firing angle  r is associated with improvement of power factors on
account of very high DC voltages and by power direction reverse.
(c) Very low inverter extinction angles i of the inverter are
associated with better power factors. Poor power factors are obtained
with higher values. Once more operational values of i are associated
with AC sides power factors around the (0.85), which shows the
necessity of VAR compensation at both ends. More values of i are
associated with power direction reverse.
(d) DC lines of short lengths or back-to-back HVDC systems are
characterized with high power factors (near 0.9). While transmission
system of higher DC line lengths are associated with low power factors
AC sides (near 0.78).
(e) Decrease of converter transformers off nominal tap ratio causes
improvement in AC sides power factors and reversal of converters
power direction. Their decrease lead to drastic fall in AC sides power
factors and in fall of DC voltage levels.
(f) Low values of (Xcr, Xci) result in better power factors and in
higher DC voltage levels. Low values of Xcr and high values of Xci lead
to converter power direction reversal. Increase of X cr or Xci lead to
decrease of power losses.
(g) Increase of number of pulses lead to more DC current output and
to higher voltage levels on account of low power factors and more
power losses.
(h) Increasing the inverter extinction angles while increasing the
rectifier firing angles simultaneously by master control, result in
increasing the range of operation with acceptable voltages and power
factors, and losses and prevents the power reversal at narrow ranges of
 r . This affects the range of operation of both of the rectifier and
inverter transformers off nominal tap ratios.
(i) In multi-terminals HVDC systems, all terminals are interrelated
to each other and their delay angles are dependent on system operation.
(j) AC side power factors of multi-terminal HVDC systems depend
on operational parameters of all terminals. Any variation in any
terminal affects all other terminals power factors. However, some

parameters influence mainly the local parameters of the system.
Problems
8.1 An HVDC system having rectifier commutation reactance Xcr=60
ohm, transformer off nominal tap ratio ar=1.03, inverter commutation
reactance Xci=55 ohm, and transformer off nominal tap ratio a i =1.01,
the DC line resistance Rdc=5 ohm. The AC voltage at rectifier side is Vr
= 220kV, while the AC voltage at the inverter side Vi = 225kV. Find the
DC flowing current when the rectifier firing angle is  =14o and the
inverter extinction angle  =21o.
8.2 For problem 1 plot the DC current when the rectifier firing angle is
varied from zero to 90o by intervals of 10o.
8.3 For problem 1 plot the DC current when the inverter extinction
angle is varied between 5o to 90o.
8.4 Repeat problem 1 for ar and ai are changed between 0.8 to 1.2 for
each.
8.5 Solve example 8.5 when inverter #4 is totally separated together
with line R24. Find the rectifier-firing angle when the AC voltage at
rectifier #2 is 100kV, 200kV, and 300kV.
8.6 Solve example 8.5 with unknown firing angles and AC voltages
100, 200, 200, 400kV.
8.7 The curves shown in Figure (Prob.7) are for a simple single-bridge
rectifier-inverter link. Assume that the rectifier and inverter stations
have identical apparatus and parameters and that the steady state
operating point at the rectifier terminal voltage Vdr is 100kV. Assume
that the DC line has a total loop resistance of 5.0 ohm, a pole-to-pole
capacitance of 0.01  F/m, and a loop inductance of 3.2 mH/m. Use
dimension one-bridge equations.
(a) Determine the rectifier commutating resistance Rc.
(b) Determine the inverter DC average terminal voltage Vdi.
(c) Determine the rectifier-firing angle ( ) at the operating point E.
Vdr
  15 
120kV
110kV
E
100kV
Id
1000A 1200A
Figure Prob.7
Chapter 8 922
Imarg
8.8An HVDC link has the following parameters Xcr=45ohm, Rdc=4.5ohm

and Xci=42ohm. The transformer primary AC line voltage terminal to a
three-phase connected rectifier is 260kV, and the off nominal tap ratios
for rectifier, inverter sides are 1.05 and 1.03 respectively. When
delivering 400MW at 300kV DC, the inverter operates with an
extinction angle of 24o, and the rectifier operates at firing angle delay
of 15o.
(a) Find the power factors at rectifier and inverter AC sides
(b) Calculate the capacitor ratings at both rectifier and inverter AC sides
required to improve the power factor to 0.9 up to unity
(c) Select the reasonable values at both sides, then design the TSC static
VAR compensator with these selected ratings
References
[1] J. Arrillaga, Amold C. P. and Harker B. J., "Computer Modeling of
Electrical Power Systems", Book, John Wiley & Sons, New York,
1983.
[2] M. E. El-Hawary, "Electrical Power Systems Design and analysis",
Book, Reston, Publishing Company, 1983.
[3] B. M. Weedy, B. J. Cory, "Electric Power systems", Book, John Wiley
& Sons, New York, 1997.
[4] B. J. Cory, "High Voltage Direct Current Power Converters and
Systems", Book, London: Mc-Donald, 1965.
[5] C. Adamson and N. G. Hingorani, "High Voltage Direct Current Power
Transmission", Book, London, Garraway, 1960.
[6] S. K. Gandhi, "Semiconductor Power Devices", Book, Jhon Willy &
Sons, New York, 1967.
[7] B. Jayant Baliga, "Modern Power Devices", Book, John Wiley & Sons,
New York, 1987.
[8] P. Kundur, "Power System Stability and Control", Book, Mc-Graw.
Hill, New York, 1994.
[9] E. W. Kimbark, "Direct Current Transmission", Book, Wiley-Inter-
Science, New York, 1971.
[10] K. R. Padiyar, "HVDC Power Transmission Systems Technology and
System Interactions" Book, Wiley Eastern Limited, 1993.
[11] E. Uhlmann, "Power Transmission by Direct Current", Book, Berlin
Springer-Verlag, 1975.
[12] J. Arrillaga, "High Voltage Direct Current Transmission", Book,

London, Peter Peregrinus, 1983.
[13] M. Z. El-Sadek, "Optimization of HVDC Controller Parameters",
Record of 22nd Universities Power Engineering Conference,
Sunderland, England, No.1.07, Part I, 1987, pp.1-4.
[14] M. Z. El-Sadek, "Effects of Smoothing Reactors Size on the HVDC
System Stability", Middle East Power System Conference,
MEPCON’89, Cairo and Assiut, Egypt, January, No.TP16-163, 1989,
pp.329-333.
[15] Y. A. Mubarak, "HVDC System Performance with New Controls",
M.Sc. Thesis, Aswan High Institute of Energy, Aswan, Egypt, 2001.
[16] M. Z. El-Sadek, "Dynamic Behavior of HVDC Link After AC System
Disturbances as Influenced by Rectifier Controller Parameters and
Partial loss of VAR Compensation", Computers and Electrical
Engineering Journal, Vol.17, No.2, 1991, pp.91-104.
[17] M. Z. El-Sadek, "New Method for the Design of Controllers in Large
Power Systems", First Inter-Arab Conference on Electric Power
Systems, Institute of Electronic, University of Constantine, Algeria,
1986, pp.118-121.
[18] M. Z. El-Sadek, "The Effective Parameters of HVDC Inverter
Controller", 24th Universities Power Engineering Conference, Belfast,
North Ireland, 1989, pp.173-176.
[19] A. E. Hammad, M. Z. El-Sadek, and P. K. Dash, "Application of Static
VAR Compensators and HVDC Converters for Damping Sub-
synchronous Oscillations in Power Systems". IFAC Control in Power
Electronics and Electrical Drives, Lausanne, Switzerland, 1983,
pp.705-712.
[20] M. Ishikawa, “HVDC Transmission Control equipment with High
Reliability”, IEEE Trans., Vol. PWRD-1, No. 2, April 1986, pp 254-
263.
[21] J. Reeve, “Multi-terminal HVDC Power Systems”, IEEE Trans., Vol.
PAS-99, No. 2, pp 729-37, March/April 1980.
[22] M. Z. El-Sadek, G. El-Saady, Mohamed M. Hamada, G. Shabib, and
Y. A. Mubarak, ''HVDC Systems Controlled with Artificial Intelligence
Techniques'', UPEC 2001, University of Wales Swansea, Sept. 2001.
Chapter 9 275
Chapter 9
Voltage Control in Power Systems
9.1 Introduction:
Generator internal e.m.f.s are the source of voltages in power systems.
Loads active and reactive powers demand together with network parameters
determine both of load and generators terminals nodes voltages. Control of
power system nodes voltages can be achieved either:
 By acting on generators excitation.
 Or, By acting on transmission system elements or variables.
 Or, By acting on loads operational conditions.
 Or, By combinations of them.
An inherent voltage control is also accompanied with three-phase load
balancing and harmonics minimization. Analyses displayed in this chapter are
devoted to voltage control during steady state or quasi steady-state conditions.
The techniques are used in all conditions.
9.2 Voltage Control by Acting on Generators

Excitation:
9.2.1 General Principles:

The internal e.m.f's of generators can be considered as voltage sources
energizing the network terminals. Continual adjustments of these e.m.f.'s
controls the generator terminal voltages, which in turn controls all loads and
connection node terminals. On the other hand, generators are the main source
of reactive power generation in the network. The flow of these reactive
powers decides the voltage magnitudes of system nodes. Any control in the
flow of these reactive powers affects directly the whole system voltage levels,
because: (V XQ/V)
Actually generators are mainly synchronous generators. In future
induction generators are promised to be used extensively in combination with
capacitive static VAR compensators to provide variable capacitive excitation
to the generators with variable load conditions. Synchronous generators are
fed from "DC exciters" which exists as shunt DC generators mounted on the
same generator shaft. Excitation field coils are then fed through two brushes
and slip rings. In recent plants the excitation voltage is originally generated
by an AC generator and fed to field coils of the generators through diodes or
thyristor bridges; which still have some drawbacks in the firing circuits and
their control means. This is called "Brushless Exciter".
276 Voltage Control in Power Systems
9.2.2 Excitation System and Automatic Voltage

Regulator (AVR):
The mechanical power and the DC field coils voltage V f, which is
generated by "Exciters", are the two synchronous generator inputs. In order to
control generator voltage, its internal e.m.f should be controlled by an
"Excitation System" having an "Automatic Voltage Regulator" (AVR).
Generally, the exciter is required to supply field currents in the range of 2800-
7000 A, at field voltage of 250-600 V, for large generators. For smaller ones,
these will starts from 48A at 400 V. So, large exciters are required. The
principle elements of the excitation system are represented schematically in
fig. (9.1). Its operation is given as follow:
The generator output voltages and currents are measured through
voltage and current transformers (PT and CT) respectively and transformed
into DC quantities. They are fed to the compensator circuit where the control
signal is to be formed .The output of this circuit is compared to a reference
voltage and any error is amplified by transistor and magnetic amplifiers and
fed to a mechanical amplifier called the amplydyne, which is a special two-
axis DC generator.
Fig. 9.1 Principle elements of synchronous generators excitation systems

Chapter 9 277
The amplydyne provides incremental changes to the "Exciter" field

windings in a "Boost-buck" manner. The exciter output voltage is the input
voltage to the field excitation coils of the synchronous generator. The exciter
output is fed to the synchronous generator field coils in a "Self Exciting"
mode. Thus, even if the amplydyne output is zero (i.e. no correction in the
generator terminal voltage (Va) is needed), the exciter supplies the required
level of voltage Vfd to the synchronous generator field. Amplydyne regulator
can be removed from the circuit by transfer switches and the exciter field can
be put in manual control. Recent control systems replace amplydyne by
electronic amplifiers. Several stabilizing loops called "Stabilizers" are
required to avoid unstable operation of the feedback loops.
A limiter is provided to perform the "Excitation Ceiling" and prevent

the undesirable excitation voltage levels. In order to insure that the reactive
power is properly divided between generators working in parallel, a feedback
loop of synchronous generator current (I a) is provided to introduce a voltage
drop proportional to Ia and therefore take into consideration the effect of the
output power (P, Q) as:
P2  Q2
Ia  (9.1)
Va2
Other inputs are signals to be added to reinforce the system stability, through
power systems stabilizers (PSS), such as generator speed, acceleration,
incremental power or reactive power, rotor angle or derivatives of these
quantity deviations.
9.2.3 Automatic Voltage Regulators Action:

A simplified block diagram of the synchronous generator excitation
system with automatic voltage regulator (AVR) is shown in fig. (9.2). The
operation of the system is as follows: The output three-phase generator
voltages are measured through three potential transformers and rectified, then
compared to a reference voltage, plus the other signals (expressed as
equivalent voltage increments), to get an error signal V E. The output of the
feedback stabilization network is added by opposite sign to the error signal to
provide an input signal to the amplifier which in turn feeds the exciter field
coil directly (no boost-buck feature is considered here). Exciter armature
output voltage is applied to the synchronous generator field coil. Therefore if
terminal voltage decreases, VE appear positive, VR increases to raise the
generator terminal voltage and vise versa. This correcting action will be
continuous, so the regulator is called "Automatic Voltage Regulator" (AVR)
or "Continuously Acting Voltage Regulator".
Fig. 9.2 Simplified block diagram of an automatic voltage regulator (or

an excitation system) with DC generator exciter
9.2.4 Modeling of Generators provided with "Automatic

Voltage Regulators":
9.2.4.1 Generators Modeling by Transfer Functions:
The loaded generator transfer function which relates the output voltage
|Va| to its field voltage Vfd, at synchronous speed operation conditions and
equal mechanical input power and output electrical power, is given by:
Va K g
Gg   (9.2)
V fd 1  STdo
'
Where:
Kg  Generator gain (Operational variable around 1.04)
  Parametric and operational variable (around 0.7)
T'doOpen-circuit field circuits time constant (in the range of 0.02-5sec)
S  Laplace transform coefficient
Formula for Kg and  will be given later. For unloaded generator, this transfer
function tends to be:
Va 1
Gg   (9.3)
V fd 1  STdo
'
Chapter 9 279
9.2.4.2 AVR Modeling:

For quantitative analysis, the IEEE has presented models with
numerical parameters and variables expressed in pu to be easily used for multi
generation stations studies. These models are as follows :
(1) AVR With DC Generator Exciter Modeling:

The block diagram for such model is early shown in fig. (9.1). A
simplified block diagram of generator and a dc generator exciter is shown in
fig. (9.2). The measurement given is considered unity in steady-state (i.e. 1%
change in terminal voltage leads to 1% change at the summing point). T R is
very small in the order of 0.0005 sec., and can be neglected. KA is typically in
the range of 25 to 400. A value of 150 was longely considered as an optimum
value. TA is typically in the range of 0.02 to 0.4 sec.
The limits should be included for large disturbance (or transient)

studies. Thus VR will be limited by VR.min and VR.max and will lie within them.
A typical stabilizer is shown which consists of a proportional differentiation
KFS and a delay (1/1+STF). Typical values of KF are in the range of (0.02 to
0.1) and of TF are in the range of (0.35 to 2.2) sec. The exciter is usually used
as a self separately excited dc generator or as self-excited DC generator. Its
transfer function is well known in all textbooks as:
 1 
G E    (9.4)
 K E  STE 
With KE = 1.0 for separately excited generators, KE = -0.1 for self excited
generators, TE is in the range (0.5 to 1.0) sec.
To account for the saturation, a virtual feedback signal of the exciter output
voltage is added with gain SF (Efd) which accounts to the difference of the
machine air gap line and the actual load-saturation curve.
(2) AVR With Thyristorised Exciters Modeling:

For such AVR's, the DC machine transfer functions will disappear and
is replaced by the thyristor delays which are usually expressed as:
 1 
e  STd    (9.5)
 1  STd 
Where Td is the delay time of thyristor firing angles circuits. Usually it is in

the range of (0.00025) sec. Figure (9.3) shows a schematic diagram of such
AVR.
Fig. 9.3 AVR with a thyristorised exciter block diagram
(3) AVR With Combined Current and Stabilization Loops

Model:
Figure (9.4) shows a diagram for such AVR’s. Many loops are
provided, to reinforce system and excitation system controls stability. Typical
values are shown in the figure. The power system stabilizer (PSS) appear in
that figure, together with the known control circuits feedback stabilizers.
Fig. 9.4 AVR provided with stabilization loops block diagram

Chapter 9 281
(4) The Brushless Exciter Model:

Figure (9.5) shows the exciter and rectifier components of the IEEE
model. The voltage applied to the field winding of the exciter is represented
by VR on the left of the diagram whereas Efd is the voltage applied to the main
generator field winding on the right of the model.
Fig. 9.5 IEEE brushless exciter model
9.2.5 Terminal Voltage of Loaded Generator without

AVR Control:
In order to explain the effect of the automatic voltage regulator in
controlling (or regulating) the synchronous generator voltage at steady-state
conditions with variable loads, consider a system with DC exciter as shown in
Figs. (9.1) and (9.2). Assuming the generator is nonsalient pole and is loaded
by an impedance load Z=R+jX. The load current is I a, internal e.m.f. is E'a
and the terminal voltage is Va. Without AVR action, the generator has Xq=Xd.
When the exciter saturation is neglected SE (Efd) = 0. In both cases;
At steady-state conditions, the generator transfer function becomes:
G g 0  K g  (9.6)
Both |Va| and Efd are being constant values related by:
Va  G g 0E fd  K g E fd (9.7)
With:
K g  Z K  Z K d2  K q2
For a load impedance of |Z| = |R+jX| = ( R 2  X 2 ) and for a generator
having resistance r and reactance’s (Xd, Xq), the coefficient  is defined by:
1 r  R 2  X  X d' X  X q 
 

1  X d  X d' K d  r  R 2   X  X d X  X q 
(9.8)
For inductive loads X  0,   1. K is the generator d, q axis currents gain,

which is expressed in function of E'a and the generator currents (Id, Iq) relation
as:

I a  I d  jI q  K d E a'  jK q E a'  K d  jK q E a'  KE a' (9.9)
With:
Ea'  Va  rI a  jX d' I d e j  jX q I q e j
 
 X  Xq
Kd 
r  R 2  X  X d' X  X q 
Kq 
r  R 
r  R 2  X  X d' X  X q 
K  K d  jK q , K  K d2  K q2
But:

Va  rI a  r  Z I a  r  R  jX  I q  jI d e j
Or:
   
Ea'  r  R I q  X d'  X I d  j r  R I d  X q  X I q   (9.10)
And:
  
Va  I a Z  Z I q  jI d e j  Z K q  jK d Ea' e j  (9.11)
Thus:
Va  Z K Ea'  K g Ea'
Then:
Kg  Z K (9.12)
From these definitions of Kg and  and using the generator nonsaliency

property Xd=Xq, assume that the load is purely resistive (Z=R) and variable in
steps from open circuit (R=) to short circuit (R=0). The open circuit
generator voltage is kept constant (Va=1) for all conditions (by its field
current if). The synchronous generator is non-salient one with r=0, Xq=Xd, and
the exciter saturation is neglected ie. S E(Efd)=0. Now referring to the
generator transfer function eqn (9.3).
Chapter 9 283
K g Va
Gg S    (9.13)
1  STdo
'
E fd
For a non-salient pole generator loaded by a pure resistive load and without
AVR, the generator terminal voltage at steady-state conditions may be
expressed as:
Va  G g 0E fd  K g E fd (9.14)
Using definitions of Kg and Xd = Xq, then:
R
K g 
R 2  X q2
And:
R
Va  E fd (9.15)
R 
2
X q2
Efd is assumed to remain fixed at the value giving |Va| = 1 at no-load, i.e. at
R = . This means that Efd = 1. Therefore;
R
Va  for (0 < R < ) (9.16)
R 
2
X q2
The load current |Ia| is then given by:
Va 1
Ia   (9.17)
R R  2
X q2
Which gives:
2 2
R2 Ia  X q2 I a 1 (9.18)
But:
I a R  Va
Then:
2 2
Va  X q2 I a 1 (9.19)
This equation decides that the voltage/current relation is an ellipse, as shown

in fig. (9.6) for a typical case. Limits of this relation are:
When R =  (no-load), |Va| = 1 at Ia = 0

When R = 0 (short-circuit), |Va| = 0 at Ia =(1/Xq)
This means that when the generator loading current Ia increases, its terminal
voltage falls rapidly. At Ia =1/Xq, the terminal voltage will vanish totally.
Noting that Xq is in the range of 0.6 to 1.0 pu for hydraulic units and of 1.0 to
1.66 pu for thermal units, |Va will reach zero at Ia between 1.0 to 1.66 pu.
for hydraulic units and between 0.6 to 1.0 pu for thermal units, without any
control. The voltage will be between 60% to 70% of its no-load voltage at
nominal current loading, as shown in fig. (9.6).
Fig. 9.6 V/I characteristics of a loaded generator without AVR
9.2.6 Terminal Voltage of Loaded Generator with AVR

Control:
Now with feedback control, the automatic voltage regulator block
diagram of fig. (9.2) will reduce to that shown in fig. (9.7) (with S=0). When
|Va| drops, Efd will rise to counteract the tendency of |Va| to drop. This is clear
from the simple feedback circuit of fig. (9.7). Assuming the load is a pure
resistive load R and using the formula for Kg and  then:
Fig. 9.7 Steady-state block diagram of generator with AVR

Chapter 9 285
The generator output voltage is now given by:
 K A K g   
1  K R 
Va   Vref 

A
Vref (9.20)
1  GH  K E  K A K g 
 R  X q K E  K A R  
2 2

The reference is chosen so that the generator terminal voltage equal to unity at
no-load condition, or |Va| = 1 when R = . Therefore eqn. (9.20) yields:
KE  KA
Vref  (9.21)
KA
Equation (9.21) defines the required adjustment of the reference voltage

values of the AVR control loop, in order to keep |Va| = 1 at no-load.
For any loading condition, substitution of eqn. (9.21) in eqn. (9.20) gives:
(K E  K A )R
Va  (9.22)
2 2
R  X q K E  K AR
The load current |Ia| is then given by:
Va ( KE  K A )
Ia   (9.23)
R 2 2
R  X q KE  K A R
Still eqn. (9.20) decides that the Va/Ia relation is an ellipse.

Extremities of generator voltage occur at no-load (Ia=0) when R = , |Va|=1,
and at short-circuit |Va| = 0 at R = 0, and eqn. (9.20) gets the following ellipse
extremities:
KE  KA
Ia  (at R = 0, |Va|=0)
XqKE
Ia  0 (at R = , Ia = 0)
Therefore, |Ia| axis intercept is now increased by the factor (K E + KA)/KE as

compared with the case of that without AVR control. The ellipse is extended
to intersect the horizontal abscissa faraway, so that the portion which lie in the
normal operation zone is nearly a flat straight line, as shown in fig. (9.6), i.e.
constant voltage is guaranteed allover the normal operational conditions. This

is because 1/Xq lies in the range 0.6 to 1.66, while (KE+KA)/(XqKE) lies in the
range of 25 to 400. This means that generator terminal voltages will reach
zero (or vanishes) at 25 to 400 times the full-load current value.
V/I curves will be approximately a straight horizontal line with all

values of R which represent heavy and light loading conditions as shown in
fig. (9.8). This suggests that even with heavy loading conditions the AVR will
hold the steady-state voltage constant at all loading conditions. It will goes to
zero at least of 25 times the full load current value.
Fig. 9.8 V/I characteristics of a loaded generator provided with AVR

(Or with excitation system control)
Example 9.1:
Plot V/I characteristic of a non-salient pole generator having Xq = 0.6.
The excitation system amplifier gain is KA = 47, and its exciter gain KE = 1,
with and without automatic voltage regulator. Find the reference voltage
value.
Solution:
(a) Without AVR:
Va =1 pu at Ia =0
Va =0 at Ia =1/Xq =1/0.6 =1.66
(b) With AVR:
Va = 1 pu at Ia = 0
Va =0 at Ia = (47+1)/Xq = 48/(10.6)=80
Noting that the normal range of operation is: Ia = 1 pu only.
(c) Vref = (KE+KA)/KA = (1+47)/47 = 1.02128 pu.
The V/I characteristic is shown in fig. (9.8).
Chapter 9 287
Normally the generator full load current does not exceed 135% of its rated
designed current at nominal voltage and frequency. However, the above
example shows that with controlled excitation of the generator, the voltage
drops to zero at 80 times of the full load current which practically
unattainable and the voltage remains constant in the physically possible
generated current range. The control of the excitation system tends to damp
system voltage oscillations during and after disturbances and prevents the
system from going to the unstable zone.
This can be shown by the root locus of the linearized system

differential equations or by their time integration in their nonlinear form.
9.2.7 Types of Automatic Voltage Regulators:

It was shown that automatic voltage regulator is set out to control the
output voltage of synchronous generators by controlling the exciter field
current. Several types of AVR exists:
(a) Electromechanical AVR: such as carbon-pile regulator, which
consists of a solenoid, operated by a voltage proportional to the voltage
error, is used to vary the pressure on a carbon pile resistor in the exciter
field, thus varying its series resistance and output DC exciter voltage.
(b) AVR with Torque Resistor: exciter field resistor is formed of several
parts of resistor chain. The deviation of the voltage is transformed into a
torque by a "torque resistor" according to the angular position of the shaft
on the motor. Certain resistor chain is cut out of exciter field circuit.
(c) AVR with vibrating reed regulator:
(d) AVR with Electronic Thyristorised Elements: the exciter input is
obtained from automatic controlled rectifiers embedded in the exciter
circuit
(e) Continuous Acting AVR: in which there is no dead band and
electronic devices and circuits are used to regulate the voltage at all times,
to cope with load variations.
(f) Fast Acting AVR: These are the more recent types, which have very
fast responses and can hold the generator terminal voltage constant
irrespective of loading on generator. They are very efficient, but very
expensive. Sophisticated controlled electronic circuits are used.
9.2.8 Automatic Voltage Regulator Influence on

Generator Representations in System Studies:
In power system studies the generator internal e.m.f,s ( E,E,E,… )
usually considered with respective reactance’s (Xs, X, X, …) to indicate the
operation state of the generator. Three modes of operation of generator
excitation system exist. They are:
(a) Operation with fixed excitation and constant no-load voltage (E), i.e. no
regulator action. The generator can be simulated by an equivalent circuit of E
in series with Xs.
(b) Continuously acting regulator i.e. operation with the terminal voltage
varies with load changes in very narrow range. The generator can be
simulated by E and a reactance smaller than the synchronous value,
suggested by experience in practice that a reasonable value would be the
transient reactance (X). Some authors suggest taking half of the
synchronous reactance. This mode is usually applied to most modern
regulators.
(c) Very fast-acting regulators i.e. operation with terminal voltage constant.
The nearest approach to it exists in the forced-excitation regulators used on
generators supplying very long lines. In this type E increases and  increases
to keep V = constant,  will be beyond 90o. The generator terminals will be
represented by a constant voltage source, irrespective of loading conditions.
9.2.9 Influence of Automatic Voltage Regulator Type on

Generator Maximum Power Output:
Each of the above representations will give significantly different
values of maximum power output. The degree to which this happens depends
on the speed of AVR, and the effect on the operation chart of the synchronous
generator fig. 9.9(a), which indicates clearly the increase in operating range
obtainable.
(a) (b)
Fig. 9.9 Using Automatic Voltage Regulators

(a) Performance chart
(b) Machine infinite bus system power angle characteristics
Chapter 9 289
The AVR force up the voltage and consequently increases the power output of
the machine so that instead of power falling after  = 90o, it's maintained and
dP/d is still positive. This is shown in fig. 9.9(b) for a machine infinite bus
system.
Example 9.2:
A generator is feeding an infinite bus system through a stepping-up
transformer, transmission line and a stepping-down transformer. Generator
synchronous reactance Xs=1.5 pu and its transient reactance X=0.4 pu.
Stepping-up transformer reactance is 15% while that of the stepping-down
transformer is 10%. Transmission line reactance is 0.2 pu, its resistance is
negligible. All are given on 100MVA base. Normal power is P+ jQ =0.8+j0.5
pu. Find the system transfer reactance, the maximum transferred power and
the generator e.m.f, when the generator operates:
(a) With no AVR
(b) With continuous acting AVR
(c) With fast acting AVR
Solution:
(a) With no AVR: constant excitation voltage, generator reactance is
represented by Xs, therefore:
(X) Transfer = 1.5 + 0.15 + 0.2 + 0.1 = 1.95 pu
  0.8  j0.5  
E  1.00 o   j1.95     2.5838.3o
  1.0  
And generator maximum power:
Pmax =EV/X=(2.581)/1.95=1.29 pu.
(b) Using non-continuously acting AVR: Generator is then represented by
its transient reactance X and E, therefore:
(X) Transfer = 0.4 + 0.15 + 0.2 + 0.1 = 0.85 pu
  0.8  j0.5  
E '  1.00 o   j0.85     1.5925.5o
  1.0  
Generator maximum transferred power:
Pmax =E'V/X=(1.591)/0.85=1.87 pu.
(c) With fast acting AVR: The generator terminal voltage will rest constant
irrespective of generated power. E and  both will increase to keep Vt always
constant.
(X) Transfer = 0.15 + 0.2 + 0.1 = 0.45 pu
  0.8  j0.5  
Vt  Constant  1.00 o   j0.45     1.2816.4 o
  1.0  
Pmax =(1.281)/0.45=2.85 pu.
Table (9.1) gives a resume of these three cases and shows numerically the
increase in transferred power with voltage control and the virtual transferred
reactance decrease with that control.
Table 9.1 Effect of AVR on system studies parameters and maximum

transmitted power
Type Xgen Load E Pmax

of Control (p.u) (p.u) (p.u)
No control 1.95 2.52 1.29
With continuously Acting AVR 0.85 1.59 1.87
With Fast acting AVR 0.45 Vt =1.28 2.85
9.2.10 Effects of AVR on Generator VAR Capacity:

Generators, generate inductive reactive power when they are over-
excited machines (i.e. with excitation greater than normal), while under-
excited machine absorbs reactive power, (i.e. generates negative or leading
VAR's). The VAR capacity of the generators are determined by their short-
circuit ratio (inverse of its synchronous reactance). These ratio's are low in
modern machines (for economic reasons), hence the inherent ability to
operate at leading power factor is not large. The VAR capacity can be
increased by the use of continuously acting voltage regulators. This is clear
from fig. 9.9(a), which shows the machine performance with AVR.
9.3 Voltage Control by Acting on Transmission System

Elements Variables:
It was shown that basic control of system voltages reside in generator
excitation system or AVR. Observe that with exciters control, only the
generator buses voltages are controlled. However it is required that the
voltage at all buses in the system should be held at certain specified tolerance.
Voltage of power system nodes can be controlled either:
(a) By injecting appropriate reactive power at load nodes

(b) Or by changing transformers tapping steps
(c) Or by injection of series voltages
(d) Or by changing series reactance of lines.
(e) Or by use of flexible ac transmission systems (FACTS), which
perform judicious control of reactive power flow with electronically
controlled means
Chapter 9 291
9.3.1 By Injecting of Appropriate Reactive Power at

Load Nodes:
It is was shown in chapter 2 that for ultra HV network the voltage
magnitudes depend mainly on the load node reactive power Q consumption,
i.e.
XQ
V s  Vr  V  (9.24)
Vr
Vs, Vr are the source and load voltages respectively. On the other hand,
in low and medium voltage networks, the voltage difference depends on both
the active load power P and its reactive power Q and is given by:
XQ  RP
V  V s  Vr  (9.25)
Vr
R, X: resistance and reactance of the equivalent-feeding network.

Changement of the reactive power flow at any node will change the voltage
magnitudes all over the network as:
Vr V  RP
Q (9.26)
X
This equation decides also that for a fixed specified voltage drop |V|, and
load voltage Vr, reactive power injection can compensates for any
changement in load power "P". For example, variation of P to P1 and keeping
|Vr|V = constant, requires variation of drawn Q to:
RP  P1 
Q1  Q  (9.27)
X
It suggests also that even if the load power "P" is kept constant, and the
network elements (R, X) are unchanged, reactive power Q is required to
compensate for keeping any constant voltage drop "V" or to keep Vr
constant.
Moreover, the equation decides that reactive power Q can also compensate for
network elements variations (R, X) which occur during lines opening or
reclosing. Correct sign of injected Q is necessary for the appropriate
compensation.
9.3.1.1 Required Reactive Power Compensation Sign:

It is well known that for raising the voltage levels (at full load
conditions), capacitive reactive power is required, while for lowering voltage
levels (during light loading conditions), inductive reactive power should be
used. To prove the correctness of this fact considers the following 2-nodes
circuit, fig. (9.10). Assume a resistive load is connected to node #2 through a
switch. Transmission system has a reactance (-j2) pu assuming that the
generator has an e.m.f. Es = 10 pu. At no-load condition of bus #1:
V1  V2  10 (9.28)
Applications of the load at bus 2, its voltage became:
 j 2 10
V2   0.894  26.6 (9.29)
1  j 2
Voltage of node #2 dropped by 10.6% from its no-load value, which is
unacceptably low. Now adding shunt admittance B of pure reactive element in
parallel with the load can alleviate this problem, as follows.
Fig. 9.10 Two nodes system with shunt reactance (B) in parallel with load
Using a reactive element in shunt with the load:

Thus:
Chapter 9 293
1 2
V2  (9.30)
1  2  B 
2
Two cases arise:

(a) If B < 1 (inductive element or shunt reactor is connected, |V 2| will be
less than its value without reactive compensator.
(b) If B > 1 (capacitive element or shunt capacitor is connected, |V2| will be
greater than its value without compensator as the second term under the root
will be less than 2. Values of V2 with shunt reactive compensator
susceptance B is shown in fig. (9.11). This is true until B=2. Over
compensation is achieved and voltage will drop again, if B is greater than 2
as shown in fig. (9.11). Effects of variation of B s or the load node short-
circuit level is shown in the same Figure for Bs=5.0, 1.0, 0.5 and 0.35 pu.
Therefore, compensation is effective when the load-node short-circuit level
is low and become ineffective for higher levels. Figure (9.11) shows the
characteristic with short-circuit levels of (5.0, 1.0, 0.5 and 0.35) pu.
Fig. 9.11 Voltage magnitude with various shunt reactance’s B and at

different load node short-circuit levels
Noting that, for B = 2 pu, the voltage raises in the capacitive range and
is lower than the nominal no-load voltage. To raise V2 to be equal to V1 then:
 
1  1  2  B 2 , then B=0.268 pu or 3.732 pu, B=0.268 is selected.
Therefore, any load bus (or connection bus) voltage can be controlled to any
value using shunt reactive element (inductor or capacitor). Also, the degree of
the compensation depends on system reactance B s or on the load node short-
circuit level (Bs). Increasing the short circuit level to certain extent makes
the reactive power compensation is not necessary.
9.3.1.2 Practical Means of Shunt Reactive Power Injection at
Network Busses:
Reactive power injections or absorption’s at network busses can be
achieved either by:
(a) Mechanically switched shunt fixed reactors.
(b) Mechanically switched shunt fixed capacitors banks.
(c) Synchronous compensator (no-load synchronous motor).
(d) Thyristorised static VAR compensators or systems.
(e) Recent proposed static synchronous generators.
(f) Flexible AC Transmission Systems (FACTS)
9.3.1.3 Natural Generation and Absorption of Reactive Power in

Network Components and Loads:
Cables are generators of capacitive reactive power. A 275kV, 240MVA
cable generates nearly 7MVAR's per km while a 132kV cable generates
nearly 2MVAR's per km and a 33 kV cable generates nearly 1/8MVAR per
km, UHV cables, working with 66kV and above, need inductive
compensation. Overhead lines in general absorbs inductive reactive power in
their series reactance, except long line operating at ultra high voltages
generate capacitive reactive power in their shunt capacitance’s. Transformers,
on the other hand, absorb inductive reactive power in their leakage and
magnetizing inductance’s. Loads having power factors less than unity absorbs
inductive reactive power. The required reactive powers to be absorbed by any
load with different active powers are as follows:
 For power factor of 0.707 the reactive power will equal the load
active power.
 It amounts to three times the power at load power factor of 0.30.
 For power factor of 0.2 it goes to 4.0 times the active power.
9.3.2 Using Tap-changing Transformers:

Most of transformers are provided with tap-changers. Taps in the range
of 20% from the nominal in 4 steps or 15 steps are manufactured. Voltage
control is obtained directly by changing the secondary turn's ratio and
consequently the voltage level. This is the popular and widespread method of
voltage control. For a transmission system consists of a step-up transformer
having an off-nominal tap ratio ts, transmission line of series reactance (R+jX)
and a step-down transformer of off-nominal tapping ratio tr. The sending-end
source voltage Vs while the load side voltage Vr as shown in fig. (9.12). The
load powers are (P+jQ). Assuming ts tr = 1, then:
Chapter 9 295
Vr 
1 2
2 
 
t s V s  t s t s2V s2  4RP  XQ 
0.5

(9.31)
Fig. 9.12 Two nodes system with transformers having tap-changers
Two values of Vr for each value of ts are obtained. One of them is stable, the
other is unstable or undesirable, for corresponding values of t s and tr.
9.3.3 Using Combined Tap-changing Transformers and

Reactive Power Injection:
Regarding eqn. (9.31), the off-nominal tap ratio ranges between (0.8
and 1.2) in practical applications. For each transformer company there is a
certain specified ratio. To preserve the load voltage V r at certain level, ts can
be found from eqn. (9.31). However, if ts exceed the limits, the maximum
value of ts is to be used and Q is allowed to change in eqn. (9.31). The
difference between the obtained Q and the load reactive power Q L should be
injected by its appropriate sign, ((+) for inductive, (-) for capacitive). If that
difference is positive the reactive element is inductor and if it is negative it
will be capacitor.
Fig. 9.13 Thevenen’s equivalent system with transformer provided by

automatic tap-changer
Therefore, the required VAR compensator rating is then determined. In
order to study the relation between variable load powers (P+jQ) at different
load voltages Vt, when connected to a tap-changing transformer having on
load variable tapping "t" and series reactance " Xt" the system of fig. (9.13) is
used. The source voltage is (Vs).
Using the simplified voltage drop relation of the system voltage

equations which are:
 Xs  Xt   Rs 
 Q   2 P
Vs  t2  t 
V   Vt  (9.32)
t Vt
Vt2 t 2  Vt Vs t  Rs P   X s  X t Q  0 (9.33)
Or:
aVt2  bVt  c  0 (9.34)
From these equations "t" can be calculated as:

 V sVt  V sVt  2  4Vt 2 R s P   X s  X t Q 0.5
t1  
 (9.35)
 2Vt 2 
 

 V sVt  V sVt 2  4Vt2 R s P   X s  X t Q 0.5
t1  
 (9.36)
 2Vt 2 
 
Using eqns. (9.35), (9.36) the off nominal tap ratio of that tap-changing
transformer with various load powers and reactive power are plotted at
different load voltages in figs (9.14), (9.15) respectively, for a certain system.
Figure (9.14) shows the load powers corresponding to load voltages between
Vt=0.8 and Vt=1.2 p.u at different off nominal tap ratios between zero and 1.2
and at constant reactive power.
The figure shows that at lower load voltages, the transformer off-
nominal tap-ratio should be more than 0.75 for stable voltage operations. This
value will be 0.5 for higher voltage cases. Moreover, the maximum allowable
load power is the same for all load voltage levels. The figure decides that
lower off nominal tap ratio are not preferable from voltage stability point of
Chapter 9 297
view and the transformer tapping variations do not affect the maximum power
to be transmitted.
With a certain constant load power, fig. (9.15) shows the reactive
power response at different tapping. Once more, off nominal tap ratios less
than 0.45 will lead to unstable operations of the power system. The maximum
allowable (critical) reactive power is the same for all cases. Transformer
tapping does not affect this value. The range of the off nominal tap ratios is
wider than that with constant reactive power case, for the same voltage levels.
The observed fact that maximum load power is the same at any value of V t
can be explained regarding the values of "t", which are coincident, up on
vanishing the terms under the roots of eqns. (9.35), (9.36).
Fig. 9.14 Off nominal tap ratio/load power at different load terminal
voltages
Fig. 9.15 Off nominal tap ratio/load reactive power at different load
terminal voltages
Example 9.3:
A 132kV-transmission system consists of 132kV line, an 11/132kV
step-up transformer and a 132/11kV step-down transformer, both are provided
by tap-changers. The line and transformer impedance’s amount to
(0.14+j0.33) pu on base 100 MW. The tap ratio (ts tr) equals to unity. The load
in pu is (1+j0.483) pu.
(a) Calculate the setting of the tap-changers required to maintain the
voltage of the load bus bar at 11kV (1 pu).
(b) Find the required reactive power in pu to be injected if the tap ratio
exceeds the limits 20 %.
Solution:
(a) Line voltage is to be completely compensated or:
Vs = Vr = 132kV = 1 pu and (ts tr = 1). In pu, the load is (1 + j0.483)
on 100 MVA base. Application of (9.30) gives:
1
2 
 
1  t s2  1  t s t s2  40.14  1  0.38  0.483  , then t s  1.21
0.5

(b) These setting are more than the limits, to obtain the required reactive
power injection, apply (9.31) with ts = 1.2 and Q as unknown as follows:
1
2 
 
1  1.21 2 1  1.21 1.21 2  40.14 1  0.38  Q 
0.5

From which Q = 0.436 pu (-) sign. And compensator Qc = Q - Ql = 0.436-
0.483 = - 0.047 pu. (Capacitive)
9.3.5 Using Transformers with Tap-Changers as Tie-

Lines between Power Pools:
For voltage control purposes of two large interconnected systems (or
two power pools or areas or zones) tie line or link can be made by a
transformer with tap-changer.
Chapter 9 299
(
b)
Fig. 9.16 Two large power systems interconnected through transformer,

with tap-changer, and their equivalent circuits
Assuming that both systems are infinite bus systems of voltages V s, Vr
as shown in fig. 9.16(a) as these areas are interconnected at ultra high voltage
levels transformer, resistance may be neglected and assuming that its
reactance is X and its off-nominal tap ratio "t" the power flow from zone #1
to zone #2 is (Pt+jQt). Referring to fig. 9.16(b), application of the scalar
depression voltage formula gives:
Vs XQt
 Vr  (9.37)
t Vr t 2
When Vs = Vr = V, which is the normal situation, eqn. (9.37) becomes:
t 1  t V   Q
2
t (9.38)
X
But, the short circuit level at the node "r" is given by:
V2
S sc  (9.39)
X
Using eqn. (9.39), eqn. (9.38) can be rewritten as:
t 1  t S sc  Qt (9.40)
Therefore the sign of Q is determined by the value of t, or Q t can be

virtually changed in sign by changing the tie transformer tap ratio. If t is less
than 1, lagging reactive power will flow to the node "r". If t>1, lead reactive
power will flow to node "r" of the voltage V r. Thus, by adjustment of t,
needed injection or absorption of reactive power will be attained. Thus the
voltage is controlled by virtual reactive power absorption or generation at
node "r". The lines between large power pools should contain tapped-
transformers of the automatic type. Eqn. (9.40) decides that reactive power Qt
is a function of the nodes short-circuit levels. Higher levels produce higher
virtual Qt and vice versa.
9.3.6 Using Tag-Stagger Transformers as

Interconnections:
Two transformers with tap-changers connected in parallel used to tie
large power systems can control the voltage levels at the interconnection
nodes. Figure (9.17) shows such arrangement . If T1 is set to an off-nominal
ratio of t=1.1 and T2 is set to t=0.8, then a circulation of reactive power occurs
around the loop resulting in a net absorption of VAR's. If they are
interchanged net VAR generation results. This is an inexpensive method of
VAR absorption or generation. Only it depends on variations of VAR
circulation in the loop and the net reactive power at each node.
Fig. 9.17 Tap-stagger transformers for interconnecting two power pools
Example 9.4:
For the tag-stagger arrangement shown in fig. (9.17), if the voltage at
the bus bars A, B are kept constant at 1 pu. Reactance of both transformers is
18%. Off-nominal tap ratio of T1, T2 are 1.15, 0.85 respectively. Base power
is 120 MVA. Find the net reactive power flow at bus B.
Solution:
Referring to fig. (9.17)
1.15  1 1  0.85
I1   j0.833 pu. and I 2    j0.833 pu.
j0.18 j0.18
Due to I1: At bus A QA = 0.833 x 1 x 120 = 100MVAR
At bus B QB = 0.833 x 1.15 x 120 = 115MVAR
Due to I2: At bus A QA = 0.833 x 1 x 120 = 100MVAR
At bus B QB = 0.833 x 0.85 x 1 x 120 = 85MVAR
Therefore net reactive power at bus B: QB=115 - 85 = 30MVAR. Net reactive
power at bus A: QA = 0.
Noting that changing T1, T2 will change their reactive powers and both of Q A,
QB.
Chapter 9 301
9.3.7 Using Booster Transformers:

There are two types of booster transformer, namely, the in-phase
booster and the quadrature booster. In the former type, an additional voltage
in-phase with or in-phase opposition to the existing line-to-earth voltage is
injected into the system. This transformer in conjunction with the on-load tap-
changing transformer compensates the voltage drop in the line and controls
the amount of volt-amperes (VAR) transferred in an interconnected system.
Quadrature booster injects a voltage leading the system voltage by 90 o. The
amount of real power (KW) flowing is controlled by such a booster. The
reason for this is obvious. The line impedance is practically reactive. The
injection of a series in-phase results in the flow of quadrature current (reactive
kVA), while if the injection voltage is in quadrature, the current flows in a
direction lagging the injected voltage by nearly 90 o. Thus the resulting current
is in-phase with the phase voltage of the line or, in other words, real power
(KW) flows. Figure (9.18) shows the connection of the booster for a solidly
grounded system. This arrangement is cheap due to reduced insulation. Figure
(9.19) shows the equivalent circuit of an inphase booster transformer. Figure
(9.20) shows the method of obtaining a voltage booster at 90o to the existing
voltage for phase A. The booster transformer is energized from a regulating
transformer connected across phase B and C. The connections of booster for
the other two phases can similarly be shown. Figure (9.20) shows the phasor
diagram of the voltages.
Example 9.5:
Two generators feed local reactive loads each 12MVAR's. They are
interconnected by a line having a reactance of 0.061pu, a transformer
(X=10%) and a booster transformer of (X=10%). If the voltage at the
machines buses is kept constant at V1=V2=1pu, and no power or reactive
power are transmitted on the line, booster transformer voltage is raised by
8.75%, in order to avoid formation of ice by circulation of currents in lines.
Find the new reactive power demand from each generator? (Take base
MVA=20).
Solution:
As there is power transmit on the line, therefore initially each generator
feeding its own local load (12MVAR). Injection of 0.0875 pu voltage at the
booster transformer is equivalent to a superposition of such voltage in a
circuit as that shown in fig. (9.20). Current due to booster transformer voltage
0.08750
is: I1    j0.336 Amp.
j0.1  0.061  0.1
This current results in reactive powers at bus A:
QA = 0.336 x 1 x 20 = 6.72 MVAR

And an in reactive power at bus B:
QB = -0.336 x 1 x 20 = -6.72 MVAR
Therefore: Generator A should generate = 12 + 6.72 = 18.72MVAR
And generator B will generate = 12 - 6.72 = 5.28MVAR
Thus, generator A is overloaded and generator B is released.
Fig. 9.18 Series booster for solidly grounded booster
Fig. 9.19 Equivalent circuit of an inphase booster transformer

Chapter 9 303
(a) (b)
Fig. 9.20 Quadrature booster transformer

(a) Circuit diagram (b) Phasor diagram
9.3.8 Using Series Capacitors:
Installing a series capacitor (of capacitive reactance X c) in a long line
reduces its series inductive reactance to X=Xl-Xc. The voltage drop through
this reactance will decrease due to this reduction in X l of the line. It is
therefore possible to have complete compensation of X l, although in practice
partial compensation (75%) is preferable. Series capacitors have to carry
large current especially at overload conditions. To protect the series
capacitors from abnormal voltages, spark gaps are connected across it and
circuit breakers are connected in parallel with it.
Recently thyristor-controlled reactor or resistors are used in parallel, to

eliminate them during abnormal conditions, fig. (9.21) shows a series
capacitor arrangement. Preferably the series capacitor are connected at the
center of the line. This location reduces the capacity of the line, while the
connection at the terminals provide the facility of maintenance but with extra
over voltages under fault conditions. With a series capacitor of Xc corrected in
a line, the voltage drop between two nodes (r, s) is given by:
 X l  X c Q  RP
V  Vs  Vr  (9.41)
Vr
By reducing X=(Xl-Xc) in the numerator, which is an effective term in eqn

(9.41), voltage drop is reduced. An automatic change of VAR's with the
change in load current occurs instantly by the amount of the capacitor reactive
power, which is:
Qc  3I 2 X c 10 6 MVAR (9.42)

Fig. 9.21 Basic concept of series capacitors thyristor control

Figure (9.21) shows the arrangement of the series capacitor in the circuit.
Although series capacitors are applied for long UHV and EHV networks, they
are recently used in medium and low voltage networks in Japan. Series
capacitors can cause subsynchronous resonance and hunting of motors and
generators, together with sustained low frequency oscillations due to presence
of transformers in the end of lines. Recent studies have proved that they are
not preferable in low voltage networks.
9.4 Voltage Control by Acting on the Load Itself:
9.4.1 Loads Requirements of Reactive Power for Normal

Operation:
For a 1KW load power, the corresponding reactive power and KVA
with various load power factors is given in table (9.2).
Table 9.2 Required reactive power for a 1kW load at different power
factors and total load KVA
Power Q required Load

Factor in KVAR KVA
for 1KW load
0.20 4.90 5.00
0.25 3.87 4.00
0.30 3.18 3.33
0.40 2.29 2.50
0.50 1.73 2.00
0.60 1.33 1.67
0.70 1.02 1.43
0.707 1.00 1.41
0.80 0.75 1.25
0.90 0.48 1.11
1.00 0.0 1.00
Arc furnaces loads operate at nearly 0.7 power factors and consume
several tenth of MW’S, while aluminum smelter plants consume several
hundreds of MW’S and reache 1000 to 2000 MW’s with power factors of
Chapter 9 305
0.90 - 0.95. Arc welding transformers absorb several Megawatts at power

factor fo 0.3. Lighting lamps using gas discharge having power factors
between (0.39 to 0.58).
General-purpose induction motors which can having rating of several
hundreds of HP with power factors ranging from (0.6 to 0.8). HVDC systems
consume reactive power, which amounts to nearly 60% from its active power,
which reaches several southands megawatts. Compensation of reactive power
is necessary for all these loads.
9.4.2 Techniques of Load Voltages Improvement:

Acting on the load itself is the first step towards effective system
voltage control. Although the load itself does not control the voltage,
improvement of its operational conditions can inherently improve the system
voltage levels to a great extent. This can be summarized in the following:
(a) Improvement of load power factors: Reactive power flow on lines will
participate in creating voltage drops on lines. Improvement of load power
factors will decrease such voltage drop given by the relations:
V  IZ 

Z 2 P2  Q2  (9.43)
V2
Improvement of load power factor decreases Q and consequently the second

term under the root. Reaching unity power factor. Completely eliminate the
term (Z2Q2/V2) in V.
(b) Operation of motors near its maximum efficiency: Operation of loads
faraway from its maximum efficiency or at light loading conditions is
associated by low power factors of its input powers i.e. heavy demand of
reactive power. The load Q will be minimum at loading corresponding to
higher loading and light power factors. Operation of motors at their designed
power factors near full load conditions will minimize the reactive power
demand and minimize its participation term in V of the feeding network.
Motor of power factor of 0.7 at full load may has power factor of 0.4 at its
half load conditions as shown in fig. (9.22).
(c) Elimination of voltage flicker of special loads: Such as arc furnaces.
(d) Elimination of harmonics: Due to electronic devices, elimination of
harmonics led to improvement of voltage levels.
(e) Load balancing: Unbalanced loads lead to deviation of voltage levels in
the 3-phases and to excessive losses, and in higher currents in neutral wires.
Balancing of the current magnitudes and phases in the three-phases not only
balances the three-phase voltages, but also minimizes the drawn currents and
consequently the voltage drops. Also voltage rise in neutral wires will
disappear. Theory, techniques and benefits of load balancing will be the

subject of a next chapter.
(f) Using low-power lighting lamps (minimize P).
(g) Using loads of high power factors such as high efficiency motors.
Fig. 9.22 Induction motor power factor/load characteristics
9.4.3 Using Static VAR Compensator for Voltage

Control:
Thyristor controlled reactor (TCR) static VAR compensator (SVC) is a
power electronic device, consists of an air-cored reactor connected to anti-
parallel thyristor which allow permanent variable inductive reactive current
flow in the reactor, by changing the thyristor firing angles. The compensator
control circuits consist of a measuring circuit, regulator with reference voltage
and firing circuits, as shown in fig. (9.23). Thyristor switched capacitor banks
(TSC) are sometimes provided in parallel with the TCR, in order to operate in
the capacitive range. A fixed capacitor may also be connected in parallel with
the TCR and the TSC. The regulator determines the firing angles of the
compensator during its operation as load voltage controller.
Chapter 9 307
Fig. 9.23 Block diagram of power system and SVC for voltage control
9.4.4 Simplified Representation of a Power System,
TCR/FC Static VAR Compensator and a Load:
In voltage control studies of load nodes, a simple two nodes system is
quite sufficient. The system is represented by its Thevenen’s equivalent
voltage E and its Thevenen’s impedance Bs (or its short-circuit capacity at
unity pu voltage) as shown in fig. (9.24). The load is represented by a shunt
reactance (Gl+jBl). The TCR static VAR compensator is represented by an
admittance Bd behind an ineritaless inphase voltage source E c=KV. K
represents the thyristor action. K should be always less than one, (K=1)
represents the thyristor turn-off state, (K=0) represents the thyristors fully on
state. Ec is inphase with the SVC terminal voltage V. The actual TCR reactor
fundamental current (Ic) is given by:
V  Ec
Ic    jBd V  KV  (9.44)
jX max
Where:
Bd=1/Xmax
Therefore if the compensator controller gains is G = G 1G2, H is the feedback

transfer function and the reference voltage is Vref, then:
Fig. 9.24 Equivalent circuit of system, load and controlled TCR/FC

compensator
V 1  K 
Ic 
jX max
 
  jBd V 1  K   Vref  VH GV (9.45)
Vref 
 VH G
K  1 (9.46)
Bd
Application of Kirchoffe's current law to circuit of fig. (9.24), yield a relation
relating all system parameters (network, load and compensator and its
controller) which is found by equating real and imaginary parts:

 2   Ec   
2

Gl   B s  Bl  B d 1    Bc  V 2  B s2 E 2 (9.47)

   V   
E is the system Thevenen’s voltage at that load node.
That compensator model can then be used to represent either of the following:
(a) A synchronous condenser with Ec is the internal voltage, Bd is the
effective susceptance (in general Ec  V), or K >1.
(b) The reactor of a static VAR controller with Ec the critical voltage at
which the reactor is turned off or saturation disappears and Bd is the effective
slope of the current/voltage relation for (V  Ec). For (V  Ec) the current is
zero, i.e. the branch is not present, or Ec represents the drawn inductive
current as Ic = (V-Ec) Bd, Ec = KV, where K represents the function of the
control system, in regulating the TCR current magnitude.
(c) Static VAR Generator with inductive or capacitive B d and internal
voltage Ec, which supply or absorb reactive power, since, E c is kept in phase
with V, 0 < K < 2.
The parameters of our simple circuit are represented by admittance's other
than impedance’s, in order to facilitate the analysis.
9.4.5 Load Power/Voltage Characteristics:

Assume that the load conductance Gl analysis susceptance Bl, are
variable with various load power-voltage characteristics as follows:
2 n2
V  V 
P  Po   , Gl  Glo  
 Vo   Vo 
(9.48)
Chapter 9 309
m m2
V  V 
Q  Qo   , Bl  Blo  
 Vo   Vo 
Where: Po, Qo, Glo, and Blo are the steady-state load values at the initial
voltage Vo. (Gl, Bl) are their values at the actual voltage V.
From the standpoint of voltage stability, reactive power compensation at load
terminals or very close to them is very important. In order to get maximum
power transfer, controlled compensation (e.g. SVC or synchronous
condenser) is essential. In addition, this circuit and these simple relations give
the change of the quantitative effects of load power factor, system reactance,
load P-V, and Q-V characteristics, and the required reactive power Q on load
node voltage magnitude which define its stability state.
9.4.6 Voltage Sensitivities to Load, System and

Compensator Variables:
From the standpoint of voltage stability, the system behavior can be
presented in terms of the sensitivity of voltage and load power to changes in
load admittance, system parameters and reactive power compensation such as
(dV/dGl, dPl/dGl, dV/dBc, dPl/dBc, etc.) rather than in terms of the commonly-
used P-V, Q-V curves, since these sensitivities are more closely related to
what the system operator will see. Thus, to examine whether load current
increases when load increases, we change Glo and Blo, not Gl and Bl, and have
to wait to see how the voltage V changes in order to notice what has happened
to Gl and Bl and thus P and Q. Studies may demand dV/dE and dV/dBs (to
define the effects of changing generator internal voltages and line switching,
which define occurrence of voltage collapse phenomenon).
9.4.7 Powers/Load Susceptance and Powers Limits

Formula:
When load is changed, both active and reactive components are
affected. Changes in power is given by:
 dP   dP 
P   Glo   Blo (9.49)
 lo 
dG  lo 
dB
The power limit may be then expressed as:
 dP   dP  Blo
     0 (9.50)
 lo   lo 
dG dB Glo
To calculate the values of dP/dGlo, dP/dBlo we start from the circuit equation,
expressed as voltage magnitude.

 2   Ec   
2
 2
Gl   Bs  Bl  Bd 1    Bc  V  Bs E
2 2
(9.51)

   V   
From which:
1  dV 
   l 
G
 (9.52)
V  dGlo  D
 E 
Bs  Bl  Bd 1  c   Bc
1  dV   V 
    (9.53)
V  dBlo  D
1  dV  1  dV 
      (9.53)
V  dBc  V  dBlo 
dV  B dV 
  d  (9.54)
dEc  VdBlo 
E
Bs2  
  
dV V
(9.55)
dE D
E
Bs2  
1  dV  1  dV 
    V     (9.56)
V  dBs  D V  dBlo 
Where:
  E  
D  n  1Gl2   Bs  Bl  Bd 1  c   Bc Bs  m  1Bl  Bd  Bc 
  V  
Note that if (Bd, Ec) represents a TCR, or saturated reactor, of a SVC, both B d
and Ec disappear completely from the equations when V  E.
The variation of load power with a general variable X is

Chapter 9 311
dP  dV  2  dG 
 nGlV    V  lo  (9.57)
dX  dX   dX 
Or:
dP 1  dV  2  dG 
 nP    V  lo  (9.58)
dX V  dX   dX 
With similar relations for Q. The equation for dP/dGlo and dP/dBlo are derived
from these equations by replacing X by Glo and Blo respectively.
9.4.8 Active and Reactive Powers Limits/Voltage
Exponents Relations:
The active power limit P = 0 in terms of voltage and load exponent n
occurs when:
dV B  dV  1 V 
 lo       (9.59)
dGlo Glo  dBlo  n  Gl 
Similarly, the reactive power limit Q = 0 occurs when:
dV Blo  dV  1  B  V 
      lo   (9.60)
dGlo Glo  dBlo  m  Glo  Bl 
These two powers limits equations suggest that the presence of a reactive
component in the load expressed by Bl reduces the power limit.
9.4.9 Effects of Load Powers/Voltage Exponent (n, m) on

Powers Limits:
The sensitivity of load power to voltage, as expressed by the exponent
n, greatly affects the voltage behavior as the power limit is approached. For
example, when the load P/V relation approaches a constant power
characteristics (n=0), voltage changes will become very large. As previously
noted this affects the calibration of voltage sensitivity, which is a measure of
security margin. This is not the case with n=2. Moreover, since in general
mn (for example, we may have m=2 and n=1) and since we may assume that
(Blo/Glo) is approximately the same as (Blo/Glo), the reactive power limit is
usually reached before the active power limit.
9.4.10 Load Voltage Controllability Conditions with

Shunt Compensator:
In order to determine the controllability conditions with shunt static

VAR compensator, the node voltage variation with compensator susceptance
(which represent its rating) should be considered. Using the simplified circuit
representing the equivalent power system, shunt load and shunt static VAR
compensator of the TCR/FC type, fig. (9.24), and referring to eqn. (9.49) to
(9.58). Having a load powers:
n m
V  V 
P  Po   and Q  Qo   (9.61)
 Vo   Vo 
The load node voltage sensitivity to compensator susceptance (or rating)
variation is derived as:
1
1  dV   Bs2  n  2Gl2 Bd Ec 
    m  2   (9.62)
 s 
V  dBc   B 2  G 2 0.5
l  Vo 

With Ec=KVo, Bd reactor fixed susceptance, Bs system susceptance, Vo initial

voltage Gl, Bl load susceptances and Bc the compensator susceptance. This
equation decides that the system will be controllable only if G l=Bs. If not an
imaginary solution result, which refer to uncontrollable state. Then load
conductance (or load power) should be less than system susceptance B s
(which refer to load node short circuit level in pu). Controllability depend
mainly on BdEc/Vo, which contain the control factor K and on load powers
exponents (m, n), together with controller state represented by K and
compensation rating represented in Bd.
9.4.11 Minimum Load Conductance to System

Susceptance Ratio for Voltage Controllability:
From eqn. (9.62), the minimum load conductance to system
susceptance can be expressed as following:
(a) For load exponents m=2, n=1 (constant active current component,
constant reactive susceptance, then eqn. (9.62) becomes:

D  Bs2  Gl2  Bs2  Gl2 
0.5  Bd Ec



 V 
1
1  dV   2
 
   Bs  Gl2
V  dBc  

0.5 E E 
 d c
V 
(9.63)
Chapter 9 313
Thus for Gl  Bs the load voltage is controllable even without the employment
of controlled reactive power compensation, i.e. with only shunt capacitance
Bc, However, the control gain may become intolerably large, resulting in
instability.
(b) For constant power load, we have m=n=0, then (9.63) becomes:
1
1  dV   B 2  2G 2 
    s l 
(9.64)
V  dBc  

 Bs  Gl
2

2 0.5 

Now the controllability conditions are much more stringent. This

controllability is assured in the following conditions:
 With unity power factor (or when Bl=0), if Bd=0 we must have
Gl0.707Bs.
 With 0.9 power factor (or when Bl=0.5Gl) we must have Gl1.523Bs
(approximately).
 For lower power factors, Gl should be less than several multiples of
Bs. There is a value for each load power factor
9.4.12 Minimum Load Conductance to System

Susceptance at Maximum Power Limit:
The power limit is defined by equations (9.59), (9.60) and (9.61). Then
at V=E, these equations decide that the power limit occurs when:
Bd Ec 2Gl2  Bs2
  2  n  m Bl (9.65)
V 
Bs  Gl
2

2 0.5
Assuming (Blo/Glo) = (Blo/Glo), the following states arise:

(a) For n=1, m=2, when the power factor is 0.9 (or B lo/Glo = 0.5) and if
Bd=0 and only there is shunt capacitor compensation Bc, the power limit will
be attained at Glo=0.615Bs. For the same values of (m, n) If the load is pure
resistive (or Bl = 0), the power limit will be attained at G lo = 0.707Bs.
Therefore with pure resistive load, the load conductance Gl at the power limit
increases to 0.707Bs. It was 0.615Bs at 0.9 power factor load.
(b) If n = 0 and m = 2, or more generally, if (m - n = 2), the power limit
will be attained when Glo = 0.707Bs regardless of the value of Blo. While the
required compensation Bc to keep V = E is affected in that the values of B d
and Bc will become:

Bd  0 , Bc  Bs  Bl  Bs2  Gl2 
0.5
(9.66)
(c) If m = n = 0 (with Blo = 0.5Glo and Bd = 0), the power limit is attained at
Glo = 0.523Bs just as it was for voltage control dV/dB c. By comparing
equations (9.62) and (9.65), it can be seen directly that if n = 0, the power
and voltage control limits are the same, regardless of the value of m, while
for any positive n, the power limit is reached first before the voltage limit
and that this conclusion holds even when controlled reactive power
compensation (represented by Bd Ec/V) is present.
(d) Therefore voltage stability studies in terms of voltage behavior for
changes of load from an initial normal condition, corresponds more closely
to the above forementioned definitions and behaviors. This will might be
observed in a real power system. Naturally lead to the demonstration of the
significance of load power/voltage characteristics and of the controllable
reactive power compensation effects on system voltages and sensitivities. It
is to be noted that the above analysis and the presented figures are derived
for V = E. If V is controlled to other value other proportions are to be found.
9.4.13 Role of Controllable VAR Compensation for

Increasing the Power Limits:
Equation (7.65) shows that the power limit may be extended
(theoretically up to Gl=Bs) by the presence of the controlled compensation
term (Bd Ec/V). To interpret this term in a physical sense, the following
relations should be considered:
 For a synchronous condenser we might take Ec = 2Vo.
 For an SVC TCR reactor Ec  0.97Vo. (For control there must be
EcVo). Since we are considering cases near the maximum power limit, the
reactor is near its minimum limit.
 For static VAR generators and neglecting any active power
generation, the value of Bd can be taken as an indicator of the size of the
compensator, with an appropriate proportionality factor for each type,
0Ec2Vo.
9.4.14 Total Inductive and Capacitive

Compensation Required to Maintain Zero Voltage
Regulation:
A side from the required value of BdEc/V required for maintaining V=E
which is determined by equation (9.47) is:
 E 

C  Bc  Bd 1  c   Bs  Bl  Bs2  Gl2 
0.5
(9.67)
 V 
Chapter 9 315
For the synchronous condenser (Ec = 2V), eqn. (9.67) gives:

Bc  C  Bd (9.68)
For SVC, With Ec = 0.97 V, eqn. (9.67) gives:

Bc  C  0.03Bd (9.69)
Thus, as expected, the synchronous condenser may result in less

amount of shunt capacitance, while the SVC result in more amount of shunt
capacitance. It is to be noted here that at V=1.0 pu, if the load power (Pl=Gl) is
increased the value of Bs or (PL=Bs), then an infinite capacitor rating Bc is
required to get (V=E=Bs). Also an increase beyond that limit, requires that
both Bd and the capacitive compensation should increase rapidly in order to
get V = Bs = 1.
9.4.15 Controlled Capacitor Banks Modeling for Voltage
Stability Studies:
Thyristor switched capacitor banks TSC static VAR compensators or
time-relays controlled capacitors or power-factor relays controlled capacitors
are all now in service. If their controlled steps are sufficiently small, we may
approximate the control as:
 V 
Bc  Bco  K 1   (9.70)
 Vo 
Where K is a constant, V actual terminal voltage, V o is the nominal voltage,

Bco capacitor susceptance at nominal voltage. Therefore, (dV/dB c) becomes
(dV/dBco) and the last bracket of D becomes:
Bs  m  1Bl  Bd  Bc  K  (9.71)
For V to be equal to E, this requires that:
 
D  Bs2  n  2Gl2  Bs2  Gl2 m  2Bl 
Bd Ec
V
K (9.72)
Example 9.6:
A load is fed from a large power system, which is represented by its
Thevenen’s equivalent at the load node (Es, Bs). The load is given by its shunt
admittance (G1+jB1). A TCR/FC static VAR compensator is used to control
the load voltage. It is represented by Bc, Bd and Ec = KV. System data are:
System: Es = 1.02 pu, Bs = 1.0 pu
Load: P = 1.0 pu, pf = 0.8 Lagging and V = variable
Compensator: Bc = 0.2 pu, Bd = -0.5 pu and Ec = KV

Find the load voltage with compensator gain K=0.95 and that with gain K=0.
Solution:
Es = 1.02 pu, Bs = 1.0 pu, Bc = 0.2 pu, Bd = 0.5 pu
P = Po = 1.0 pu, Q = 40 = 0.75 pu
Gl= Po = 1.0 pu, Bl = Qo = 0.75 pu
Using relation of equation:
 
BsEs 2  V2 Gl2  Bl  Bc  Bs  Bd 1  K 2 
Then:
Bs Es
V

G l2  Bl  Bc  Bs  Bd 1  K 2
With K = 0 (TCR is fully on), then V = 0.584 pu.
While with K = 0.95, then V = 0.639 pu.
Noticing that inserting shunt reactors depress the node voltage.
Example 9.7:
A load of admittance Yl=Gl+jBl is fed from a large network represented
at the load node by its Thevenen’s equivalent E behind its Thevenen’s
reactance (or admittance Bs). Its resistance is neglected. A TCR/FC
compensator is installed in shunt at the load bus represented by a shunt
capacitive susceptance Bc for the FC and a shunt inductive susceptance B d
behind voltage source Ec, for the TCR.
Find the required static VAR compensator susceptance required to keep the
load voltage at 0.95 pu. When the source voltage E is 1.0 pu and the voltage is
at the power limit for voltage stability. The load is a constant impedance load
(m=2, n=2). Its initial value was Pl+jQl =1.0+j0.5 at V = 1.0 pu. Compensator
controller equivalent total gain K = 0.98 and Bs =1.0 pu.
Solution:
Po=1.0pu, Qo=0.5pu, Vo = E = 1.0pu, V = 0.95pu, K=0.98, Bs=1.0pu, n=m=2.
Therefore:
 V n  2  Po
G l  Po  n   2  1 pu.
 Vo  Vo
BsEs 2  V2 Gl2  Bl  Bc  Bs  Bd 1  K 2 
Then; Bc = 0.892 + 0.0004 Bd
Assuming Bd = 1.2 Bc.
Then:
Bc = 0.8924 pu and Bd = 1.071 pu.
Chapter 9 317
Example 9.8:
A load having the following voltage dependence relations
P = Po and Q = Qo (V2/Vo2)
Is connected to a large power system, which can be represented by its
Thevenen’s equivalent voltage E in series with its Thevenen’s reactance jX s.
A compensator of TCR/FC type is used to control the load voltage. It consists
of a fixed shunt capacitor of admittance jB c and thyristor-controlled reactor
represented by a fixed reactor of admittance (-jBd) in series with an e.m.f.
(Ec=KV), K is the regulator gain, V is the load terminal voltage. What is the
controller factor K required to fulfil the following conditions.
Solution:
Po = 0.6pu, Qo = 0.5pu, V = Vo = 1.0pu then: P = 0.6pu, Q = 0.5pu.
P  jQ
But: G l  jB l  l 2 l
V
2
Gl =2/V = 0.6pu and Bl = 0.5pu.
Having: Bs = 1.0pu, E = 1.04pu, P = 0.6pu, Q= 0.5pu, Rs=1pu and Bc=0.8pu
Assuming: Bd = 1.2Bc = 0.96pu
Then eqn. (9.60) gives:
 
Bs E2  V 2 G l2  Bl  Bc  Bs  Bd 1  K 2 
Bs E 2  V 2 G l2
2
 B l  B c  Bs  B d 1  K 2
V
Then; K=0.85
9.5 Using Series Voltage Controllers:

Upon development of power electronic devices and controls, future
generations of thyristors of higher ratings will enable using these devices as
load voltage controllers. Two anti-parallel thyristors controlled by firing
angles can control the output voltage. Having thyristor angle , the output
RMS fundamental voltage will be:
V  Vm cos (9.73)
Figure (9.25) shows a load voltage controlled by a series voltage controller.

Fig. 9.25 Load series voltage controller

Problems
9.1 A generator has the following data:
r = 0, Xd = 1.0 pu , X'd = 0.2 pu, Xq = 0.6 pu, T'do = 4 sec. Its load has
R= 1.0, X= 0.
(a) Find its transfer function.
(b) If the load is changed to R= 0, X= 1.0 pu. Find its new transfer
function.
(c) Repeat (b) if X = -1.0 pu.
(d) Find the generator terminal voltage at full load current (I a=1.0 pu) for
the above loading conditions and:
i. Generator without a voltage control system.
ii. Generator with a voltage control system.
(e) For the controlled voltage generator and that with the uncontrolled
voltage, find the load current at which the terminal voltage vanishes
completely.
9.2 An alternator has a reactance in the direct axis of 1.0 pu, a reactance in
the quadrature axis of 0.6 pu, field circuits time constant of 4.0 seconds. It
is loaded by a load has resistance of 0.25 pu, reactance of 0.55 pu. The
exciter is a DC shunt generator of a gain equal to 1.0 pu, time constant of
2.0 seconds. The amplifier gain is 150 and its time constant is 0.050
seconds. The feedback circuit has a gain of 1.0 pu and time constant of
0.008 seconds.
(a) Derive a transfer function for that generator.
(b) For steady-state conditions, give the block diagram of the whole
system.
(c) In steady-state conditions, plot the terminal generator voltage with load
current, without any control system and with control system.
Chapter 9 319
(d) With the controlled system case, find the value of reference voltage.
9.3 An AC synchronous generator feeding a load of (1.6 + j1.0) pu on 100
MVA base through a stepping-up transformer (X=0.10 pu), a double
circuit transmission line (each one has Xl = 0.2 pu, Rt is negligible) and a
stepping down transformer (X = 0.1 pu), the generator data are:
Xs = 1.5 pu, X' = 0.4 pu
Find the maximum generated power, for three cases of voltage regulation
(a) No control (constant excitation voltage)
(b) With non-continuously acting AVR
(c) With continuously acting fast AVR
9.4 A 132kV line is fed through 11/132kV transformer from a constant
11kV supply. At the load end of the line the voltage is reduced by another
transformer of nominal ratio 132/11kV. The total impedance of the line
and transformers at 132kV is (25+ j66). Both transformers are equipped
with tap-changing facilities which are so arranged that the product of the
two off-nominal settings is unity. If the load on the system is 100MW at
0.9 p.f lagging.
(a) Calculate the settings of the tap-changers required to maintain the
voltage of the load bus bar at 11kV. Use a Base of 100MVA.
(b) If the settings of the tap-changer are within  10%, what will be the
required injected reactive power, which required to maintain the load voltage
at 11kV (state whether inductive or capacitive).
9.5 Two 110kV power stations A and B are inter-connected by a line
having negligible resistance and a reactance of 10. The voltages are 110
10o kV and 1100o kV at A and B respectively. If a power of 30MW at
unity power factor is to be received by station B from station A, find the
required inphase and quadrature voltage boosts at station B and find the
capacity of the required booster transformers for the inphase and
quadrature boosts.
Use exact method for calculations.
9.6 A transformer is equipped with a tap-changer and connects two infinite
busbars of equal voltages. The transformer is rated at 500MVA and has a
reactance of 0.15 pu. Calculate the reactive power flow, from one busbar
to the other, for a tap setting of:
(a) 0.85:1 1.10:1
(b) Draw the reactive power flow with the tap setting from 0.8 to 1.2, (each
step is 0.1)
9.7 A 132 kV transmission line has a series impedance of (25 + j66) ohm.
It is fed through a 11/132 kV transformer from 11kV constant voltage
supply and feeds its load through 132/11 kV transformer. Both
transformers are equipped with tap-changers, with the product of their off
nominal setting is always unity. Calculate:
(a) The tap-changer setting required for a load of 50MW at 0.9 P.F. lagging
and that required for another load of 200MW, 0.9 P.F. lead. The load voltage
in each case is kept at 11kV .
(b) The maximum load which can be drawn at 11kV with the maximum
possible off nominal setting  20%).
9.8 A 520 km, 500kV transmission system composed of three parallel
similar lines, connected to an infinite bus at one side and to a 2000MW 0.9
P.F. lagging load through a transformer of negligible reactance at the other
side. Each line has series inductive reactance of O.385 /km and shunt
capacitive admittance of j0.24 Mho/km and of negligible resistance
calculate:
(a) The rating of the static VAR compensator required at no load to keep
the load side at its nominal voltage .
(b) The load voltage with the three lines in parallel.
(c) The required compensator rating required for keeping the load voltage
at 0.95 pu at full load condition .
(d) The receiving end node sensitivity and the compensator rating required
for raising the voltage to 1.00 pu, at full load condition.
(e) Repeat (a), (b),(c) with one line opened.
9.9 A three-phase transmission line has resistance and inductive reactance
of 25  and 90  respectively. The voltage at the sending end is 145 kV
and 132 kV at the receiving end; transformers tapping at both ends are 
20%. If these voltages are to be kept constant, find the compensator
reactive power and its sign (inductive or capacitive) required at the
following conditions:
(a) System operation at no load
(b) System is loaded by 50MW at 0.8 power factor at receiving end
9.10 Two substations are connected by two lines in parallel of negligible
impedance, each containing a transformer of reactance 0.18 pu. and rated
at 120MVA. Calculate the net absorption of reactive power when the
transformer taps are set to 1:1.15 and 1:0.85 respectively (i.e. tap stagger
is used). The pu. Voltages are equal at the two ends and are constant in
magnitude. What will happen when the latter one ratio become 1:1.1
9.11 A 400 kV transmission line is connected to an infinite bus system and
feeds a load of 1000 MW, 400 MVAR. The line has a series impedance of
(7+j70) ohm and the load stepping down transformers has maximum tap
ratio of 0.9:1. IF the maximum allowable voltage drop is 10% and the
maximum taps are fully used, find the reactive power required from that
compensator at the load side.
9.12 A simplified power system is represented by a system voltage E,
reactance Bs and loaded by a load having 0.9 power factor or B Lo = 0.5
GLo. When the load power (p = GL V2) is changed gradually from 0.6 P.U.
Chapter 9 321
to 1.0 P.U in steps of 0.1 each. A shunt TCR/FC static compensator is

connected to keep the load voltage stability. For these loading conditions
find the compensators parameters, which can maintain the system voltage
stability which are:
(a) The required control index (Bd Ec/Vo ).
(b) The required net compensation C.
(c) The required shunt inductive controlled compensation Bd.
System parameters are: V = E = Bs = 0.1 pu.
Load characteristics: n = 1, m = 2
Control gain (Ec / Vo) = 0.97.
(d) Plot all required values with (Pmax = 0.6 - 11.0).
9.13 Repeat problem (9.12) for a unity power factor load (BL = 0).
9.14 Repeat both of (9.11), (9.12) for loads characteristics :
(n = 0, m = 0) , (n = 1, m = 1), (n = 2, m = 2) and (n = 0, m = 6)
9.15 Repeat problem (9.12) for a synchronous condenser, instead of SVC,
for which (Ec/Vo = 2.0 and Bc = 0.0).
9.16 In prob. (9.12) prove that at Pmax = 0.875, Bc becomes equal to Bs and
the required Bd will be 1.6 Bs. What will be these values when Bc = Bl?
9.17 Prove that some cases will require additional shunt reactors.
9.18 In prob. (9.12) if the load is suddenly lost find the voltage when the
compensator is on and when its shunt capacitor only is switched out .
9.19 Prove that: either a controlled synchronous condenser or a controlled
static VAR compensator (TCR/FC) can permit large increase in the power
that can be supplied to a load bus, without new generation, as compared to
support wholly by fixed shunt capacitors.
References
[1] Carson W. Taylor, "Power system voltage stability", ERPI Power
Engineering series, book, MC Graw-Hill, Inc, New York, 1994.
[2] S. M. L. Kabir, R. shuttleworth, "Brushless Exciter model", IEE Proc,
Gener, transm, Distrib, Vol. 141, No1, January 1994, pp 61-67.
[3] Excitation System Models for Power Systems Stability Studies, "IEEE
Committee Report, IEEE Trans., PAS, 1981, PAS-100 (2), pp 494-509.
[4] A. R. Bergen, "Power Systems Analysis", book, Prentice-Hall series in
Electrical and Computer Engineering, New York, 1986.
[5] B. M. Weedy, B.J. Cory "Electric Power Systems", Book, John Wiley
& Sons, New York, 4th edition, 1998
[6] C. A. Gross, "Power Systems Analysis," Book, 2nd edition John Wiley
& Sons, 1986, New York.
[7] C. Concordia, "Voltage Instability", Electric Power and Energy, pp. 14-
19, 1988.
[8] T. J. E. Miller, "Reactive Power Control in power Systems", Book,

John Wiley & Sons, 1982.
322 Voltage Stabilization of Unstable Loads
Chapter 10
Voltage Stabilization of Unstable Loads
Load instabilities usually occur due to lack of reactive powers or due to
heavy loadabilities or due to high reactance’s of lines or due to mal
distribution of reactive power allover the system. Load/voltage nose curves
are good means to illustrate voltage stability situations. Several means of
enhancement of voltage stabilities are displayed in this chapter. Their
parameters, limitations, and variables are derived in order to keep load
voltages at certain stable levels at various operational conditions. Static VAR
compensator, shunt fixed reactors and capacitors, series capacitors, tapped
transformers and combinations of them are used. Voltage Flicker
phenomenon is also included as a new aspect of load/voltage instability.
10.1 Aspects of Load Instability:

Load instability has many aspects. Load failure of performing its
designed jobs or load working at node voltage lying within the unstable
values or load subjected to voltage flickers or load experiencing partial or
complete blackouts or reaching stand still or load working in faraway from
the designed maximum power zone, are all states of "Load instability".
10.2 Techniques of Voltage Stabilization of

Unstable Loads:
Unstable loads can be classified into small domestic or commercial
loads or important large industrial loads. Each load has a technology for
stabilization. Load instability can be controlled by either of the following
technologies:
(a) Improvement of load power factors by shunt capacitors
(b) Using on load tapped transformers at load terminals
(c) Using shunt static VAR compensators at load terminals
(d) Using combined on load tapped transformers and shunt static VAR
compensators at load terminals
(e) Using series capacitors at load terminals
(f) Using combined series capacitors and shunt static VAR compensators
at load terminals
(g) Performing partial optimal load shedding at certain nodes of networks
(h) Continual balancing of the load three phase terminal currents and
voltages
Chapter 10 323
(i) Filtering of the harmful load currents harmonics

(j) Taking special measures for induction motor loads starting and
operation during abnormal conditions and after short-circuit recoveries
However the three last items were sufficiently detailed in other chapters.
10.3 Improvement of the Load Power Factors:

Improvement of load power factor means that the load requirement of
reactive power will be covered partially or completely by a shunt capacitor
connected in parallel with that load, called corrective power factor capacitor.
Such capacitors are either fixed or mechanically switched or thyristor
switched in units.
Load power factors should not be lower than certain specified values,
which are 0.86 in Europe and 0.9 in Egypt. Penalty must be paid to electrical
facilities when load power factor becomes less than these limiting figures.
The shunt capacitors for loads power factors corrections are mainly specified
by their nodes terminal voltages, rated capactive reactive powers, and
capacitors capacitance in micro-farads. Sometimes ambient temperature
ranges and voltage harmonic contents should be also specified. If the load is
connected to a high voltage network through a stepping down transformer,
these capacitors should be connected to the high voltage side of entrance
transformer. For a load consuming active power "P" with a power factor "
pf1", its power factor is desired to be improved to " pf2", the capacitor voltage
"V" is firstly specified and its capacitive reactive power rating is given by:
Qc  Ptan A cos pf 1  tan A cos pf 2 (10.1)
While its capacitance is given by:
Qc
C (10.2)
V 2
It is to be noted that improvement of power factor means that the reactive

power at load feeder is less than the load original reactive power. This results
in lower voltage drops between voltage source of Vs and load terminal voltage
Vr as shown from the voltage drop formula between two nodes having
voltages Vs, Vr and feeder impedance R+jX, which feeds a load consuming
powers P+jQ:
XQ  RP
V  Vs  Vr  (10.3)
Vr
Lower voltage drop means higher load voltage level and less tendency to load
instability. Besides load currents will be less as the load current is given by:
 P2   Q2 
I load   2    2  (10.4)
 Vr   Vr 
 P2   Q2 
Ploss  2
I load R  R 2   R 2 
  (10.5)
 Vr   Vr 
Decrease of Q results in less load terminals currents, less losses, less heating
and in less requirement of feeders cross sections as the new required feeders
cross section a2 equal to:
I 
a 2  a1  2  (10.6)
 I1 
Assuming that the self-load current is I1 and the feeder current after power
factor correction is I2. The original feeder cross section is a 1 and the new
lower feeder cross section is a2.
Improvement of load power factors is associated by more load stability during

various operational conditions requiring more demand than the connected
load. The available kW at the load terminal, for other consumer loads or for
more loading of that load, due to power factors correction or with lower load
terminal reactive power demand is given by:
New Available KW  KVA 2  KVARs 2 (10.6)
In the Egyptian power system load power factors less than 0.4 are not
allowed. Power factors from 0.4 to 0.6 should pay a penalty of the difference
(0.9-load power factor) multiplied by the billed KWhr and half of this value is
paid for power factors from (0.6 up to 0.9). For pf = (0.4-0.6):
Penality  0.9  pf  kwh £/kwh (10.8)
 0.9  pf 
Penality    kwh £/kwh (10.9)
 2 
Chapter 10 325
10.4 Using Static VAR Compensators:

Steady-state voltage instability can be certainly enhanced by static
VAR compensators, which can hold certain node voltages constant and create
infinite buses within the system nodes. Static VAR compensator parameters
needed for this purpose are developed below. Controller gains, droops slopes,
reference voltages and compensator ratings are determined for keeping the
load nodes voltages constant irrespective of load variations up to those values
which lead to voltage instabilities. Influence of system equivalent
impedance’s on these parameters is finally discussed. Figure (10.1) shows a
schematic diagram of a power system, static VAR compensator and its
controls.
Fig. 10.1 Block diagram of power system and SVC with voltage control
10.4.1 Static VAR Compensator and System Model:

A TCR static VAR compensator controlled by a closed-loop control
system is used. The measuring circuit and signal processors represent the
closed-loop feedback link, having a transfer function H of gain K H and delay
TH as:
V  KH 
H   (10.10)
Vt  1  STH 
The controller is usually of the proportional element (1/slope) with certain

delay T1, followed by the controller lead-lag compensation circuit of the form:
1 slop   1  ST2 
G1  (10.11)
1  ST1   1  ST3 
Slop is the droop slope of the regulator, shown in fig. (10.2), (T 1, T2, T3) are
time constants of regulator circuits. The controller output is fed to the firing
circuit which may be completely defined by a transfer function consists of a
gain Kd and delay Td in the form:
Kd
G 2  K d e  STd  (10.12)
1  STd
The output of this block refers to the compensator admittance B, which upon
multiplication by Vt, yields the compensator inductive reactive current
(Is=BVt), which when multiplied by the system impedance Z s gives the
voltage drop (Vc which will be added or subtracted from Thevenen’s voltage
Vs) due to the compensator current flow through Z s. The load node voltage Vt
is given by the Thevenen’s equivalent voltage V s minus the link voltage drop
(RsP+XsQ)/Vt and the voltage drop due to the SVC current flow through the
link. Therefore, the system equivalent can be represented by the transfer
function block diagram of fig. (10.3). For steady-state analysis, it can be
simplified to that of fig. (10.4), "S" is the Laplace operator, it vanishes in
steady-state analysis. The limiter is included to represent the control range of
the SVC equivalent virtual admittance "B".
10.4.2 System Equations Formulation:

Referring to fig. (10.4), G1, G2 together with Vt are merged in one gain
G equals: G=G1G2Vt, so that the output of this block will be directly I s. The
limiter is neglected for sake of simplification. G ' is equal to (G1G2).
Therefore, the system equations can be written as follows:
Vc  Vr  Vt H GZ s (10.13)
Considering the load powers P and Q, the terminal voltage Vt is given by:
 R P  X sQ 
Vt  V s  s   Vc (10.14)
 V t 
Or:
 R P  X sQ 
Vt  V s  s   Vr  Vt H GZ s (10.15)
 V t 
Chapter 10 327
Fig. 10.2 Slope of regulator or droop slope
Fig. 10.3 Transfer function block-diagram of power system and static

VAR compensator (SVC)
Fig. 10.4 Simplified transfer function block diagram of power system and
static VAR compensator (SVC)
From which:
Vt2  VsVt  Rs P  X s Q   Vr  Vt H GZ sVt (10.16)
And, Vt is finally given from:
Vt2 1  GHZ s   Vt Vs  GZ sVr   Rs P  X s Q  0 (10.17)
Its solution is:
 b  b 2  4ac
Vt1, 2  (10.18)
2a
Where:
a  1  GHZ s
b  Vs  GZ sVr 
c  Rs P  X s Q
The equivalent controller gain G as a function of system and compensator

parameters is obtained from:
G
 V  V V
t
2
t s  R s P  X s Q 
(10.19)
Z sVt HVt  Vr 
While, the reference voltage Vr of the regulator as a function of system and

compensator parameters is calculated by:
Vt2 1  GHZ s   Vt V s  R s P  X s Q 
Vr  (10.20)
Vt GZ s
In steady-state conditions and at Vt = 1.0 p.u, G turns to be equal to:
Kd
G (10.21)
slop
Therefore, for any loading conditions (P, Q), the load voltage can be
maintained at certain value of Vt by changing Vr or slop or Kd according to
eqns. (10.19) to (10.21). Three cases of system equivalent impedance are
considered. For UHV networks Rs  0. For medium voltage networks Rs = Xs
and in low voltage networks Xs  0. Therefore,
Chapter 10 329
Zs=Rs if Xs=0 (or very small)

Zs=Xs if Rs=0 (or very small)
And:
Zs=Zstan-1(Rs/Xs) if Zs=Rs+jXs
Or:
Zs=Xs cos[tan-1(Rs/Xs)]
10.4.3 Determination of Compensator Rating:

Having:
Vc  Vr  Vt H G ' Z s (10.22)
And:
Vc
Slop  (10.23)
Ic
But:
I c  BcVt (10.24)
Eqns. (10.22), (10.23) and (10.24) yield:
 G 'Z 
Slop  Vr  Vt H  s 
(10.25)
 BcVt 
 
 G' 
Or: Slop    AK (10.26)
 Bc 
 
Where:
Z 
AK  Vr  Vt H  s 
 Vt 
And:
B 
G '  Slop c  (10.27)
 AK 
At Vt=1.0 pu, the temporary compensator rating is given by:
Rating  Vt2  B c (10.28)
The required temporary compensator rating required for voltage stabilization

is given by:
 AK 
Compensator Rating  G '   (10.29)
 Slop 
At Vt=1pu, the compensator susceptance Bc equals its rating. Its maximum

value is Bcmax. The fixed reactance of the compensator Xc is the reciprocal of
the maximum compensator rating Bc max at Vt =1 pu, that is:
1
Xc  (10.30)
Bc max
10.4.4 System Performance with Static VAR

Compensator:
10.4.4.1 Controller Gains for Keeping Voltage Constant:

Four cases are considered:
(a) Load with constant reactive power and variable power.
(b) Load with constant power and variable reactive power.
(c) Load with unity power factor and variable power.
(d) Load with 0.85 power factor lag and variable power
Figure (10.5) depicts the voltage/power characteristics for a typical system,
which are found to be in the form of the famous nose shape. On the same
figure, the SVC controller gains, which can retain the load voltage at unity, at
all loading conditions, are plotted for a certain system. Even if the voltages
are in the unstable region, these gains are capable to retain the voltage to unity
and keep its stability. In all these variable loads plots, the reference voltage is
assumed to be constant and equal to 1.0pu. Also the system equivalent
impedance is assumed constant and equal to (0.08185+0.3126) pu =
0.32375.4 pu. Also Vs = constant = 1.004 pu and Vref = 1.0 pu.
Fig. 10.5 Compensator controller gains required for stabilizing the

system voltages with various loading conditions
Chapter 10 331
10.4.4.2 Controller Reference Voltages for Keeping Load

Voltage Constant:
The above analysis is repeated for the same cases, but with keeping
both controller gains G and system impedance constant. The reference voltage
Vref, which can keep the load node voltage constant all time, is plotted in
fig.(10.6), together with the load voltages without compensator. Once more,
an adaptive variable reference voltage with the shape and magnitude shown in
the figure can eliminate the voltage instability with various loading
conditions, and retains the voltage at unity pu at all time. System parameters
are: VS=1.004 pu, Vt=0.99 pu, ZS=0.08125+j0.3126 = |0.323|75.4o pu, and
G = 5.0 A/V.
Fig. 10.6 Controller reference voltages required stabilizing load node

voltages with various loading conditions
10.4.4.3 Influence of Load Power Factor on Required

Compensator Gains and Reference Voltages:
For voltage stabilization and at certain specified values, gains and
reference voltages are allowed to be changed with loads. The required
compensator gains are plotted in fig. 10.7(a), for loads having leading power
factors. Once more it is quite different in magnitudes than those with lagging
power factor load in which gain was ranging from (0 to 0.8) in figure, while
in this case it extends from (12 to 150). Figure 10.7(b) shows the required
SVC reference voltages required to keep the load terminal voltage constant at
Vt = 0.99 pu. It is also different and has wide range than that with the same
load of lagging power factor subjected to the same system conditions.
(a)
(b)
(c)
Fig. 10.7 Required SVC controller gains and reference voltages for
maintaining leading power factor load voltages constant
(a) P/V characteristics (b) Gain/load plot (c) Reference voltage/load plot
Chapter 10 333
10.4.4.4 Effect of System Voltage Levels on Controller Gains:

Having assumed constant reference voltage (Vref = 1.0 pu) and constant
load powers, the load node voltage Vt is calculated for three feeder equivalent
impedance conditions:
For UHV networks: XS>>RS, for low voltage networks, RS>>XS and for
medium voltage networks (Zs=Rs+jXs).
The three cases are plotted in fig. (10.8) for the above typical system
and the gains, which are capable for keeping the load node voltage constant at
0.99 pu are plotted for a typical system. Very high gains are required when R S
>> XS and vice versa when XS >> RS. Intermediate values are obtained when
XS = RS. This is due to the absence of system damping and the need of high
gains to compensate for the existence of the resistance in the system. This
result is very important for applications of compensators in HV, MV and LV
transmission systems. The figure decides that it is not judicious and
uneconomic to use the SVC in LV distribution networks for load voltage
stabilization purposes. It should only be used in UHV or in MV networks
only.
Fig. 10.8 Required SVC controller gains with different feeder equivalent
impedance’s RS >> XS, XS >> RS and XS  RS
10.4.4.5 Determination of Compensator Rating:

The SVC controller gain G calculated before represents the inverse of
the slope droop of steady-state SVC characteristics. The compensator
temporary rating in pu is Bc pu. Therefore, the gain/power (G/P) relation is
plotted in Fig.10.9, using the previous relations, on the same graph, the
gain/compensator temporary rating or (G/Bc) relation is also plotted. For a

given load power, the required compensator gain (or regulator droop slope)
will be found together with the corresponding required rating of that
compensator, which are able to keep the load voltage constant at certain
value. Given that the system equivalent Thevenen’s impedance and the load
power factor are known. On the other hand, fig. (10.9) gives the required
adaptive reference voltage of the SVC controller of a given gain G (or droop
slope) and system equivalents. On the same figure, the compensator rating (
Bc) is also given, in order to keep (or retain) the load voltage constant at
certain value (taken 0.99 in that analysis).
(a)
(b)
Fig. 10.9 Required compensator controller gains and reference voltages

and rating to maintain the load voltages constant
(a) Compensator gains at different load powers and their
corresponding SVC reactance and rating
(b) Compensator reference voltage at different load powers and
their corresponding SVC fixed reactance's and rating
Chapter 10 335
10.4.4.6 Effect of Control System on Static VAR

Compensator Rating:
The above-mentioned SVC rating are using the controller SVC. Eqn.
(10.28) gives the rating as a function of the SVC controller gains, reference
voltage and feed back parameters. When shunt capacitor is used the rating of
capacitor required for maintain the voltage at certain value is obtained from
eqn. (10.14) with Vc=0. Q is the unknown represents the total of the load
reactance power and the capacitor reactive power (or rating) or the fixed
capacitor rating = (Q-Qload). This can be found as follows: Using the same two
nodes system Es, Vt, (Rs+jXs). Having a fixed shunt capacitor of rating Qc or
Bc is connected in shunt with the load (P+jQ), then the mathematical relations
of this system will be:
Vt2  EsVt  Rs P  X s Q  Qc   0.0

Where:
Qc  Vt2 Bc
Then:

Vt2  EsVt  Rs P  X s Q  Vt2 Bc  0.0 
Vt2 1  X s Bc   EsVt  Rs P  X s Q  0.0 (10.31)
Its solution is:
E s  E s2  41  X s Bc Rs P  X s Q 
Vt1 
21  X s Bc 
(10.32)
Es  E s2  41  X s Bc Rs P  X s Q 
Vt 2 
21  X s Bc 
Therefore, the rating of shunt compensator is given by:
Bc 
V
t
2
 E sVt  Rs P  X s Q  (10.33)
2
X sVt
Having used the following data: Es=1.004pu, Rs=0.08125pu, Xs=0.3pu, three

cases are considered. An investigation has proved that the rating of the
controlled SVC is always less than the rating of the fixed capacitor FC
without any control, which perform the same voltage stabilization job. Figure
(10.10) shows a typical case, which illustrates that phenomenon.
(a)
(b)
Fig. 10.10 Effects of control system on compensator ratings

(a) Variable power (b) Variable reactive power
10.5 Using on Load Tap-Changing Transformer at Load

Terminals:
10.5.1 Interrelation Between Loads Power Tap-

Changing Ratio for Different Load Voltages:
In order to study the relation between load powers at different load
voltages, when connected to tap-changing transformer, the system of fig.
(10.11) is used.
Fig. 10.11 Thevenin's equivalent system

Chapter 10 337
Two cases are considered: Constant power load and constant reactive load,
using the simplified voltage drop relation of voltage the system equations are:
 Xs  Xt   Rs 
 Q   2 P
V 
Vs
 Vt   t 2
 t  (10.34)
t Vt
Vt2t 2  VtVs t  Rs P   X s  X t Q  0.0 (10.35)
From these equations ''t'' can be calculated as:
t1 

VsVt VsVt 2  4Vt2 Rs P   X s  X t Q  0.5
(10.36)
2
2Vt
t2 

VsVt VsVt 2  4Vt 2 Rs P   X s  X t Q  0.5
(10.37)
2Vt 2
Using equs. (10.36), (10.37), the off nominal tap ratio of tap-changing
transformer with load powers can be plotted at different load voltages.
10.5.2 Typical Systems Analysis:

It is assumed that tap changer transformer connected at the load and its
tap setting changes and its off nominal tap ratio varies from a=0.25 by step
0.05. The results of the dE/dV criteria given in fig. (10.12), show that at
certain off nominal tap changer value, voltage instability can occur, other
ratios can slightly improve voltage instability. At off-nominal tap ratio of 0.7
in the typical system, voltage stability is in its maximum state. Below or over
this value, the dE/dV criteria decides that voltage stability decreases and can
reach a state of instability at a=1.5 or at ''a'' near 0.2, which are both not used
in practice (usually 0.8<a<1.2).
Fig. 10.12 The variation of dE/dV criterion results with various off
nominal transformer tap ratios
10.5.3 Influence of Transformer Off Nominal Tap

Ratio on Maximum Load Power and on Load
Critical Voltage:
In order to keep the terminal voltage constant at V t = 0.8 pu to 1.05 pu
for different system powers P and constant reactive power, fig. (10.13) shows
the required corresponding off-nominal tap changer ratios. The figure shows
that the maximum power is the same for all off-nominal tap ratios. More or
less values of that ratio will refer to lower load power at constant load
voltage. Figure (10.14) shows the reactive power which will be demanded by
the load when its terminal voltage remain between 0.8 and 1.05 p.u and its
consumed active power P is kept constant at 0.3pu in the typical system.
Noting that when system configuration and source voltage is

unchanged the maximum power or reactive power value is not affected by the
transformer tap ratios. This is due to the fact that from figures (10.13),
(10.14), corresponding to Pmax or Qmax there is one of two of the ''t'' values are
coincident, then the value under the roots must vanishes i.e. the term under
the root of eqns. (10.36), (10.37) becomes zero. Therefore, the values of the
taps (t1,2) are thus the first part of eqns. (10.36), (10.37), when written in the
form aX2+bX+c=0.0
Then:
b 2  4ac  0.0 (10.38)
Substitution from eqns. (10.36), (10.37) yields:
 VsVt 2  4Vt2 Rs P   X s  X t Q (10.39)
Vs2  4Rs P   X s  X t Q  (10.40)
Therefore maximum load powers or reactive powers do not depend on

the load terminal voltage Vt. They will be the same at any value of Vt.
The load voltage Vt against off nominal tap ratio is plotted in fig. (10.15) for
three load powers P=0.0, P=1.9pu and at P=2.4pu. The latter value
corresponds to the critical load power. Two voltage values are detected at
each off-nominal tap ratio. One of them is stable value and the other is
unstable voltage value. At the critical power, which corresponds to two
coincident critical voltages having the same value, the two voltages are found
to be coincident at all off-nominal tap ratios of the tap-changing transformer.
This ensures that the tap-changing does not affect the critical voltage values
and keeps the system state as it is from the point of view of degree of stability
but with different voltage levels in the same stability region.
Chapter 10 339
Fig. 10.13 Load active power/transformer off nominal tap ratio at

constant terminal voltages and constant load reactive power
Fig. 10.14 Load reactive power/transformer off nominal tap ratio at

constant terminal voltages and constant load active power
Fig. 10.15 Load voltage/off nominal transformer tap ratio at constant

reactive power and three load powers, including critical power
10.6 Using Combination of on Load Tap-Changing

Transformer and Static VAR Compensator:
It was shown that both of tap-changer transformers and static VAR
compensators could contribute to loads and voltage stability. Combining these
two methods can improve voltage stability. Effect of presence of tap-
changing transformer on static VAR compensator controller parameters and
ratings required to stabilize load voltages at certain values are analyzed. There
are interrelations between transformer off nominal tap ratios and the SVC
controller gains and droop slopes and the SVC rating. At any load fed by a
feeder represented by its equivalent two nodes system and the power/voltage
nose curves at the load terminals can interpret the voltage stability degree of
its node and can define the maximum power/critical voltage of the system
load node.
10.6.1 System Equations Formulation:

Having a tap-changing transformer connected at the load terminal fig.
(10.15). Its off-nominal tap-ratio is t and its reactance at unity off-nominal tap
ratio is Xt. In order to be able to use the known approximate voltage drop
formula (XsQ+RsP)/Vt=|Vs|-|Vt|, where Rs, Xs are the link resistance and
reactance, all the system voltages and impedance’s will be referred to the load
side, i.e. that formula becomes:
(Vs/t), (Rs/t2), (Xs/t2) and (Xt/t2) (10.41)
The link voltage drop will therefore be:
 Xs  Xt   Rs 
 Q   2 P
Vs  t 2
 t 
V   Vt  (10.42)
t Vt
The block diagram shown in fig. (10.16) is the same as figures (10.3), (10.4)
but Vs is replaced by (Vs/t), Xt is replaced by Xt/t2 in power voltage relation.
Also Zs is replaced by (Zs/t2). The regulator transfer function is given after fig.
(10.16) by:
 Z  V Z   R  X X  
Vt2 1  G 2s H   Vt  2s  G 2s Vr     2s  P   s 2 t Q   0
 t  t t   t   t  
(10.43)
Chapter 10 341
2
 Vs Z    Vs Z   Z   R   X  Xt  
  G 2s V r      G s Vr    4  1  G s H     s  P   s Q 
 t t   t t 2
  t 2
  t 2
 t2  
Vt1 
 Z 
2  1  G 2s H 
 t 
(10.44)
2
 Vs Z    Vs Z   Z   R  X X  
  G 2s Vr      G 2s Vr    4  1  G 2s H     2s  P   s 2 t Q 
 t t   t t   t   t   t  
Vt 2 
 Z 
2  1  G 2s H 
 t 
(10.45)
And the compensator controller gain is given by:
Vs   Rs  X X  
 Vt 2  Vt    2  P   s 2 t Q 
t  t   t  
G (10.46)
Zs
Vt HVt  V r 
t2
While, the regulator reference voltage is given by:
 Z  V  R  X X  
Vt 2 1  G 2s H   Vt s    2s  P   s 2 t Q 
 t  t  t   t  
Vr  (10.47)
Z
Vt G 2s
t
Compensator rating is given by (BcVt2) or simply by Bc at Vt=.0 pu. It can

therefore be calculated by:
G AK 
Bc  (at Vt=1.0pu) (10.48)
Slop
Where:
Zs
AK  Vr  Vt H 
t 2V t
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
Fig. 10.16 Load fed through tapped transformer and provided with static
VAR compensator
(a) Equivalent circuit (b) Block diagram
(c) Transfer functions (d) Simplified transfer functions
Chapter 10 343
10.6.2 Load Power/Voltage Response with Presence of

Tap-Changing Transformer and Static VAR
Compensator:
The load node nose curve of the voltage/power relation is plotted in fig.
(10.17) when the transformer off-nominal tap ratios are varied within the
known practical range (t=0.8 to 1.2) and with various static compensator
gains G = 0.0 (without compensator action), G = 2.5, G = 5, and G = 10 for a
typical system. The feedback loop is in operation. From fig. (10.17) all these
curves indicate that the off-nominal tap ratio variation does not affect the
critical power value at various SVC gains. i.e. this value remains constant at
all off -nominal transformer ratio's . However, off - nominal tap ratios affect
largely the load voltage magnitudes at no load conditions. At lower values,
they affect the load voltages at other loading conditions.
The compensator controller gain increases the maximum power largely

as shown in fig. (10.17) for different SVC controller gains. This result is very
important which means that the application of static compensator at load
terminals not only stabilize and control its voltage allover the hour, but also
compensates the series link impedance or acts as local shunt capacitor
compensation means, which participate in increasing the power limits at the
load node.
In conclusions: Presence of only tap-changing transformers does not

improve voltage stability significantly. They do affect the voltage levels and
slightly the critical voltages, but does not affect the maximum powers
corresponding to these critical voltages. Therefore, tap-changing transformer
at the load terminals can slightly contribute to its voltage stability. Presence of
static VAR compensator with different controller gains can increase the
maximum load powers several times its original value without static VAR
compensator.
There is an interaction between the transformer off nominal tap ratio

and the compensator controller gains and reference voltages, in order to keep
the load node voltage constant at all loading conditions. The compensator
ratings are affected with presence of tap changing transformer, the fixed
reactance of the TCR type compensator changes significantly with the
presence of tap-changing transformer. Certain transformer off nominal tap
ratio's minimize the SVC needed ratings. i.e. in the presence of tap-changing
transformer, the SVC rating required to keep the load voltage constant at
certain values is reduced significantly.
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
Fig. 10.17 Voltage/power response with various off-nominal tap ratios

and various static VAR compensator controllers gains
(with constant Q and 0.8<t<1.2)
(a) G = 0.0 (b) G = 2.5 (c) G = 5.0 (d) G = 10
Chapter 10 345
10.6.3 Influence of Tap-Changing Ratio on SVC

Controller Gain/Slope Relation:
For SVC controller droop slope of 0.8, the SVC controller
gain/compensator rating (1/Xc) relation is plotted in fig. (10.18) using eqns.
(10.43) to (10.48). With three off -nominal tap ratios t = 0.8, 1 and 1.2 .The
graph shows different required compensator reactive power ratings at each
compensator controller gain, in order to keep the load voltage constant, in the
presence of automatic tap-changing transformer of different off-nominal tap
ratio's. Table (10.1) shows the needed SVC ratings corresponding to different
controller gains and different transformer off-nominal tap ratio's. Figure
10.18(b) shows the reactance of the SVC with the gain at the same three
typical tap-ratios 0.8, 1 and 1.2 in order to keep the load voltage constant at
Vt=0.99 pu, using eqn. (10.48).
Figure 10.18(a) shows the compensator gain relations with different

load powers, in the presence of different transformer off nominal tap ratios
(0.8 to 1.2). The load reactive power is assumed to be kept constant. SVC
controller gain versus its rating in pu is plotted in this figure with different
transformer tap ratio's. The range of change of compensator rating for a
certain given load power is shown in the presence of different transformer
taps. Eqn. (10.48) is used in these calculations. Once more, for the same SVC
controller gain, higher SVC rating is required with lowers transformer off-
nominal tap ratio and vice versa. On contradictory higher load power can be
taken at that fixed terminal load voltage in the presence of lower off nominal
transformer tap ratio.
Table 10.1 P.U compensator rating at various gains and various off
nominal transformer tap ratios
SVC Gain Off nominal tap ratio (t)

G 0.8 1.0 1.2
50 1.2 0.7 0.5
70 2.0 1.0 0.6
100 --- 1.8 1.0
150 --- --- 1.7
(a)
(b)
(c)
Fig. 10.18 (a) Gain/Power relation with different transformer tap ratio's
(b) Gain/SVC Reactance with different transformer tap ratio's
(c) Gain/SVC Rating (Bc) with different transformer tap ratio's
Chapter 10 347
In summary:
(a) Presence of only tap-changing transformers does not improve voltage
stability significantly. They do affect the voltage levels and slightly the
critical voltages, but does not affect the maximum powers corresponding to
these critical voltages. Therefore, tap-changing transformer at the load
terminals can slightly contribute to its voltage stability.
(b) Presence of static VAR compensator with different controller gains can
increase the maximum load powers several times its original value without
static VAR compensator and replace using series condensers.
(c) There is an interaction between the transformer off nominal tap ratio and
the compensator controller gains and reference voltages, in order to keep the
load node voltage constant at all loading conditions
(d) The compensator ratings are affected with presence of tap changing
transformer, the fixed reactance of the TCR type compensator changes
significantly with the presence of tap-changing transformer. Certain
transformer off nominal tap ratio's minimize the SVC needed ratings or in
other words:- in the presence of tap-changing transformer, the SVC rating
required to keep the load voltage constant is reduced significantly.
10.7 Using Series Capacitors at Load Terminals:
10.7.1 Voltage Stability Limits with Series Capacitors

at Load Terminals:
In order to study the role of series capacitors on loads voltage
instability a load fed through a feeder provided with series capacitor is used.
Four series capacitor compensation percentages are used (25%, 50%, 75%
and 100%). The system without series compensation is used for comparison
purposes. The load is kept constant while its reactive power is assumed
variable. Table (10.2) shows that the load node voltage becomes unstable at
Q=0.7173 pu without any series compensation for the typical system. At 25%
series compensation it becomes unstable at Q=0.9 pu while it will be unstable
at Q=1.25 pu at 50% percentage series compensation. It will reach to 2.75 pu
for 100% series compensation, which means that the voltage stability limit is
increased to 400%. The dE/dV criterion is used to determine the voltage
instability state. Negative values of dE/dV refer to unstable voltages. Noting
that in this analysis all the precedent equations are used by replacing X s by
(Xs-Xc) as shown in figure (10.19).
Referring to fig. 10.19(c), the load voltage/power characteristics is given by:

Having Zs=|Rs+j(Xs-Xc)|, then:
Vt2 1  GHZ s   Vt Vs  GZ sVr   Rs P   X s  X c Q  0.0 (10.49)

(a)
(b)
(c)
Fig. 10.19 (a) Thevenen's equivalent and

(b) Block diagram of a loaded power system with series capacitors and
SVC
(c) Simplified transfer function of the system with series capacitor
Chapter 10 349
Its solution is:
Vs  GZ sVr   Vs  GZ sVr 2  4  1  GZ s H   Rs P   X s  X c Q  (10.50)

Vt1 
2  1  GZ s H 
Vs  GZ sVr   Vs  GZ sVr 2  4  1  GZ s H   R s P   X s  X c Q 

(10.51)
Vt 2 
2  1  GZ s H 
The equivalent controller gain G as a function of system, series capacitors X c

and compensator parameters is obtained from:
 Vt 2  Vt Vs  Rs P   X s  X c Q  (10.52)

G
Z sVt HVt  Vr 
While, the reference voltage Vr of the regulator, as a function of system,

series capacitor reactance Xc and compensator parameters is calculated by:
Vr2 1  GHZ s   Vt Vs  Rs P   X s  X c Q  (10.53)

Vr 
Vt GZ s
Eqn. (10.52) shows the compensation percentage for the same SVC gain, the
load power increases as the series capacitor percentage increases. Eqn.
(10.52) shows the gains required when the resonance case occurs (at 100%
series compensation). It indicates that very large quantities are required
comparable with those at the other percentages (0% to 75%). The gains when
shunt capacitor resistance (Rsh) is increased by value at which the gains
become in the same order as those with the lower capacitance percentages. R sh
should be increased to certain value in order to have the same gains. The
shunt capacitor resistance Rsh, which must be introduced by the spark gap
during the resonance period, is found by:
Rsh  jX c 
Z  Rs  jX s   (10.54)
Rsh   jX c 
 R X2  R2 X 
Z   Rs  sh c   j  X s  sh c  (10.55)
 Z1   Z1 
  
Where:
Z1  Rsh
2
 X c2
Table 10.2 Voltage stability criteria (dE/dV) at different percentage of

series compensation with constant load power and variable reactive
power
Q Percentage Series Capacitor Compensation Ratio

(Load) 0% 25% 50% 75% 100%
0.18 2.439 3.5 4.4 8.0 8.55
0.36 1.980 2.9 4.1 7.4 8.30
0.69 0.480 2.1 3.5 6.6 8.50
0.72 -0.0035 1.8 2.9 5.9 7.99
0.90 --- -0.0013 2.6 5.2 7.60
1.25 --- --- -0.004 4.3 6.70
2.00 --- --- --- -0.003 2.90
2.75 --- --- --- --- -0.005
Notes: (-) indicate unstable voltage state.
10.7.2 Load Voltage/Power Characteristics in the

Presence of Only Series Capacitors at Load
Terminals:
Having a load of constant power factor the voltage is plotted against the
load VA power, in the presence of different series capacitors compensation
percentages (0%, 25%, 50%, 75% and 100%) in fig. (10.20). In these plots all
precedent equations are used but with replacing X s by (Xs-Xc), where Xc the
series capacitor reactance as given in eqns. (10.49) to (10.51). The figure
shows that the maximum possible critical power increases with the increase of
the series capacitor compensation percentage.
(a)
Chapter 10 351
(b)
Fig. 10.20 (a) Load voltage/power characteristics in the presence of

variable percentages of series capacitor compensation
(b) The dE/dV criterion for stressed reactive power in presence of series
capacitor
For example, it becomes 380% at 100% compensation, and 225% at

75% compensation, and 150% at 50% compensation, and 125% at 25%
compensation. The critical voltage value remained constant at 0.5 pu at all
series compensation percentages. This is due the fact that the critical voltage
is independent of the value of system series reactance Xs.
10.8 Using Combined Series Capacitors and Static VAR

Compensators at Load Terminals:
Series capacitors (SC) alone or with combination with static VAR
compensators (SVC) can be used for enhancement of steady state voltage
stability of load nodes. Appropriate compensation percentage is obtained from
steady-state voltage stability point of view. Combination of SC and SVC on
ratings and performance improves voltage instability significantly. There are
some limitations of using series capacitors alone, so its combination with
static VAR compensator is evident. In this analysis, the aforementioned
equations (10.52) to (10.55) with static VAR compensator alone are used but
Xs is replaced by (Xs-Xc). Xc is the series capacitor reactance with its selected
compensation ratio.
10.8.1 Parameters of Static VAR compensators

when Combined with Series Capacitors:
When static VAR compensator of closed loop control system is used at
constant power factor load, its gains required to keep the load voltage V t
constant at 0.99 pu are plotted in fig. (10.21).
(a)
(b)
Fig. 10.21 Load power/SVC controller gain required to keep load voltage
constant in the presence of series capacitor of various compensation
percentages: (a) With 25%, 50%, 75% and (b) With 100%
Chapter 10 353
The reference voltage Vr is adjusted at 1.0 pu. Four series capacitor

compensation percentages are used, they are 0%, 25%, 50% and 75%. For the
same load power, the SVC gain increases with increase of percentage series
compensation. Or, in other words, for the same SVC gain, the load power
decreases as the series capacitor percentage increases. Figure 10.21(b) shows
the gains required when the series resonance case occurs (at 100% series
compensation). Very large impractical gain values are required comparable
with those at the other percentages (0% to 75%). This means that higher
capacitor compensation ratio's should be avoided. Percentages more than 80%
is not practical and needs expensive SVC's controllers.
10.8.2 Influence of the Series Capacitor Percentage on

the Static VAR Compensator Rating:
When combined static VAR compensator and series capacitor are used
to stabilize load voltages, the SVC's rating will be surely changed. Referring
to fig. (10.3), the SVC rating is calculated using the equations:
Having:
Vc  Vr  Vt H G ' Z s (10.56)
Vc
Slop  (10.57)
Is
1
I s  BcVt , Bc  (10.58)
Xc
SVC Rating  Vt2 Bc  Bc (10.59)
Where Bc is obtained from the feedback block diagram of figs. (10.3), (10.4).
First of all the required SVC compensator rating to keep the load voltage
constant at various loadabilities (0 to 3)pu shows that presence of series
capacitors has led to less SVC rating for same loading and voltage conditions.
At the resonance condition (series compensation = 100 %), fig. (10.22) shows
the required SVC ratings. Impracticable values are required for keeping the
load voltage constant for a heavy load of 3 pu, SVC rating of 80 pu is
required. In order to study the influence of the series compensation on the
SVC ratings with different SVC controller gains, fig. (10.23) is plotted. The
Figure shows minimum ratings at higher series compensation percentages.
Moreover, lower gains are accompanied by lower SVC rating and vice versa.
Steep decrease of SVC ratings with increasing the series compensation
percentage is noticed.
Fig. 10.22 SVC rating required stabilizing the load voltage at different
load powers in the presence of series capacitor of various percentages
Fig. 10.23 SVC rating at different series compensation percentages and

various SVC gains
10.8.3 Series Compensation Percentage Limit:

SVC controller gains with different series compensation ratios for
certain typical loads are plotted in fig. (10.24). SVC rating corresponding to
these gains are given in fig. (10.25). Once more high gains and therefore
higher impracticable reference voltages are required at 100% series
compensation. Up to 75% series compensation these values are nearly
adjacent and increase very slightly. After this series percentage, the values of
SVC controller gains are diverged different load powers.
Chapter 10 355
For higher load powers these gains or reference voltages become

impracticable values. These results reveal clearly that series compensation
should be lower than 75 % from the voltage stability point of view and limits
the percentage series compensation by 75% in order to able to use practical
and cost effective SVC's for voltage stabilization.
(a)
(b)
Fig. 10.24 (a) SVC controller gains

(b) SVC controller reference voltage at different series compensation
percentages with three load powers and constant reactive power
Fig. 10.25 SVC controller gains versus ratings with different series
compensation percentage at constant reactive power
In summary, series capacitors can enhance steady-state voltage stabilites and

compensation percentages over 75% should be avoided. Combination of
series capacitors with shunt static VAR compensators reduces the required
SVC ratings and expenses, with the probable risk of subsynchronous
resonance, with network elements. A very important conclusion is that, use of
only series capacitors has a limited effect on voltage instability. Its combined
use with static VAR compensators is recommended to be used in UHV
networks. In low voltage networks series capacitors effects are not
remarkable.
10.9 Voltage Instabilities Due to Voltage Flickers:

Voltage flicker is a known form of voltage instability and causes many
eyes and loads problems to consumers. Adaptive control methods for SVC are
recently proposed for elimination of voltage flickers. Minimization of such
voltage flickers by adaptive static VAR compensator controller or by
transformer with tap-changer or by combination of both are suggested in
litterateur. In general known solutions to flicker problems can be classified as:
 Installation of a substation closer to the load site.
 Supplying the customer having varying loads through a separate
feeder .
 Using adaptive VAR Compensators (AVC).
Chapter 10 357
10.9.1 Voltage Flicker Due to Arc-Furnaces Loads:

10.9.1.1 Mechanism:
A characteristic feature of the operation of arc furnaces, particularly
during the meltdown, is the frequently occurring short circuits between the
electrodes and the charge. It also happens that the arc is extinguished and no
current at all will then be obtained. For natural reasons these variations are
seldom symmetrical. Two phases are generally short-circuited, and one phase
is without current. Between these extremes there occurs every possible degree
of more moderate deviations from the set current. Voltage fluctuations arise in
the network owing to the current fluctuations. At the point of common
coupling (PCC), where domestic consumers are also connected to the
network, the voltage fluctuations for a balanced load are calculated
approximately by:
V Q
 (10.60)
V S sc
Where Q is the reactive power fluctuations at the PCC (largely equal to the
reactive power fluctuations of the furnace) and Ssc is the network short-circuit
level at the PCC node.
10.9.1.2 Typical Arc Furnaces Voltage Flicker:

Flicker voltage level on the utility's critical bus can be predicted either
by flicker meters or with a computer dynamic stability program. Typical one
of these arc furnaces flickers is given in fig. (10.26).
Fig. 10.26 Typical voltage flicker considered

The illustrated flicker for a furnace loaded for 0.12 second and then
unloaded for 0.05 second to produce a flicker rate of six cycles per second
(f=35Hz). The resulting voltage change is about 0.4 percent. For about 1.4
seconds there is a general voltage sag of approximately 0.4 percent during this
state of operation, for two seconds. The no-load voltage at the load node can
be expressed as:

Vs  Eth et 305  0.004 sin 35t  (10.61)
Where: t is the time, Eth is the Thevenine's voltage at the load node.
10.9.2 Minimization of Voltage Flicker by Tapped

Transformers:
With tapped transformers the voltage drop at the load node is given by:
 X s  Xt   Rs 
 Q   2 P
V 
Vs
 Vt   t 2
 t  (10.62)
t Vt
10.9.3 Using Static VAR Compensator with Adaptive

Gains:
Using the static VAR compensator of fig. (10.4) for elimination of the
voltage flicker with eqn. (10.61), Vs is given by eqn. (10.62) and Vt is found
by the relation:
   
Vt2 1  GHZ s   Vt Eth et 305  0.004 sin 35t  GZ sVr  Rs P  X sQ  0
(10.63)
The controller gain G is obtained from:
G
 
 Vt2  Vt Eth e t 305  0.004 sin 35t  Rs P  X s Q 
(10.64)
Z sVr HVt  Vr 
In order to have constant Vt, i.e. the voltage flicker is totally eliminated an
adaptive gain defined by eqn. (10.64) should be applied. For a typical load,
these adaptive gains G are plotted in fig. (10.27) for 2.0 sec. that the critical
loads node power. This has nearly the image of the voltage flicker shape in
the upward direction.
Chapter 10 359
Fig. 10.27 Adaptive static VAR compensator controller gain required for
keeping the load voltage constant and eliminating the voltage flicker
10.9.4 Using Static VAR Compensator with Fixed

Controller Gain:
Having used static VAR compensator with fixed controller gains,
which is traditionally the case in practice, the resulting load voltage shapes
are plotted in fig. (10.28). The unstable values VT2 become nearly constant
with insensible voltage flicker. The stable voltage still having slight flicker
superimposed for going within the adaptive values (G=78). The voltage
magnitude decreases with increasing the gains within the adaptive values
shown in fig. (10.28). Increasing the controller gain to values over the
adaptive values (for example G=150), the voltage flicker value is more than
that without SVC.
Fig. 10.28 Load node voltage shape using static VAR compensator of
fixed controller gains within the adaptive gains range values G = 78
10.9.5 Using Static VAR Compensator with Adaptive

Regulator Reference Voltage:
Voltage flicker can be eliminated by an adaptive reference voltage in
the SVC controller regulator. Figure (10.29) shows that adaptive SVC
controller reference voltage shape. Adaptive reference voltage required to
keep load voltage constant, with the typical voltage flicker totally eliminated,
can be calculated from:
Vr 
 
Vt2 1  GHZ s   Vt Eth et 305  0.004 sin 35t  Rs P  X sQ 
(10.65)
Vt Z sG
The reference voltage should be therefore varied adaptively according to the

shape of fig. (10.29), in order to eliminate the flicker totally.
Fig. 10.29 Adaptive reference voltage for the SVC regulator controller
and load voltage for totally eliminating the voltage flicker
10.9.6 Using Static VAR Compensator with

Controller Having Fixed Reference Voltages of
Different Values:
When a static VAR compensator with fixed reference voltages of
different values at its controller regulator input, is used the flicker voltage will
still exist but with lower values. Increasing the reference voltage to certain
high value augmentation of the voltage flicker to values more than those
without using SVC are noticed. This means that using reference voltages
outside the adaptive range result in increasing the flicker voltage magnitudes
more than those values without using the static VAR compensator.
Chapter 10 361
Therefore, reference voltages of the SVC controller should be carefully

selected in order to minimize the voltage flicker in power systems. In resume',
adaptive reference voltages eliminate totally the flicker superimposed on the
load voltage and can keep this load voltage constant. Selection of fixed
reference voltage should be selected within these adaptive values.
10.9.7 Using Combined Static VAR Compensators and

on-Load Tap-Changing Transformers:
Combining eqn. (10.62) for tapped transformer having an off nominal
tap ratio of "t" and eqn. (10.61) of the flicker voltage as source voltage Vs and
eqn. (10.63). Eqn. (10.61), (10.65) can be recalculated taking into
consideration the off-nominal tap ratio (t) of transformer as follows:
   E e T
 Vt2   th
 305
 0.004 sin 35T V  R
   2s
 X X
P   s 2 t
 
Q 
 t  t
 t   t  
G  
 Zs 
 2 Vt HVt  Vr 
t 
(10.66)
  Z s   Eth e T
Vt 1  GH 2  
2  305
 0.004 sin 35T V    R
s
 P 
 Xs  Xt  
 Q 

t    t
 t   t 
2
 t2  
Vr 
Zs
Vt G
t2
(10.67)
Figure (10.30) shows the static VAR compensator gain time response
and the SVC gain rating relations required to eliminate totally the voltage
flicker, when tapped transformer is used in combination with the SVC.
In conclusion, Voltage flicker created by voltage fluctuations of loads,

especially arc-furnaces loads and repetitively variable loads, can be totally
eliminated by static VAR compensators with adaptive gains or adaptive
reference voltages. Also Voltage flicker can be minimized by static VAR
compensator on controller having fixed gains or fixed reference voltages
within the adaptive values. Values outside these adaptive values increase the
voltage flickers. Judicious choice of gains and reference voltage values is
ultimately important for enhancement of loads voltage instability. Combined
use of SVC and tapped transformer can improve the situation.
(a)
(b)
Fig. 10.30 Flicker voltage elimination with static VAR compensator and a
tap-changing transformer having several off nominal tap ratio’s
(a) SVC gains time response (b) SVC gain/rating relation
Chapter 10 363
10.10 Load Voltage Stabilization by Certain Load

Shedding:
Heavy loading may lead to voltage instabilities or collapses or in the
extreme to complete blackouts. One technique of avoiding voltage instability
is to shed some consumer's loads in order to draw the operating point faraway
from the critical voltage value.
A new method for determining the load to be shed in order to avoid risk
of voltage instability is displayed. The method is based on the indicators of
risk of voltage instability suggested by P. Kessel and H. Glavitsch. The load
bus at which the indicator is the highest is selected for load shedding. A
relation between indicator changes and load powers to be shed is developed.
With the help of this relation the amount of load to be shed can be
determined, for any operational state.
10.10.1 Optimum Quantity of Load to be shed:

Kessel and Glavitsch developed a voltage stability indicator at load bus j:
 F jiVi
i G
Lj  1 (10.68)
Vj
A global voltage stability indicator of a power system is given by:
 
L  MAX j L L j and 0  L  1 (10.69)
Where:
L is the set of consumer nodes
G is the set of generator nodes
Vj is the voltage at load node
Vi is the voltage at generator bus
Fji is submatrix of the hyprid-h matrix Fji = | Fji|ji and this matrix is
determined by:
Fji   YLL 1YLG  (10.70)
10.10.2 The T. Quoc Tuan Method:

In order to determine indicators of risk of voltage instability on load
busses by this method, one must calculate eqn. (10.70) but the matrix [Y LL]-1
is replaced by [BLL]-1 and the matrix [YLG] is replaced by [BLG], indicators of
risk of voltage instability are determined by:
 C jiVi
i G
Bj  1 (10.71)
Vj
Where matrix Cji is determined by:
C ji   BLL 1BLG  (10.53)
[BLL]-1 is the imaginary part of the matrix [YLL]-1 and [BLG] is the imaginary
part of the matrix [YLG].
10.10.3 Modified Method:

The indicator at bus j determined by eqn. (10.68) can be separated into
real and imaginary parts:
 
F ji Vi cos  i   ji   j 
i G
LRj  1  (10.73)
Vj
 
F ji Vi sin  i   ji   j 
i G
LIj  1  (10.74)
Vj
The indicator of risk of voltage instability at each bus is a function of voltage

angles and magnitudes. The real and imaginary parts of indicators can be
expressed as:
LI  F1  , V
(10.75)
LR  F2  , V 
 C ji Vi cos i   j 
i G
B Rj  1  (10.76)
Vj
 C ji Vi sin  i   j 
i G
B Ij  1  (10.77)
Vj
Chapter 10 365
The indicator of risk of voltage instability at each bus is a function of voltage

angles and magnitudes. The real and imaginary parts of indicators can be
expressed as:
B I  F1  , V
(10.78)
B R  F2  , V 
A simplification of that method assuming only the B’S of the Y matrix exist
or neglect the resistances of all system elements so (10.76), (10.77) can be
written as:
 B I     1  P   P 
 R  T   V   T J     S    (10.79)
B    Q  Q 
The amount of power (P) and reactive power (Q) to be shed is given by:
 P  1  B 
L
Q   S   R  (10.80)
  B 
Where:
 1   I
B Ij  
 Vj i
ji i i 
j i j j 
  C V cos      B R  1    B j  V
 Vj  j
  G  
(10.81)
 1   B Rj  1 
B Rj  
 Vj


i
   I
 
C ji Vi sin  i   j  i  B j  j  
 Vj  j
 V
  G  
(10.82)
The partial derivative of eqns. (10.73), (10.74) with respect to voltage angle
and magnitude changes can be determined as:
 LI LI 
 LI    
 V       
 R   R    T   V  (10.83)
L  L LR   V   
 
  V 
Matrix [T] is the sensitivity matrix between indicator changes and voltage
angle and magnitude changes. From eqn. (10.83) changes of the real and
imaginary parts of the indicator corresponding to bus j can be determined as:
 1   I 
LIj  
 Vj i

ji i i ji j i j 
j 
  F V cos        LR  1    L j  V
 Vj  j

  G  
(10.84)
 1   LRj  1 
LRj  
 Vj


i
   I
 
F ji Vi sin  i   ji   j  i  L j  j  
 Vj  j
 V
  G  
(10.85)
Using eqns. (10.84), (10.85) and the linear relation between changes in
voltage phases/magnitudes and active/reactive power injections, we obtain a
relationship between real and imaginary parts of indicators and the powers
(P, Q), which should be rejected or shed at node j:
 LI     1  P   P 
 R  T   V   T  J  Q  S  Q  (10.86)
L       
The amount of power (P) and reactive power (Q) to be shed is given by
eqn. (10.86) as:
 P  1  L 
I
Q   S   R (10.87)
  L 
Using the simplified method assuming only the B's of the Y matrix exist or
neglect the resistance's of all system elements equations, so equations (10.86),
(10.87) can be written as:
 B I B I 
 B I    
 V         P 
 R   R    T   V   S  Q  (10.88)
B  B B R   V     
 
  V 
With [S]=[T][J]-1, J is the Jacobian matrix and [S] is the sensitivity matrix
between indicator changes.
Chapter 10 367
The active /reactive power changes or the load powers to be shed are:
 P  1  B 
I
Q   S   R  (10.89)
  B 
These are the same values which get before with simplified admittance's.
10.10.4 Algorithm for Determination of the Load-Node

at which the Load should be Shed and the Quantity
of Load Shedding:
The algorithm may be presented in the following way:
(a) Calculate the indicators of risk of voltage instability L i, iL, for all
load nodes L.
(b) Determine the load bus having the highest indicator value, to define the
load node at which load shedding should be made.
(c) Calculate sensitivities matrix [S] using eqns. (10.79) or (10.86).
(d) Determine the quantity of the load to be shed at that node using eqns.
(10.87) or (10.89).
(e) Recalculate new voltages, new angles after load shedding using a load
flow program.
(f) Verify by load flow calculation to obtain exact indicator values after
load shedding.
(g) The process is to be repeated until indicator value become lower than a
specified value (0.5 for example).
Example 10.1:
The 6-bus Ward-Hall system is used as a test system. Two cases are to
be considered. The base case (Case 1) and the case at which the reactive
power at bus # 5 is stressed up to reaching voltage instability state (Case 2).
Solution table 10.3 shows the voltage, indicators and errors between L j and Bj
for the base case (case 1). Table 10.4 shows the same parameters for (case 2).
Examination of tables (10.3), (10.4) shows that:
For (Case 1), the maximum value of indicators Lj, Bj are 0.27518, 0.27585 at
bus 5, while for (Case 2), the maximum value of indicators Lj, Bj are 0.99919,
0.96594 occur at bus 5 also. Therefore the load shedding should occur at node
# 5.
Table (10.5) shows, the active and reactive powers to be shed at node
#5 and the resulting indicators calculated from voltage angles and magnitudes
from a load flow calculation, after load has been shed. Taking minimum value
of the indicator to be 0.5. The error between the two techniques is small. Only
5 iterative steps are required to determine the load to be shed at the optimum
node, which is found to be always node #5.
Table 10.3 Voltage, indicators and errors between Lj and Bj in load buses
for case 1
Bus No. V(p.u) Lj (p.u) Bj (p.u) Error (p.u)

3 9.000.1 0.069.9 0.06201 -0.00..0
4 0.1.9.. 0.000.0 0.09.09 -0.00...
5 98029.0 98272.. 98272.7 -9899000
6 9802900 982272. 98209.0 -9899020
Table 10.4 Voltage, indicators and errors between

Lj and Bj in load buses for case 2
Bus No. V(p.u) Lj (p.u) Bj (p.u) Error (p.u)

3 980220 98000.0 9800020 98990.0
.
4 98.002 98202.2 9820.70 9899000
7
5 982020 98000.0 9800200 9890022
9
6 987207 982.200 9829.00 9899079
9
Table 10.5 The active and reactive powers to be shed and the resulting
indicators at load 5, after load successive shed (Lj, Bj minimum = 0.5)
Step Powers to be shed Powers to be shed

No. by Lj (p.u) by Bj (p.u) Lj (p.u) Bj (p.u)
P Q P Q
1 9890920 9890.00 9890007 98907.. 98..9 98779
2 9892099 9892079 9892002 9890229 98720 980.0
3 989.02. 9892.22 989.2.0 9892.79 9800. 98002
4 989.202 989.0.0 989.299 9892920 982.2 9822.
5 9892099 98.9202 9892770 98.9027 98000 98000
Noting that Lj and Bj are decreased after load shedding, which means
more voltage stability.
The amount of load to be shed is calculated by eqn. (10.66) and new value of
Lj and Bj are calculated with shedding these quantities. The process is
Chapter 10 369
repeated until Lj, Bj become less than specified values (0.5 in this analysis).
The last values refer to the load quantities, which must be shed.
Problems
10.1 What is meant by load stability and what is its relation with voltage
stability?
10.2 Give the formula for the compensator rating required to stabilize the
load unstable voltage?
10.3 What are the limitation of series capacitor percentage compensation
and why?
10.4 What are the effects of combining static VAR compensator and tap-
changing transformer on compensator rating required for load voltage
stabilization?
10.5 What is voltage flicker and what is its mechanism and how can be
stabilized or eliminated. Show how compensator rating and controller
gains and time constants can be calculated?
10.6 Give formula for static compensator rating, gain and reference
voltage required to stabilize load voltages?
10.7 Give formula for the load to be shed in order to stabilize unstable
loads?
10.8 Give algorithm, which define load location to be shed?
10.9 Prove that combination of compensator and tap-changing
transformer or series capacitor and static VAR compensator is more
efficient and more beneficial from economical point of view?
10.10 Show that series capacitor is not preferable for stabilization of low
voltage networks .It is only for use with ultra and extra high voltage
networks?
10.11 What will be the load stabilization effects of load power factor
correction and what will be the available kW for other consumers due to
that correction?
10.12 A large power system is represented by its Thevenen's equivalent
E=0.99-3.2 pu., Z=0.23775.45 pu. At certain node which is loaded by a
load of 0.5+j0.05 pu. Find the load voltage, the node critical voltage and its
maximum power. Check its voltage stability. If the load is doubled does
the stability will be kept? If the reactive power is stressed to 0.5 pu. What
will be the system voltage stability state?
10.13 In problem (10.12) if a series capacitor is connected in series with
the load. Find the load node maximum power, critical voltage and its
voltage with 25%, 50%, 75%, 90% and 100% compensation percentages.
What will be the voltage stability situation when the load is doubled and
when only its reactive power is stressed to 0.5 pu. In both cases what will
be the series capacitor percentage to keep the load voltage equal to the
source voltage and just to stabilize the voltage.
10.14 In problem (10.13) if a static VAR compensator is provided in
shunt with the load and the series capacitor. Find its gains required for
stabilizing the load node voltage at 0.98. H=0.95, Vref=1.0, Vt=0.98.
10.15 For the system of problem (10.13), if only SVC is shunt with the
load. Its Vref=1.0 pu, H=0.95. What will be the load voltages for gains G of
5, 10, 15, 20 and 50. What will be the node maximum power and critical
voltages with these compensator gains.
10.16 In problem (10.15) if the gain is kept constant at G =10, what will
be the reference voltages required to maintain the load voltages at 0.98,
when H=0.95. What will be the maximum node power and critical voltages
with these new reference voltages.
10.17 A combined series capacitor and shunt static compensator is used
with certain power system, find the compensator gains at 50% and 100%
compensation ratio required to stabilize the voltage at 0.99 pu. Load
powers = 0.5 + j0.5, Vref =1.0 pu, H=0.95, E=0.99-3.2, Z=0.23775.45
pu. Find the node maximum power and critical voltage with and without
series capacitor. Find the static compensator gain, which yields the same
maximum power as that with 25%, 50%, 75% and 100% series
compensation ratio respectively. Prove that percentage of 75% is a limit.
10.18 A system is represented by E=0.99-3.2 pu, Z=0.23775.45 pu is
loaded by a load of 0.5 + j0.5 pu.
(a) Find the load voltage (b) Find the compensator gain to raise that voltage
to 0.98 (Vref =1.0 pu, H=0.99)
(c) Find the compensator reference voltage to maintain the load voltage at
0.99 (G=10, H=0.99)
(d) Find the series capacitor ratio required to raise the voltage to 0.99 pu.
(e) Find the static compensator rating required to raise the voltage to 0.99 pu
when G=10, H=0.95, Vref=1.0 pu. If the compensator is replaced by shunt
fixed capacitor what will be its rating and what will be the saving in rating
due to using controlled static VAR compensator.
10.19 Repeat problem (10.18) when a tapped transformer with off
nominal tap ratio of 0.8, 1.0 and 1.2 is used in combination with each case.
10.20 Find the off nominal tap ratio of a transformer connected in series
with the load of problem (10.12) in order to raise the load voltage to 0.95
and 0.99. The load powers are P+jQ=0.5+j0.5 pu.
10.21 In problem (10.12) if the original load was 1.0+j0.5 pu and the
system voltage is unstable, what is the percentage of the load to be shed in
order to maintain the load voltage stability? (Use the node critical voltage
criteria).
Chapter 10 371
10.22 A 2.2MW, 0.7 power factor, load is fed from a 11kV, 50Hz source
through a link which has impedance of 1+j1 ohms and 120mm2 cross
section. It is aimed to raise the load power factor (pf) to 0.95.
(a) Find the load currents before and after pf correction
(b) The load voltage before and after pf correction
References
[1] M. Z. El-Sadek, M. M. Dessouky, G. A. Mahmoud and W. I. Rashed,
"Enhancement of Steady State Voltage Stability by Static VAR
Compensators", Electric Power Systems Research Vol.43, 1997, pp.
179-185.
[2] M. Z. El-Sadek, M. M. Dessouky, G. A. Mahmoud and W. I. Rashed
"Combined Use of Tap Changing Transformer and Static VAR
Compensator for Enhancement of Steady State Voltage Stability",
Electric Power Systems Research, Vol. 45, 1998, pp. 47-55.
"Series Capacitors Combined With Static VAR Compensator for
Enhancement of Steady State Voltage Stabilities", Electric Power
Systems Research No. 44, 1998, pp. 137-143.
"Enhancement of Steady State Voltage Stabilities Due to Voltage
Flicker", JIEEEC'98, Amman, Jordan, April, 1998, pp. 176-181.
[5] M. Z. El-Sadek, G. A. Mahmoud, M. M. Dessouky and W. I. Rashed,
"Effect of Control Systems on Compensator Rating Needed for Voltage
Stability Enhancement", Electric Power Systems Research,
Switzerland, No. 50, 1999, pp. 139-145.
"Optimum Load Shedding for Avoiding Voltage Instability", Electric
power Systems Research Journal, No. 50, 1999, pp. 119-123.
"Improvement of the Steady State Voltage Stability Criteria Results",
5th, MEPCON’97, Alexandria University, Egypt, 1997, pp. 426-430.
[8] M. Z. El-Sadek, G. A. Mahmoud, M. M. Dessouky and W. I. Rashed,
"Tap Changing transformer Role in Voltage Stability Enhancement",
Electric Power Systems Research, No. 50, 1999, pp. 115-118.
"Load Representation for Steady State Voltage Stability Studies",
Electric Power Systems Research, No. 43, 1997, pp. 187-195.
[10] M. Z. El-Sadek, A. A. Ibrahim, M. E. Ahmed, "Effects of Load
Representations on Steady State Voltage Stability, "Engineering
Conference, Port Said, 1999.
[11] W. I. Rashed, "Enhancement of Voltage Stability in Power Systems",

Ph. D. Thesis, Suez Canal University, Port Said, 1997.
[12] M. Z. El-Sadek, A. A. Ibrahim, "Static VAR Compensator for
Elimination of Voltage Flicker", Second International Conference on
Engineering Research, Egypt, Port Said, December 1995, pp. 350-361.
372 Load Representation Effects on Voltage Stability Evaluation
Chapter 11
Load Representation Effects on Voltage
Stability Evaluation
This chapter presents the effects of the new polynomials load models
on evaluation of degree of voltage stability in power systems. These
polynomial models were derived from the available measured characteristics
of the power system loads. Comparisons between the known single term
polynomials load models and the new models effects approzed the necessity
of using these developed models and showed that erroneous results are
obtained using the known available single term models in voltage stability
studies.
11.1 Available Load Representations:

Loads are usually defined by their consumption of power and reactive
powers (P, Q), and their subjected voltage V. Historically loads were first
represented by constant impedance's elements in order to cope with circuits
analysis and theorems. Either series (R-X) or shunt (R-X) models was used.
They are found by:
2 2 2
V V P V Q
Z  R  jX  
P  jQ  P 2
 Q2   j P 2
 Q2  (11.1)
Or:
V2 V2
Z  R // X , R  , X  (11.2)
P Q
In load flow studies, the available analysis are based on constant power loads
i.e. (P + jQ = constant). In synchronous stability studies, combination of
constant impedance loads and constant power loads led to another constant
current load given by:
I
P  jQ  = Constant (11.3)
V
The available litterateur presented approximated single termed models of
loads powers as functions in voltages to certain exponents. Resumes of such
models for some known loads are displayed in table (11.1). They are based on
researcher notices, and primitive load characteristics.
Chapter 11 373
Table 11.1 single termed (P/V), (Q/V) load models
Voltage Dependence
Type of Load
P Q
0.05
1- Large IM V V0.5
2- Refrigerator V0.8 V2.5
3- Heat pump V0.2 V2.5
4- Dishwasher V1.8 V3.5
5- Clothes dryer V2.0 V3.3
6- Color TV V2.0 V5.0
7- Fluorescent V1.0 V3.0
lamps
8- Incandescent V1.55 ---
lamp
9- Arc furnace V2.3 V1.6
Recently polynomial (P/V), (Q/V) load models are developed, based on time
records (P/t), (Q/t), (V/t) available in nearly all power stations and substations
and at important loads feeding points, with (t) denotes time. The order of the
polynomials of these models are found based on voltage stability criterion
results as it will be shown later. These polynomials can be summarized for
known loads as follows:
11.1.1 Resume of the New Derived Load Polynomial

Models:
The proposed load polynomial models for voltage stability studies are
given below. They were based on nominal power of 0.3pu and nominal
reactive power of 0.18pu. For other values their coefficients should be
normalized to the new values.
(1) Induction Motors with Constant Mechanical Loads

Torque's (T=C):
P  1.2  3.2V  7.1V 2  6.55V 3  3.85V 4  1.8V 5 (11.4)

Q  3.5  18.22V  34.35V 2  30.72V 3  13.18V 4  2.27V 5 (11.5)
(2) Induction Motors with Mechanical Load Torque's

Proportional with Speed (T  ):
P  10.5  50.6V  90.5V 2  68V 3  25.86V 4  8.56V 5 (11.6)

Q  10.25  35.5V  50.8V 2  28.99V 3  13.55V 4  9.93V 5 (11.7)
(3) Induction Motors with Mechanical Load Torque's

Proportional with Square of Speeds (T  2):
P  3.7  25.47V  180.44V 2  190.25V 3  110 .5V 4  65.8V 5

(11.8)
 38.7V  95.66V
6 7
Q  285  1970.9V  5950V 2  9600V 3  8630V 4  4210V 5

(11.9)
 960.8V  45.08V
6 7
(4) Aluminum Smelter Plant Load:
P  0.0  0.0V  0.0V 2  0.0V 3  0.3004V 4  0.004V 5 (11.10)

Q  0.0  0.0V  0.0V 2  0.0V 3  0.18012V 4  0.004V 5 (11.11)
(5) Arc Furnace Load:
P  78.45  1296.2V  3882.65V 2  4242.9V 3  1577.7V 4 (11.12)

Q  48.06  786.42V  2356.2V 2  2576.7V 3  958.68V 4 (11.13)
(6) Controlled Welding Transformer Load:
P  10.96  46.18V  73.81V 2  52.1V 3  13.84V 4 (11.14)

Q  3.42  14.4V  23.04V 2  16.2V 3  4.32V 4 (11.15)
(7) Fluorescent Lamp Loads:
P  13.46  59.056V  77.897V 2  0.0V 3  66.366V 4  34.479V 5 (11.16)

Q  8.58  38.35V  51.22V 2  0.0V 3  45.2V 4  23.93V 5 (11.17)
(8) Mercury Vapor Lamps ( and Sodium Vapor Lamps):
P  29.37  126.76V  205.09V 2  147.99V 3  399919.4V 4 (11.18)

Q  10.134  51.89V  97.145V 2  79.2V 3  24V 4 (11.19)
(9) Typical Commercial Load:

Chapter 11 373
P  0.0  0.3288V  0.033V 2  0.0042V 3  0.0V 4  0.0V 5 (11.20)

Q  0.0  0.2V  0.019V 2  0.001V 3  0.0V 4  0.0V 5 (11.21)
(10) Typical Residential Load:
P  0.616  0.454V  0.158V 2  0.0237V 3  0.003V 4 (11.22)

Q  1.869  2.71V  1.247V 2  0.254V 3  0.024V 4 (11.23)
(11) Synchronous Motor Load:
P  72.99  359.85V  664.35V 2  542.82V 3  165.63V 4 (11.24)

Q  14.56  66.77V  115 .16V 2  87.76V 3  24.99V 4 (11.25)
(12) Composite Practical Load (Izmit Load in Turkey):
P  2.93  21.32V  0.0V 2  50.4V 3  0.0V 4  32.3V 5 (11.26)

Q  0.65  3.9V  0.0V 2  18.1V 3  0.0V 4  14.67V 5 (11.27)
(13) Another Composite Load (Assiut Cement Company):
P  1244.7  4342V  4989.6V 2  1892.6V 3 (11.28)

Q  1776  5638.5V  5963.7V 2  2101.44V 3 (11.29)
11.2 Influence of Load Modeling on Voltage Stability

Evaluation:
The three traditional loads: constant I, constant power (Const. P) and
constant impedance (Const. Z) are firstly considered. For a typical system
represented by its Thevenen’s equivalent voltage and impedance as E th=1.004
pu, Zth=0.32375.4o, the load is represented by these models and its power is
varied up to voltage instability occurs. Figure (11.1) depicts the values of
dE/dV voltage stability criterion with these variations. The figure shows
clearly that voltage instability occurs early with constant power loads and
lasts up to 160% of that value when that load is purely constant impedance
load.
Using the same system and the load is replaced successively by various types
of loads, of the same powers, such as: Large IM, small IM, clothes washer,
incandescent light, heat pump, refrigerator, fluorescent light lamps and using
the available models given in table (11.1). Figure (11.2) depicts the
loadabilities which corresponds to the commencement of voltage instability.
Fig. 11.1 Loadabilities which lead to voltage instability using dE/dV

criterion when the load is
(a) Constant Z (b) Constant I (c) Constant P
Fig. 11.2 Loadabilities leading to voltage instability with different known

loads representations using available single termed model
Chapter 11 377
These plots show clearly that the induction motor load is the heaviest load on
steady-state voltage instability while the incandescent lamps (or filament
lamps) is the lightest one. To reach voltage instability, incandescent lamp
loading by 50% over that of the induction motor load is required. Effect of
other loads on voltage stability lie in between of these loads.
11.3 Induction Motor Loads:
Having seen that the induction motor load is the more dangerous load
which fastly threaten voltage stability, special attention is paid to detect its
exact model for voltage instability studies, using polynomials with different
powers as given in chapter 3.
The same system is assumed to be loaded by induction motors modeled

with polynomial models of different orders and with constant load torque in
fig. (11.3), with load torque's proportional to speed in fig. (11.4) and with
load torque's proportional to the square of the speed in fig. (11.5). The figures
show that the voltage instability with constant torque motors occur with loads
amounts less than those with other two cases. The polynomial model of order
5 results coincide with that of order 4 in the first two cases while a
polynomial model of order 7 is only quite sufficient with motors of loads
torque's proportional to the square of speed. This means that a polynomial of
order 5 should be used for motors of constant torque's or with torque's
proportional to its speed () and polynomials of order 7 should be used
when torque's are proportional to the square of its speed (2). In all the
following plots n is the polynomial order.
On the same plots, the known simple single termed models results are given
in figs. (11.3), (11.4) and (11.5). Oncemore erroneous results when using such
simple single termed models are clear.
Fig. 11.3 Loadabilities which lead to voltage instability for induction

motors with constant load torque and with different orders polynomial
models or with available single termed model

motors with load torque proportional to speed and with different orders
polynomial models or with available single termed model
Chapter 11 373

motors with load torque proportional to the square of the speed and with
different orders polynomial models or with available single termed model
Having used these models of orders 5, for an induction motor of constant load
torque, a composite load is used. Firstly, the load is considered to be 100%
constant impedance and finally to be 100% induction motor load. In between,
ratios (75% I.M, 25% Z), (50% I.M, 50% Z) and (25% I.M, 75% Z) are
considered. Figure (11.6) shows that the system turned to be unstable with
pure induction motor load faster than that with pure impedance load. As the
percentage of induction motor increases, the severity on voltage instability
increases.
Fig. 11.6 Loadabilities leading to voltage instability for composite loads of

induction motors and constant impedances contents (100% I.M, (75%
I.M, 25% Z), (50% I.M, 50% Z) and (25% I.M, 75% Z) and 100% Z)
11.4 Arc Furnace Load:

This furnace usually ranges from 2 to 500 MW, at 0.7 power factors or
less. The above models in chapter 3 are used to detect the polynomial power
after which the point of voltage instability coincides. Figure (11.7) shows that
a model of order 4 is quite sufficient and shows the pessimistic results of the
simple single term available model results (voltage instability occurs at
P=4.7pu. while with the exact 5th order model it occurs at only P=2.1pu).
11.5 Aluminum Smelter Plant Load:

Aluminum Plant Loads ranges from 400 MW to 2000 MW in general.
Figure (11.8) shows that a 5th order model is quite sufficient to have correct
results, which are not changed by the model of higher orders. In the same
time, the graph shows how far the voltage instability limit is, using the single
term model available in the litterateur. Equations of chapter 3 are used in this
analysis. This category of loads includes, also all electrolysis loads such as:
Soda reduction plants, water analysis to oxygen-hydrogen plants, metal
coating plants and battery charging plants loads.
Fig. 11.7 Loadabilities leading to voltage instability for an arc furnace of

different orders polynomial models and with available single termed
model
Chapter 11 383
Fig 11.8 Loadabilities leading to voltage instability for aluminum smelter

plants load with different order polynomial models and with available
single termed model
11.6 Lighting Loads:
11.6.1 Fluorescent Lamps Loads:

Most of domestic and industrial lighting are of fluorescent lamps. This
load is characterized by its low power factor ( 0.55 lag). Figure (11.9) shows
that a polynomial order is 5 quite sufficient for the sake of having correct
voltage stability results. On the same figure, the result of the available single
term model is given and their deviation from the exact one is clear. These
characteristics are obtained using equations displayed in chapter 3 for this
load.
Fig. 11.9 Loadabilities leading to voltage instabilities for fluorescent lamp

loads with different polynomial orders models and with available single
termed models
11.6.2 Mercury or Sodium Vapor Lamps:

Most street and factories lighting are of mercury vapor lamps, which
has low power factor (0.39 to 0.58). Its characteristics can include the
sodium vapor lamps. Figure (11.10) shows the available model stability
results as well as the order of the polynomial model, over which, the results
will coincide. It was found to be 4. Polynomial of lower orders lead to
erroneous results. The model is given by equations of chapter 3.
Fig. 11.10 Loadabilities leading to voltage instability of mercury vapor

lamps loads with different orders models and available model
11.7 Practical Composite Loads:

A certain practical composite load is selected. Its P/V, Q/V
characteristics are given in published litterateur. Its polynomial equations are
found previously in chapter 3. Recherche of the minimum polynomial power
after which loadability leading to voltage instability coincides is found to be
5. This is clear in fig. (11.11). A polynomial representation with orders less
than 5 will lead to uncorrect voltage stability results.
Chapter 11 383
Fig. 11.11 Loadbilities leading to voltage instability of a practical

composite load with polynomial models of different orders
11.8 General Comments on Effects of Load
Representation on Voltages Stability Evaluation:
The following comments are established:
(a) Induction motor models of 7th and 5th order polynomials, aluminum
smelter plants or electrolysis loads needs models of 5 th order, arc furnaces
loads should be represented by at least 4 th order, light lamps of the gas arc
types should have at least 3rd order model, to avoid erroneous steady-state
voltage instability results.
(b) Induction motor load is the more dangerous load on voltage instability
over all known loads and constant impedance loads and incandescent
filament lamps and resistance heaters are the more lightest loads.
(c) Available simple models of single term polynomials of all known loads
lead to incorrect results in steady-state voltage stability studies of important
power systems. Polynomial load representation should be included in all load
flow programs using Newton Raphson or Gauss Siedel techniques, as given
in ref. [1].
Problems
11.1 What are the advantages of representing the loads by polynomial
(P/V), (Q/V) models based on experimental characteristics?
11.2 Why the single-termed available known models led to erroneous
voltage stability evaluation results?
11.3 Give reasons; why induction motor load is the more heaviest
load on voltage stability and the pure resistive load is the lightest one?
11.4 Give reasons; why 5th, order model is needed for arc furnace
load, while arc light lamps (florescent, mercury and sodium vapor)
need only 3rd order models?
11.5 To which reasons; polynomial model of 7 th, order is needed for
an induction motor having constant load torque and a 5 th, order model
is sufficient with motors having load proportional to its speed or to the
square of its speed?
11.6 Constant power representation is widely used in load flow
studies, while constant impedance and constant current loads were
largely used with synchronous stability studies, but it is proved that
polynomial representation with different order is the more correct
representation. Show how can these models be included in load flow

and stability programs?
11.7 What is the importance of inclusion of polynomial load models
in load flow programs and how it can affect voltage stability
evaluation?
References
[1] W. I. Rashed, "Enhancement of Voltage Stability in Power Systems",
Ph.D. Thesis, Faculty of Engineering, Port Said, Suez Canal University,
Port Said, Egypt, 1997.
[2] M. Z. El-Sadek, M. M. Dessouky, G. A. Mahmoud, W. I. Rashed,
"Load Representation for Steady-State Stability Studies", Power
System Research Journal, Lausanue, Switzerland, No. 43, 1997, pp.
187-195.
[3] P. Kundur, "Power System Stability and Control", Book, McGraw Hill,
New York, 1994, Chapter 7 and Chapter 11.
[4] F. Illiceto, A. Csyhsm, G. Ruckutuhl, "Behavior of Loads During
Voltage Dips Encountered in Stability Studies: Field and Laboratory
Tests", Paper T72, IEEE PES Winter Meeting, New York, February
1972, pp. 2470-2477.
[5] G. J. Berg, "System and Load Behaviour Following Loss of
Generation: Experimental Results and Evaluation", Proc. IEE, London,
Vol. 119, No. 10, October 1972, pp. 1483-1486.
[6] M. Z. El-Sadek, E. H. Badawy, and A. I. Hussien, '' Optimum Future
Requirement of VAR Compensation in Developing Countries
Transmission and Distribution Networks'', 26 th, Universities Power
Conference, Brighton, England, September 1991.
[7] M. Z. El-Sadek, N. H. Fetih, and F. N. Abdelbar, ''Static VAR
Compensator Application for Minimizing the Surge Arrestor Rating at
Aluminum Smelter Electrolysis Plant Terminals'', Proc. of the 23rd,
Universities Power Engineering Conference, (UPEC), Nottingham
England, September 1988, pp.1-4, Session C12.
Chapter 12 583
Chapter 12
Induction Motor Role in Provoking Voltage
Instability
12.1 Introduction:
Induction motor loads are very important in industrial, commercial,
agriculture, and domestic applications. Power system operation is
characterized by sudden voltage and frequency variations due to continuous
load changes, switching, faults, and sometimes generators in and out of
service. Both of the synchronous stability and voltage stability of power
systems are affected by load-voltage and load-frequency characteristics. The
first affects the synchronizing torque's among generators while the latter
affects the active power flow and consequently the system damping. They all
affect voltage stability.
Induction-motor load is a typical load, which responds to both voltage

and frequency variations. It is sensitive to frequency variations and voltage
variations. The behavior of the quantities which are usually used in power
system planning (active power P, reactive power Q and terminal nodes
voltage V) for induction motors loaded with different mechanical loads during
voltage dips and frequency excursions will be displayed here. Role of this
load in provoking voltage instability will be highlighted in this chapter, as it
was shown in chapter 11 that it is the heaviest load on voltage instability over
other loads.
12.2 Factors Governing Role of Induction Motors:

Factors which affect the severity of the voltage drops at induction
motor terminals and can lead to voltage collapses, are:
 Nature of motor mechanical loading .
 Mechanical shaft loading quantity.
 Motor rotor and load inertia.
 Load node short-circuit ratio.
 Proportion of motor load to total load composition of each node.
 Generators dynamics actions.
583 Induction Motor Role in Provoking Voltage Instability
12.3 Induction Motor Characteristics During Steady-

State Conditions:
During steady-state conditions, motor loads posses a strange behavior
in its demand. When the voltage falls, the reactive power demand increases
then decreases as shown in fig. (12.1), while its active power demand is
slightly changed and remains nearly constant. Figure (12.1) shows the P/Q/V
characteristic during normal operation conditions for terminal voltage value
of (0.5 to 1.1)pu and for different mechanical shaft loading types; constant
mechanical shaft torque, load proportional to the shaft speed  and for load
proportional to the square of that shaft speed 2.
Fig. 12.1 P/Q/V steady-state characteristics of an induction motor

(a) For T = constant (b) For T ω (c) For T ω 2
12.4 Induction Motor Load Characteristics After Sudden

Voltage Dips:
The mechanical shaft load is usually represented by T m = , with 
the torque constant, and  varies between (0 and 2) according to the nature of
the mechanical load on the shaft. =0, for mechanical load shafts of constant
torque such as presented for example by a conveyors, =2 is typical of the
torque characteristic of a fan or a centrifugal pump and =1 for loads
proportional to motor shaft speed such as reciprocating pumps.
Chapter 12 583
Dynamic motor response to voltage variations and different mechanical

loads can be illustrated through a sustained voltage dip of 0.3 pu, applied to
the motor terminal voltage, which was initially equal to 1.0 pu, for 0.6
seconds. Motor data are: 10hp, 380volt, 4poles, 50Hz, Rs=0.03057pu.
Rr=0.03596 pu. Xs=3.5065pu. Xr=3.506 pu. Xm=3.99 pu. and H=0.252s. The
pu is based on the motor rating powers and voltage. Figure (12.2) depicts the
active power responses with the three mechanical loading conditions (=0, 1
and 2) after the voltage dip. Initial transients are omitted. Figure (12.3) shows
the motor reactive power response after the voltage dip with the three
mechanical loadings (=0, 1 and 2). These two plots were obtained using
induction motor models given in chapter 3.
Table (12.1) shows the percentage of the powers and reactive power
after 0.6 sec with different mechanical loading and sustained 0.3pu voltage
dip. For =0, Q is nearly doubled and P increased by 10%, while for  =2, P
decreased by 6.15% & Q increased to 1.35 times the initial value. Thus, with
the constant load torque (=0), reactive power increased to 192% and the
active power increased very slightly (110%) as the voltage falls.
Close examination of table (12.1) and fig. (12.3), shows clearly that the
reactive component of the input power to the induction motor, which is
loaded by any type of mechanical loads, increases as the supply voltage
decreases. This can provoke steady-state voltage instability phenomena, since
increased reactive demand causes more voltage drops and a voltage collapse
scenario can follow. For constant torque loads (=0), the voltage collapse can
be augmented and reach very fast by the increase of the active power demand
as the voltage falls as shown in table (12.1) and fig. (12.2).
Table 12.1 Power and reactive power and their % of the initial values for
different mechanical loading after 0.6 seconds, of a voltage dip of 30%
P (Power) Q (Reactive power)

Value (pu) % of the initial value Value (pu) % of the initial value
=0 1.104 110.60 0.98/1.0 188.5 & 192.3
=1 1.024 98.46 0.82 157.7
=2 0.976 93.85 0.70 134.6
Fig. 12.2 Induction motor power response for a 30% voltage dip and with
three mechanical loads having =0, 1 and 2
Fig. 12.3 Motor reactive power response for a 30% voltage dip and with
three mechanical loads having =0, 1 and 2
Chapter 12 583
12.5 Motor Response to Frequency Excursions:

The total instantaneous frequency at the load bus is taken as the total
rate of change of phase angle  of the bus voltage divided by 2 i.e:
1   
f inst    (12.1)
2  t 
When the supply frequency varies in a sine wave form of frequency 1

Hz and amplitude 1.05 pu e.g. around the nominal frequency (50 Hz), i.e.
=(1.0+0.05sint) pu. The motor active power response for this frequency
variation of the supply voltage is shown in fig. (12.4), using mechanical shaft
load with =0. For the same conditions, fig. (12.5) shows the reactive power
response of the induction motor with sinusoidal frequency excursion. Results
of other mechanical shaft loads =1, 2 are shown in table 12.2, which gives
the peak values of the active and reactive powers with =0,1 and 2 and their
percentage of the initial value.
The positive half wave of the power and the negative half wave are not
similar. On the other hand, it is noticed that the wavelength of the power is
longer with =2 than that with =0 and the power demand leads the
frequency variation. Studies showed that with 5% sinsoidal increase of the
frequency, leads to 21-26% increase in the active power and to 16-26% in the
reactive power. For a 1% increase of frequency (0.5) Hz, an increase in P=13-
17% and in Q of 15-22% are recorded
Table 12.2 Peak values of the induction motor active and reactive power
and their percentage of their initial values for  = 0, 1 and 2 with 5%
siusoidal supply frequency variations increase
Value of  Active Power "P" Reactive Power "Q"

Value pu Value pu
=0 116.3 1.210 119.1 1.16
=1 117.8 1.225 123.1 1.24
=2 120.1 1.260 120.1 1.26
Note: (pu): of the initial value
Fig. 12.4 Motor active power response for a sinusoidal supply frequency
variations using mechanical load having =0
Fig. 12.5 Motor reactive power response for a sinusoidal supply

frequency variations using mechanical load having =0
Chapter 12 533
12.6 Response to Ramp Frequency Variations:

When the supply frequency varies in a ramp form with peak of 1.04 pu,
fig. (12.6) is drawn for the real power response and fig. (12.7) is drawn for the
reactive power response. The load mechanical torque's  are assumed to be 0,
1 and 2, to include all known types of loads. Figure (12.6) shows that the
motor active power follows the triangular form of the frequency variation. For
example, a 1% increase of frequency (0.5Hz) results in 10% to 20% increase
in active power "P" and about 0.6 to 20% increase in reactive power "Q".
Increasing  from 0 to 2 results in greater motor power and reactive power.
Comparing this result with those obtained by figure's (12.2) and (12.3) shows
that the effects of motor mechanical load shaft type on the power and reactive
power response are in contradictory with those obtained with voltage dips.
An induction motor loaded by constant load torque (=0) burdens the
supply active powers after voltage dips more than with frequency falling. The
contradictory of this phenomena is noticed for motors loaded by loads having
torques proportion to their speeds square (=2) such as fans and centrifugal
pumps. Motors loaded by such loads affects seriously transient synchronous
stability and are dominant in such studies and motors of constant load torques
are dominant in voltage stability studies. Another salient feature of these
responses is the advance of the power demand to the frequency variations.
This is because of the power saved in the rotor inertia and the frequency
values as the phase angle time derivative.
Table 12.3 Peak values of active and reactive power with ramp frequency
variation of supply (Pinitial =1.04 pu, Qinitial = 0.52 pu)
 of load Active Power "P" Reactive Power "Q"
Value pu Value pu
=0 105.8 1.10 109.0 0.600
=1 110.8 1.15 104.0 0.596
=2 114.0 1.20 114.0 1.200
Note: (pu): of the initial value
Table 12.3 shows that the values of power and reactive power for =1
lies in between those of =0 and =2. Figures (12.4), (12.5), (12.6) and (12.7)
show clearly that the variation of system frequency, which occurs normally
during system disturbances, and even during normal operation, affects the
motor power and reactive power consumption, especially with =2 i.e. with
centrifugal pumps and fans which are the popular loads of induction motors.
For example, a 1% increase in frequency (0.5 Hz) results in 5% increase of
active power "P" and about 15% in reactive power "Q". This new factor in the
power balance should be taken into consideration in voltage stability studies.
Fig. 12.6 Motor active power response for a ramp supply frequency
variations using three mechanical loads having  = 0, 1 and 2
Fig. 12.7 Motor reactive power response for a ramp supply frequency
variations using three mechanical loads having  = 0, 1 and 2
Chapter 12 535
12.7 Induction Motor Behavior after Opening a Circuit

of Double Circuits Lines Feeding the Motor:
An illustration system is selected. It consists of three units generation
plants feeding a 400 MVA, 0.9 lag load through a 400 kV double circuit
transmission line, with two transformers; one at each end. The load content is
considered either constant impedance or induction motors group or
combination of them.
When the load is firstly pure constant impedance and the transmission
line consists of two circuits in parallel. The load voltage, load power and load
reactive powers are plotted in fig. (12.8) for one second after one line
opening. The figure shows voltage fall to the steady-state value in less than
10-m.sec. The plots show that constant impedance loads does not contribute
to voltage instabilities, as the power demand drops in the same time with
voltage fall.
When the same load consists of a group of induction motors with

constant mechanical torque, fig. (12.9) depicts the load voltage, power and
reactive power for 0.5 second after the line opening. Voltage instability is
clearly noticed. Just after the line circuit opening. The voltage starts to
collapse with superimposed oscillations, followed by rapid sudden
exponential fall. After 0.5 sec, it reaches 0.66 pu and after one second it
reaches 0.38pu as shown in fig. (12.9). This voltage collapse can be explained
through the motor power and reactive power response plotted in the same
figure. Although the voltage falls, the motor reactive power increases
gradually and its active power falls. This means that excessive currents are
required from the network and consequently high oscillatory voltage drops
which leads to more currents and successive drops and finally to voltage
collapse.
12.8 Effect of Induction Motor Content in Load

Composition:
When load contains composite induction motors (I.M) and constant
impedance (Z) load, with different proportions: (75% Z, 25% I.M), (50%Z,
50% I.M), besides the two previous cases (100% Z) and (100% I.M). For the
same one line opening, fig. (12.10) shows a plot of the load voltage response
for one second after the disturbance. The figure illustrates clearly that
increasing the constant impedance load to 75% of the load content prevents
the voltage collapse. Which is still occurs when its proportion is 50%, but
with lower values than that with the 100% induction motor load.
Fig. 12.8 Load voltage, active and reactive power responses after one line
opening of feeders to a pure constant impedance load
Fig. 12.9 Load voltage, active and reactive power responses for a pure
after one line opening of feeders to an induction motor load
Chapter 12 533
Fig. 12.10 Load voltage response with composite load of constant

impedance and induction motor after line tripping
The figure suggests that the presence of the constant impedance load in
parallel with the induction motor load tends to stabilize the voltage during
normal daily maneuvers. Certain proportions can prevent the collapse and
offset the motor destabilization effects. The pure induction motor content
leads to voltage collapses or voltage instabilities.
12.9 Quantity of Mechanical Loading:

For a pure induction motor load with constant mechanical shaft load, its
mechanical load is decreased gradually to 25% of its original value and the
voltage response is plotted in fig. (12.11), after one line switching at each
mechanical load variation. The figure shows occurrence of voltage collapse
with mechanical loads quantities till 75% of the original shaft mechanical
load. For smaller loading quantities (50% and 25%), the voltage instability
disappeared and only voltage drop occurs. The figure suggests that only heavy
induction motor mechanical loadings cause voltage collapse or voltage
instability. Load instability may be experienced with heavy mechanical
loadings of induction motors.
Fig. 12.11 Induction motor load voltage response with different

mechanical load percentages
12.10 Nature of the Mechanical Loading:

Different mechanical shaft load types  (0, 1 and 2) represent nearly all
the known mechanical loads (=0 for conveyors, =1 for motor-generator sets
and =2 for fans and centrifugal pumps). Figure (12.12) affirms that the
constant torque load (=0) produces the worst characteristics from the point
of view of transient voltage instability.
12.11 Inertia's of Motor Rotor and Shaft Load:

Once more, the induction motor load is taken as constant mechanical
torque type and its rotor and load inertias varied between (0.1 to 10 sec.), to
represent most motor and load combinations. Figure (12.13) depicts the load
voltage response for these values, after one line-opening (of double circuits
feeder) disturbance. Lower inertia constants causes fast voltage degradation
and contribute severe voltage instability, while motors with heavier inertia’s
can remain in operation, but in unstable mode for the motor itself, and the
system can retain its voltage stability. For lighter inertias, the motor reaches
stand still, which aggravates and contributes to the voltage instability.
Chapter 12 533
Fig. 12.12 Induction motor load voltage response with various types of
mechanical shaft loads
Fig. 12.13 Induction motor load voltage response for different values of
motor inertia constants (H)
12.12 Effect of Load Node Short-Circuit Levels:

A major parameter to be considered is the impedance between the
generator and the load, which is defined by the load node short-circuit level in
systems studies. The load is taken as an induction motor load with constant
mechanical shaft torque. Four short-circuit levels are considered through
assuming that the transmission circuit consists of four parallel circuits or of
one circuit of four different lengths. Figure (12.14) depicts the voltage
response after these successive changes in the short circuit levels. The figure
shows that higher short-circuit levels preserve and maintain the voltage
stability, while lower short-circuit levels threatened it. This is due to the fact
that the reactive power/voltage sensitivity of the nodes are proportion to their
short-circuit currents levels. The more the load (especially the reactive
components) varies with voltage, the less the load bus voltage varies during
disturbances, which, means more voltage stability. Or, in other words, voltage
stability will usually tend to decrease when the load becomes less sensitive to
voltage variations. On the other hand, the more the active power changes with
frequency, the more stable the system is: The variation of reactive power with
frequency affects oppositely voltage stability.
Fig. 12.14 Induction motor load voltage response with different load node
short-circuit levels due to successive lines tripping
Chapter 12 533
12.13 Contribution of Generator Dynamics:

In order to study the contribution of dynamics of the generator
electrical circuits and mechanical rotating parts motion to the voltage
instability in presence of induction motor loads, the generator is represented
by its dynamic park's model, and then by an infinite bus source, and the load
is taken as fully induction motor load. After one line opening of a double
circuit's feeder disturbance, fig. (12.15) depicts the load voltage for these two
generator representations. The figure shows that the dynamics of the
generator contribute to the voltage degradation and aggravates the voltage
collapse. With that representation of generator dynamics, the voltage falls to
33% more than its value with infinite bus source representation, after one
second from the disturbance. This shows that generator dynamics must be
included in voltage stability studies and isolated networks suffer from voltage
instabilities much more than unified power pools.
Fig. 12.15 Induction motor load Voltage response with and without
inclusion of synchronous generator dynamics
12.14 Induction Motor Load Starting Effects on Voltage

Stability:
When induction motor is loaded by a centrifugal pump load for which
the torque-speed relation is given by:
 
Tmm  Tmo  Tm 2  m  (12.2)
 o 
Where Tmo is the stand-still load torque, Tm2 constant selected so that
the motor delivers rated torque at rated speed, (m, o) are the motor
asynchronous and synchronous angular speeds respectively. Figure (12.16)
shows the motor starting characteristics without any starting means. The
electromagnetic torque Tem oscillates and settle at its steady-state at 0.6
second while the load torque Tmm shown in broken line nearly constant and
inferior than that electromagnetic torque. This means that till 1.5 second no
starting is reached. The steady-state operating point cannot be obtained. The
rotor slip "S" attains 0.6 and still far from the steady-state value and both the
voltage drop and the initial inrush current, of phase C, are still constants and
state of voltage instability is attained. Not shown on the figure, this situation
is the same for phase's (b) and (a) and continued after 2 seconds.
Fig. 12.16 Starting performance of loaded induction motor without

starter
Chapter 12 333
(a) (b)
Fig. 12.17 Starting performance of loaded induction motor

(a) With fixed capacitor starting (b) With SVC starting
(a) (b)
Fig. 12.18 Effect of SVC rating on starting time

(a) SVC with nominal rating (b) SVC with double rating
To minimize the transient period of starting, a shunt fixed capacitor is

switched on at the same instant as the motor switching. Figure 12.17(a) shows
the motor starting characteristics with fixed capacitor and with static VAR
compensator (for phase c). The fixed shunt capacitor raises the voltage during
starting to the required 0.8 pu level, but it generates over-voltages after the
starting has been finished. The voltage is raised to 1.0 pu, which is not
favourable for both the motor or the network. Steady-state motor
characteristics will be changed and its insulation may be deteriorated.
Using a static VAR compensator (SVC) during the starting period

depends on its controlled shunt capacitance, figure 12.17(a) gives a plot for
the motor starting performance. Comparing this figure with those for shunt
fixed capacitor fig. 12.17(a), shows faster starting (0.88 sec instead of 1.03
sec.). Low initial inrush currents (3.5 pu instead of 4.0 pu), Control of the
over-voltages to the nominal 1.0 pu, voltage and lower amplitude for the
initial torque oscillations, with SVC. On the other hand with the controlled
1.0 pu, steady-state voltage, the motor steady-state current is slightly greater
than that with shunt fixed capacitor, which means more torque and better
performance. The initial voltage is raised to the same value of 0.83 pu. SVC
rating affect induction motor starting times. More rating result in less starting
times as shown in fig. 12.18(a) and fig. 12.18(b) for another typical case.
12.15 Short-Circuits Recoveries at Induction Motor

Load Terminals:
New phenomenon of transient voltage instability in the form of rapid
system voltage collapse is detected following short circuits recoveries at
induction motor loads terminals, for certain fault duration's. Critical clearing
times which leads to voltage (and load) instabilities are defined in [11]. Other
factors, which contribute to the new detected phenomenon, are the following.
12.15.1 Critical Clearing Time for Voltage Instability:

A certain time for clearing the three-phase faults at induction motor
load terminals after which transient voltage instability starts to appear in the
form of rapid voltage collapse is detected. This period of time is termed
"critical clearing time for voltage instability". This critical clearing time is
proved to be a function of motor numbers being running before fault and
induction motor load impedance variation during fault.
As important example, a load center fed from a source network through
a long 400kV line is used as an illustrative example. The load center, which
consists of scattered loads of different types is represented by an equivalent
bus loaded by stiff and soft loads. The soft loads are the constant impedance
Chapter 12 335
loads corresponding to their steady-state values, while the large number of

induction motor load are the stiff loads of the studied system. The variety of
statistically distributed induction motors power ratings, inertia constants, rotor
time constants, loading torque-speed curves and rated slips are represented by
a group of induction motors of medium size parameters.
Following a 3-phase fault at the induction motor load bus, fig. (12.19)
shows the load voltage response for 50 and 100 m.sec fault clearing times and
total simulation time of 1sec. 100Motors, each rated 1MW are considered
with similar rated constant impedance load. The post-fault network is kept as
the pre-fault one. The figure shows appearance of state of voltage instability
when the fault clearing time is increased to 100m-sec, at which the voltage
collapses after clearing the fault and settled at 0.74 pu. For a 50 m.sec
clearing time the voltage is retained to 1.0 pu after 1.2 sec. The voltage
instability is confirmed by the plots of the motor load slips shown in fig.
(12.19), for fault clearing times of 100 m.sec. Motors stall as voltage recovery
is insufficient to reaccelerate the motors. This aggravates the situation since
more reactive power demand is required and consequently voltage instability
state result. For lower clearing time, motors reaccelerate and voltage is
retained. Voltage fall in the case of fault clearing time of 100 m.sec and
higher can be explained by the motor current response for fault clearing times
of the 50 m.sec and 200 m.sec. shown in fig. (12.20). A critical clearing time
is found to be 75m.sec. in this case.
Excessive current in the second case, which are clear in fig. (12.20),
leads to excessive voltage drop and consequently lower air gap torques than
the fixed static shaft load torques and consequently deceleration of the motor
rotor motion. In addition to the high voltage drops in the feeding network,
75m.sec fault clearing time is termed critical clearing time for voltage
instability or ''collapse'', as the voltage remains stable for only lower values
than these critical clearing times. Higher short-circuit periods lead surley to
voltage collapses or instabilities.
12.15.2 Load Stability during Fault conditions:

Motor load stability is usually tested through the response of the rotor
voltage behind its transient reactance angle r (corresponds to the rotor angle
of the synchronous generators). For the two values of fault clearing time 50,
100 m.sec, fig. (12.21) shows the rotor voltage angles r. The figure shows
load instability with the latter case since angle r cannot retain its original
value and shows load stability in the first one, since the angle r retains its
original value after fault clearing. Load instability, therefore, contribute to
voltage instability.
(a)
(b)
Fig. 12.19 Voltage and slip response for 100 motors case after different
Clearing periods of a 3-phase short-circuit fault at load bus
(a) After 50 m.sec (b) After 100 m.sec
Chapter 12 333
(a) (b)
Fig. 12.20 Motor input current response after recoveries of 3-phase short
circuit of different periods
(
b)
Fig. 12.21 Response of rotor voltage angle behind transient reactance for
different fault clearing times

12.15.3 Load Impedance Variations during Faults:
Voltage dips originated by the 3-phase short-circuit near the load
terminal cause a deceleration of the motors and a drastic reduction of their
equivalent impedance as shown in fig. (12.22) for different short-circuit
periods. The variable load impedance during the fault can contribute to the
voltage instability especially when it leads to excessive drawn currents just
after fault clearing. For example at 120 m.sec after clearing, the slip of the
equivalent motor load, reaches a value that the current absorbed is close to the
starting current, as shown in fig. (12.22). Motor starting impedance is 0.18 pu,
which will be reached after 1.0 second with 100 m.sec fault clearing time.
The slip is then 0.04. This is not the case with 50 m.sec fault clearing time.
Fig. 12.22 Induction motor load equivalent impedance during different

short-circuit periods
12.15.4 Effect of Induction Motor Loadability Burden:

The loading burden affects largely the phenomenon. For example when
30 motors are used instead of 100, the fault clearing times are increased. The
voltage still stable for fault clearing time of 100 m.sec, which was unstable
with 100 motors case, while for fault clearing time of 200 m.sec, the case of
voltage instability is reached. Critical clearing time for voltage stability is
175m.sec, for this case of 30 motors. The result can be interpreted in another
way. Critical clearing time for voltage instability is 75 m.sec for 100 motors
Chapter 12 333
load will be extended to 175 m.sec when only 30% of the original motor load
is in service. This is shown in fig. (12.23).
(a)
(b)
Fig. 12.23 Motor rotor slip and voltages response for 30 motors case after
different clearing times
(a) For 100m.sec (b) For 200m.sec
12.16 Criteria of Induction Motor Load Stability:

The stability of synchronous machine is normally judged by plotting
their swing curves of the rotor angle ''" or the angular speed deviation ().
Stability is pronounced when the curves converge to each other or having
constant differences during the swing time. Instability is shown by the
divergence of the curves from each other. For induction machine, the situation
is different as the rotor angle is not coincident with the internal voltage and
there is no field voltage. The stability of the induction motor is usually judged
by three criteria [4,5].
(a) Angles of Motor Voltage behind Transient Reactance
Response with Time:
The motor stator voltage behind transient reactance is given by:
e '  ed'  jeq' 

Xm
Xr
 
 rd  j rq  e  r (12.3)
Its phase angle is:
 ' 
1  eq 
r  tan
 ed' 
 
  rq 
Or:  r  tan 1  
 (12.4)

 rd 
For stable condition, the internal voltages of the induction motors

approach a fixed angular difference with each other which corresponds to the
rotor angles () with synchronous generators. In other words these phase
angles (r) are treated as swing curves for the induction motors, then the
machines swing curves are considered together, synchronous and induction.
However, this criterion is not as pronounced as the other two criteria.
(b) Motors Power Response with Time:

The input power response, in percent of the pre-fault power, with time
is another criterion. If the power rises above the pre-fault value, it accelerates
the motor up to its original speed, then it decreases to its normal value as the
motor approaches normal speed and the motor is stable. Unstability occurs
when the motor power doesn't rise above the pre-fault value.
(c) Motor Slip Response with Time:

For a stable condition, the slip reaches an upper limit, then reduces
again to its pre-fault value, if the network is not altered by the fault clearing.
For unstable conditions, the slip continues to increase and indicates that the
motor is stalling. This can be explained by the slip-torque curves for different
terminal voltages and the load curve. The slip is a state for all motors
mathematical dynamic or transient models. The motor power can show
clearly whatever the power limit of the system has been exceeded or not, and
whether the motor will restore to normal speed or not. Moreover, the slip
Chapter 12 333
response is very useful, and these two later indicators are used jointly to judge
the motor stability.
12.16.1 Typical Cases:
Figure (12.24) shows the phase angle of the motor voltage behind
reactance, for stable and unstable cases, while fig. (12.25) shows the
induction motor slips for stable and unstable cases. Figure (12.26) shows the
induction motor input active and reactive powers for stable and unstable
motors loads. Figure (12.27) gives the motor rotor angle during motor
successful and failed starting (stable and unstable) cases.
(a) (b)
Fig. 12.24 Induction motor phase angle of voltage behind reactance

response
(a) For stable case (b) For unstable case
(a) (b)
Fig. 12.25 Induction motor slip, for stable and unstable load cases
(a) Stable case (b) Unstable case
(a) (b)
Fig. 12.26 Induction motor power for stable and unstable load cases
(a) Stable case (b) Unstable case
(a) (b)
Fig. 12.27 Motor rotor angle during motor starting

Chapter 12 333
(a) For successful starting or for stable load case

(b) For failed starting or for unstable load case
Problems
12.1 Explain why induction motor provokes voltage instabilities in power
systems.
12.2 Which is more severest on voltage instability induction motor with
constant load torque, induction motor with torque proportional to motor
speed and that with torque proportional to the square of the speed. Why?
12.3 What are the effects of the mechanical loading on voltage stability?
12.4 What are the mechanical shaft loading effects on voltage stability?
12.5 What are the effects of the motor inertia, the load short-circuit ratio,
generator dynamics and the (portion) of motor load on voltage instability?
12.6 What is meant by "critical clearing time for voltage instability" and
what is its relation with induction motors powers burden and with
induction motors impedance during fault conditions.
12.7 What are the influences of the short-circuit recoveries at induction
motor terminals on voltage instability triggering.
12.8 How load stability can be evaluated by: Motors power response with
time, slip response with time and the angles of voltage behind transient
reactance response with time, which term is more pronouncing?
12.9 Why induction motors provokes voltage instability upon opening
one circuit of double circuits feeders feeding these motors.
12.10 During induction motors starting, voltage instability may occur.
Show how capacitors and static VAR compensator of TSC type can
support the voltages and eliminate voltage in stabilities. Explain why a
TSC of higher rating minimizes the starting time of induction motor.
References
[1] M. Z. El-Sadek, "Behavior of Induction Motor Loads During Voltage
Dips and Frequency Excursions Encountered in Transient Stability and
Voltage Stability Studies", Bulletin of the Faculty of engineering,
Assiut University, Egypt Vol.16, July 1987, pp.193-212.
[2] B. M. Weedy, B. R. Cox, "Voltage Stability of Radial power Links",
Proc. IEE, Vol.115, No.4, April 1968, pp.528-535.
[3] M. S. Chen et al., "Determination des Caracteristiques Statiques et
Dynamiques des Charges des Reseaux Electriques", CIGRE Report,
31-11-1978, pp.1-12, (In French).
[4] D. F. Shankle, C. M. Murphy, R. M. Long, and E. L. Harder,
"Transient Stability Studies 1- synchronous and Induction Machines",
AIEE Transaction, Vol.73, Part III-B, 1954, pp.1563-1580.
[5] B. J. Gevay, and W. H. Schippl, "Transient Stability of an Isolated

Radial Power Network with Varied Load Division", Paper 64-50, IEEE
Trans., Vol. PAS-83, September, 1964, pp.964-970.
[6] P. J. Lawrenson and J. M. Stephenson, ''Note on Induction-Machine
Performance with a Variable-frequency Supply'', Proc. IEE, Vol.113,
No. 10, October 1966, pp. 1617-1623.
[7] A. E. Hammad, M. Z. El-Sadek, "Prevention of Transient Voltage
Instability Due to Induction Motor Loads by Static VAR
Compensators", IEEE Trans. on Power Systems, Vol.4 PWR-2, No.3,
August 1989, pp. 1182-1189.
[8] M. Z. El-Sadek, ''Prevention of Repetitive Blackouts in the Egyptian
Power Systems'', 2nd, Middle East International Conference (MEPCON,
92) Assiut University, Egypt, January 1992, pp.14-19.
[9] R. Hauth, S. Miske, and F. Nozari, "The Role and Benefits of Static
VAR Systems in High Voltage Power System Applications", IEEE
Trans., PAS-101, October 1982, pp.3761-3770.
[10] M. Z. El-Sadek and F. N. Abdelbar, ''Effects of Induction Motor Load
in Provoking Transient Voltage Instabilities in Power Systems'',
Electric Power Systems Research Journal, Lausanne, Switzerland
Vol.17, No.2, 1989, pp. 119-127.
[11] M. Z. El-Sadek, ''Voltage Instabilities Subsequent to Short-Circuit
Recoveries'', Electric Power Systems Research Journal, Lausanne,
Switzerland Vol.21, No.1, 1991, pp. 9-16.
[12] M. Z. El-Sadek, "Static VAR Compensator for Voltage Stabilization
After Short-Circuit Recoveries at Dynamic Load Terminals", Proc. of
the 25th, University Power Engineering Conference (UPEC'90),
Aberdeen, Vol.2, September 1990, pp. 679-682.
[13] M. Z. El-Sadek, N. H. Fetih, and F. N. Abdelbar, '' Starting of Induction
Motor by Static VAR Compensator'', IEE Publication No.292 of Third
International Conference on Power Electronics and Variable Speed
Drivers, London, July 1988, pp. 444-447.
[14] M. Z. El-Sadek, "Assessment of Voltage Controller Stabilization
Effects on Voltage Instability due to Asynchronous Motor Loads Using
an Eigenvalues Technique", 24th, Universities Power Engineering
Conference (UPEC'89), Belfast, North Ireland, September 1989, pp.
173-176.
[15] M. Z. El-Sadek, and F. N. Abdelbar, ''Static VAR Compensator for
Control of Transient Voltage Instability'', Proc. of the 23 rd, Universities
Power Engineering Conference, (UPEC), Nottingham, England,
September 1988, pp.1-4, Session A2.
[16] M. Z. El-Sadek, "Preventive Measures for Voltage Collapses and
Voltage Failures in the Egyptian Power System", Electric Power
Chapter 12 335
Systems Research Journal, Vausanne Swizerland, Vol.44, 1998,

pp.203-211.
[17] M. Z. El-Sadek, "Static VAR Compensators for Reducing Energy
Losses in Large Industrial Loads'', Electric Power Systems Research
Journal, Lausanne, Switzerland Vol.22, No. 2, June 1991, pp. 121-133.
[18] F. N. Abdelbar, ''Control of Dynamic Over-voltages Due to Load
Rejection and Prevention of Voltage Instability Using Shunt Static
Compensators'', M. Sc. Thesis, Assiut University, 1987.
[19] M. Z. El-Sadek, N. H. Fetih, and F. N. Abdelbar, ''Control of Over-
Voltages Due to Load Rejections Using Static VAR Compensators'',
First Symposium on Electric Power Systems in Fast Developing
Countries, March 1987, King Saud University, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia,
pp.118-121.
[20] M. Z. El-Sadek, N. H. Fetih, and F. N. Abdelbar, ''Optimization of
Static VAR Compensators Controller Parameters for Starting of Large
Induction Motors Loads'', International Conference on Electrical
Machines, (ICEM'88), PISA, Italy, September 1988, pp.445-447.
[21] M. Z. El-Sadek, F. N. Abdelbar, and M. H. Amin, ''Control of Voltage
Swings Due to Starting of Induction Motors Loading Using Static VAR
Compensators'', International Conference on Electrical Machines,
(ICEM'88), PISA, Italy, September 1988, pp.449-453.
414 Blackouts Preventive Measures
Chapter 13
Blackouts Preventive Measures
This chapter deals with the factors contributing to voltage instabilities
leading to blackouts and the conditions of triggering these phenomena. A
brief idea about blackouts occurred in power systems and means of
prevention of voltage instability in order to avoid their initiation. Preventive
measures of partial or complete blackouts in distribution systems, in
transmission systems and in large networks are briefly displayed. Analysis of
a blackout experienced in a typical large power system is presented, together
with the preventive measures effects on various system conditions. Emphasis
is made on reactive power compensation by static VAR compensators, as they
are the more recent means of prevention of voltage instabilities in large power
systems and in industrial firms.
13.1 Causes of Blackouts in Power Systems:

In power systems worldwide, voltage instabilities were noticed in the
form of either severe voltage oscillations or voltage collapses or both or in the
form of voltage flickers. Conditions, which may contribute to such
instabilities and which may cause partial or complete blackouts are discussed
in the forgoing.
13.1.1 Loss of Loads Stability Due to Voltage Dips:

Instability of loads causes voltage instability, which can be reflected at
machines terminals as power deficiency or power oscillations and leads to
loss of their synchronism i.e. to synchronous instability. Loss of load stability
is usually accompanied by heavy currents and conductors heating and more
voltage drops. Load instability aspects are lamp blackouts, motors standstill,
overheating and malfunction of devices, machines oscillatory torques, …etc.
13.1.2 Sudden Opening of Line Circuits Feeding

Induction motors:
Switching of one circuit of a double circuit line feeding a heavy load,
of main composition induction motors, during the peak load period increases
the line reactance and changes the operating point on the power/voltage
characteristic. The transient performance of the motor P/V characteristics is
plotted in the same plots of fig. ( 31.1), which contains the P/V load node
characteristic, at constant reactive powers, and after opening one circuit of the
two circuits feeding that induction motor load. Figure (13.1) shows that
Chapter 13 415
opening of one circuit of a radial double circuit two nodes system-connecting

load to the generator, changes the P/V lines characteristics to the dotted ones.
Having the load operating point represented by point a, and assuming very
slow changement, the operating point is moved to point "b", which lies in the
unstable voltage range. However, in transient conditions, and having the load
of main content induction motor load, the voltage collapse is very rapid as
shown by curve f in fig. (31.1). Voltage collapse or complete voltage failure
can then occur in very short time. This is due to the reactive power
characteristic of the induction motor with voltage dips. Its reactive power
demand increases drastically with these dips as shown in chapter 12.
Fig. 31.1 Power/voltage characteristics at constant reactive power of a

two-node system loaded by an induction motor load after opening of one
line of its double circuits
13.1.3 Sudden Opening of Line Circuits Feeding

Electrolysis Loads:
On the other hand, if an electrolysis aluminum smelter plant fed
through a rectification plant of the same previous loading rating. After sudden
opening of one circuit of the two parallel transmissions circuits, the voltage
response of the load node is plotted in fig. (13.2). Severe oscillations with
lower magnitudes are then triggered and introduced in the system.
Penetration of such oscillations to other loads and to generator terminals
contributes to the state of inertial instability and may lead to voltage
instability of other consumers at the same bus and to loss of alternator
synchronism.
Fig. 31.2 Voltage response at aluminum smelter plant node subsequent to

one line opening of its feeding double circuits system
.1.4 Short-Circuits Recoveries at Loads of Major

31
Content Induction Motors:

When the majority of loads are induction motors of small powers, they
can be considered as a single large one at the UHV load node terminals.
Having a material or virtual short-circuit occurred and recovered, the
equivalent large motor load drawn current behaves as shown in fig. 31.3(a) and
the system voltage still stable. However, when the short-circuit recovery time
exceeds what is called in [2] the critical clearing time for voltage instability,
voltage of the load node collapses to a low value due to its drawn current
which increases drastically as shown in fig. 31.3(b).
(a) (b)
Fig. 13.3 Motor load current after three phase short circuit recovery at
its terminals
(a) For 50 ms short-circuit (b) For 200 ms short-circuit
Chapter 13 417
At this collapse, the voltage reaches to 0.7 or 0.8 pu. It can be reflected
in fall of machines output power (the load powers are proportional to V 2) and
may trigger inertial transient instability. Other consumer's loads will become
unstable and suffer from low service power quality. Lamps blackouts and
motors standstills may be experienced.
.1.5 Simultaneous Starting of Several Induction

31
Motors:
Scattered domestic, industrial and residential small induction motors
can be regarded as a single large induction motor. Starting of such small
motors simultaneously can be represented by the start-up of a large motor, of
several MVA rating connected to the UHV load node. The voltage response
of the load node is shown in fig. (31.4) for two cases: successful motor starting
and-failed motor starting conditions of a 100MVA motor rating. Without
starters, voltage dips to 0.88pu are experienced, which even with successful
starting will last for 3 seconds, which is sufficient to cause a state of voltage
and inertial instability, besides the other loads instability. Use of controlled
TSC static VAR compensators can alleviates these problems.
(a) (b)
Fig. 31.4 Voltage response at motor load terminals during starting

(a) Successful starting (b) Failed starting.
.1.6 Operation Near Network Nodes Critical Voltages:

31
Figure (31.1) shows the power/voltage characteristics of the two nodes
system for constant power factor loads. Initially the operating point is at
certain point on the constant power factor demand curves and during peak
load period, the operating point moves towards the nose of that curve i.e.
towards the critical voltage point. More power demand, over the maximum
value at that node, causes voltage to move to the unstable region,

characterized by excessive currents and more voltage dips. Moreover, sudden
heavy loading over the maximum power causes the voltage to collapse to very
low amplitudes or to reach a voltage failure state (zero voltage). Machines
electrical output power vanishes and their rotors accelerate and their
synchronism will be lost.
.1.7 Machines Operation Near Their Steady-State

31
Limits:
Large machines cannot deliver their full-load capacity, when they are
operating near their steady-state stability limit. Increasing the load demand
causes load angle to increase and output power to fall to zero value. A case of
pole slipping may occur. This state may be regarded as a virtual short-circuit
at the machines terminals as the power reaches zero value, which results in
loss of its synchronism with the system, and in unstable voltages. Figure
(13.5) shows the voltages of the four loads of a three machines four loads
system during pole slipping.
Fig. 13.5 Three machines voltages during pole slipping
.1.8 Uncontrolled Flow of Reactive Power:

31
Uncontrolled reactive power flow on the lines causes excessive voltage
dips due to the drops (V  XQ/V) of each network element or link. The drop
in voltages due to reactive power flow is given by:
 P2 Q2 
V  I Z    Z (31.1)
 V2 V2 
 
Chapter 13 419
These drops add to a large value at the UHV nodes and are reflected in
voltage problems at the generator nodes. The presence of several inductive
elements in the network such as: Otto-transformers, voltage stabilizers,
induction motors at running or at standstill state, small power transformers,
actuators operated with motors, irrigation pumps motors, welders,
refrigerators, gas discharge lamps, arc furnaces, and general purposes
machines, increase drastically the reactive power demand. In turn this leads to
excessive voltage fall in network lines and generator terminals, if these
reactive powers are uncontrolled during different operational conditions.
13.1.9 Failure of Control and/or Protection System:

The phenomena of voltage instability displayed in the above sections
occur fast in very short times. The excitation control systems does not
respond so rapidly to adjust the machines terminal voltages in a dynamic
manner. On the other hand, the phenomena occur at load terminals, which are
so far from these machines. Excitation system voltage control cannot
evidently control the voltage of such far nodes rapidly. Governors and speed
control systems are very slow to adjust the machines input powers to cope
rapidly with the power falls due to these voltage collapses or instabilities.
Moreover, protection system which is based on load/frequency response
would not be effective, as in most cases voltage collapses occur with the same
original system frequency i.e. without any noticeable frequency deviations.
Several cases in the literature are notified in which the angle and frequency
remained nearly constant while voltage continued to decay or collapse. In
most cases, they were changed with the voltage collapse. Failure of high
voltage DC system controls and partial losses of its VAR compensation
systems or protections lead also to voltage instabilities.
.1.10 Deficiency of Reactive Power:

31
The main cause of voltage instability or (collapse) is the inability of the
network to meet a certain reactive power demand. This can arise from the
increase in the load reactive power component with the decrease in the supply
voltage magnitude. This can be encountered in many forms:
(a) Excessive demand of reactive power of nearly pure inductive loads such
as induction furnaces, which lead to drastically voltage drops.
(b) Insufficient reactive power compensation for the line reactive drops at
the receiving end of the network, which lead to excessive voltage, drops in
these lines.
(c) Generators operating near their field current or armature current limits:
This results in the inability of these generators to maintain constant
terminal voltages.
(d) Generators are too far from loads: this results in higher transmission
system reactance’s "X" and, higher "IX" voltage drops.
(e) Separation of some generating units through their protection systems
caused by standstill of their auxiliaries motors, due to low terminal
voltages.
(f) Excessive load power demand: which forces the system to operate near
it's critical voltage. The risk is biggest, when the reactive power
consumption is greater than expected.
(g) Low generation voltages: high voltage at the generating end increases
transmissible power, while low voltage brings the operating points near the
critical point.
(h) Existence of induction motors loads: as they demand heavy reactive
power when voltage falls.
(i) Operation of large electric welding factories near heavily loaded
networks.
(j) Presence of highly rated arc-furnaces at the middle of radial networks.
(k) Presence of excessive power factor correction capacitors in networks
polluted by currents and voltage harmonics.
(l) Presence of repetitive unbalanced 3-phase loads, such as arc-furnaces
and electric single-phase trains and single-phase induction motors.
.2 Triggering
31 Voltage Instability Leading to
Blackouts:
The instability of the voltage is usually triggered by some forms of
disturbances resulting in changes in the reactive power situation. Lines
opening or tripping of local generators or addition of new important loads
during peak load periods are all examples for such forms of disturbances.
Additional loads during peak period or sudden impacts of loading or sudden
reloading of large consumers are other causes. Malfunction of control or
protection systems can also trigger voltage instability. Repetitive loading of
trains, furnaces, lifts or welding machines can trigger such voltage
instabilities.
.3 Blackouts in Power Systems:

31
Heavy currents during intermittent or permanent voltage instabilities

operate the over current protection relays. Zones of the radial system will be
separated and regional or complete blackout may occur, such that occurred in
New York in 1978 or in the Egyptian system in 1979 and on April 24, 1990.
Any impact on the intermediate node voltage will affect severely all system
nodes and may trip lines and interrupt power source from other consumers,
Chapter 13 421
i.e. lead to "islanding". Partial or complete blackouts were experienced in

several countries, including the developed countries, such as: USA, France,
Switzerland, Japan, England, Russia, etc. They are all published in the
literature. Blackouts are experienced frequently in most under developing
countries without publication in the known periodicals. Blackouts mean
interruption of electric service from consumers, loss of industrial production,
and destroy of national and world economy.
.4 Means of Voltage Stability Enhancement:

31
Having known the causes, mechanisms, consequences, and triggering

conditions of voltage instability, preventive measures for avoiding or
eliminating such phenomena is presented here. Both theoretical proposed
methods and practical used methods are displayed in this chapter. Special
attention is paid for prevention of partial or complete blackouts experienced
in some typical countries, in the aim of encouraging more studies in this field
and to focus such recent phenomena for the field engineers in order to avoid
such problems as possible in future. Taking into consideration that these
phenomena can occur in any system at any unpredicted unexpected
conditions. Moreover, as mentioned above, partial or complete blackouts had
been experienced in developed countries such as USA France, England,
Japan, and Russia, etc. and in underdeveloped countries as well. Highlighting
the problem and techniques of its solution contribute to the scientific
experiences, minimize service interruptions and add to the national and the
world economies.
Having known that the voltage drop between two nodes, connected by a link
of impedance Z=R+jX, Generator node voltage is E, load powers are P+jQ
and load node voltage is Vr, is given by:
XQ  RP
V  E  Vr  (31.2)
Vr
According to this simple equation, the voltage drops, which leads to voltage
instability are, function in P, Q, R, X and E, together with V r, which is
governed by load nature, type and powers/voltage relations. Therefore, the
avoidance of occurrence of voltage instability can be achieved by:
.4.1 Control of Generator Terminals Voltage:

31
Terminal voltage of the generator can be controlled either by:
(a) Manually: Where the generator looks like an e.m.f. behind its
synchronous reactance (Xs ), or
(b) Using Continuously Acting Automatic Voltage Regulator

(AVR): The voltage is adjusted automatically with its terminal voltage
changes.
(c) Using Very Fast AVR: The terminal voltage remains constant at all
operational conditions, irrespective of load fluctuations.
.4.2
31 Minimization of Transmission Circuits
Impedances:
(a) For Lines:
 Use of several circuits in parallel. This is an expensive solution .
 Use of superconducting lines or cables, but this is in experimental stage.
 Use of series capacitor to minimize the reactance of the line, but it can
cause subsynchronous resonance, which can damage generator rotors .
(b) For Transformers:

 Good design of transformer magnetic circuits to minimize its losses.
 Use a good conducting materials for coils to minimize resistances (R).
 Use of shunt capacitors for no-load reactive power compensation.
 Use of effective cooling systems to avoid conductors heating.
11.4.3 Control of Reactive Power Flow in the System:

By improving loads power factors, using shunt capacitors for voltage
control purposes and acting on tapped transformers automatically. Reactive
power should be monitored and its management should be carefully planned
and performed firmly. Load-flow programs should be used at any system
changes and in the planning stage of any system.
.4.4 Control of Power System Nodes Voltages:

31
(a) By continual modifications of reactive power flow using:
 Series capacitors
 Static shunt reactor with mechanical switches
 Static shunt capacitor with mechanical switches
 Synchronous condensers (not used now)
 Static VAR compensators
 Static VAR generators
 Static synchronous generators
 In experimental stage
 Use of flexible AC transmission system (FACTS)
(b) By action of transformer tap changers
Chapter 13 423
(c) By using booster transformers, which are usually used in distribution

networks, which require only a boost within 10% of the nominal voltage.
(d) By taking load node voltage V/P/Q characteristics into consideration. If
the load is soft (such as lighting, constant impedance loads,), the fall of
voltage is associated by fall of power and decrease of line current.
Consequently, this causes more decrease of voltage drop in the line. Stiff
loads have nearly constant power consumption. Voltage drops with
constant power loads aggravates the situation of the voltage and can lead
to sustained voltage instability. On the other hand, induction motor loads
can lead to voltage collapses, as the voltage drop at its terminals is
associated by increase of the power demand.
16.4.5Excessive Use of Cables in the Network:

Cables are generators of capacitive reactive power at heavy loads
owing to their high capacitances. A an example 275kV cable produces 7.5
MVAR/km, 132kV cables produce 4.0 MVAR/km and 11kV cables generate
0.1 MVAR/km. Presence of cables assure high voltage levels at peak load
periods. They are preferable with radial systems, in factories and underwater
connections. Recently they are usually used in urban distribution in cities and
villages.
13.5 Preventive Measures of Blackouts:

There are several preventive measures of blackouts. Briefly they can be
displayed in the following.
13.5.1 Limitation of Transient Voltage Stability Leading

to Blackouts:
The presence of stand-by-reactive power reserves is important in
avoiding such voltage instability conditions, especially in the transient
periods. Because of the very high response and the continuous reactive power
adjustments, the static VAR compensator (SVC) is preferable than other
rotary or static fixed compensators. The reactive power compensation can be
achieved in (0.5 to 2.0) cycles of the power frequency (0.01-0.03) sec. This
can alleviate the transient sustained voltage instability and prevent the
transient voltage collapse. Synchronous motor rotating at no-load or
synchronous condensers has a slow response (0.2-2) sec., need continuous
maintenance and can't cope with the modern fastly variable voltages of
systems (They have been eliminated completely from the French and most
systems). Having a load fed through double circuit line from generation plant
when a static VAR compensator is connected in parallel with the load
containing 50% induction motor and 50% constant impedance. The new P/V
characteristic with imposed dynamic induction motor load characteristic is

shown in fig. (31.6), for a disturbance of sudden one line opening. However,
presence of controlled reactive power results in retaining voltage stability as
after the first V/P transient loop, the voltage settles to a new stable level
corresponding to the post disturbance steady-state value or to a point near it,
as shown in fig. (11.6). Curves (a, b, c) in figs. (31.6) describe the load
power/voltage behavior of the transmission system with different levels of
constant reactive power consumption Q, when one circuit is opened. The
voltage is maintained and settles constant. No transient voltage instability
occurs in this case, because of the presence of the controlled static VAR
compensator, which provided sufficient reactive power nearly instantaneously
just after line opening.

transient V/P load trajectory (curve "d")
and with 50% Z and 50% IM load, and static VAR compensator
_____With double circuits ------ With one circuit
(a, a1) for Q=0pu (b, b1) for Q=1.5pu (c, c1) for Q=3pu
.5.2 Prevention of Steady-State Voltage Collapse

31
Leading to Blackouts in Transmission Networks:

In practice the voltage collapse can be prevented by:
(a) Judicious use of generator units to provide active and reactive powers
which improves the voltage levels to higher values than critical ones.
(b) Reduction of consumption and shedding out some loads
(c) Locking of transformer tap-changers during lower voltage situations
(d) Use of static VAR compensators to maintain constant voltage levels.
(e) Use of (FACTS) ''Projected''
Chapter 13 425
31 .5.3 Prevention of Voltage Collapse Leading to

Blackouts in Distribution Networks:
This can be achieved by the following measures:
(a) Improvement of all loads power factors by using shunt capacitors by
force of law.
(b) Eliminating all inductive voltage stabilizers.
(c) Judicious choices of cables and lines cross-sections.
(d) Using repetitive load flow studies.
(e) Monitoring the bus bars short-circuit levels.
(f) Correction of power factors of strategically transformer substations.
(g) Automatic separation of all energized induction motors at standstill.
(h) Balancing of the three unbalanced phases by:
 Equal distribution of loads between the 3 phases, or by
 Using static VAR compensators or fixed static capacitors.
(i) Proposed loads power factors not less than 0.93 at all voltage levels.
(j) Use of extra circuits or series capacitors, if possible .
(k) Harmonic filtering by appropriates filters.
.5.4 Prevention of Blackouts in Large Power Systems:

31
This can be achieved by:
(a) Imposing load power factor correction by force of law.
(b) Continual voltage control of generation stations.
(c) Installation of voltage control capacitors at transmission circuits nodes.
This requires:
 Determination of optimum nodes.
 Optimum ratings.
 Appropriate control systems.
(d) Taking care with important induction motors loads centers at :
 Starting period.
 Feeding lines manipulation.
 After short-circuits.
(e) Use of automatic voltage stabilization by static VAR compensators at
all times with system voltage variations. Static VAR compensators have
rapid control systems and thyristorised circuits. Three parameters should
be determined.
 Optimum location.
 Optimum rating.
 Optimum control system parameters.
(f) Use of series capacitors taking into consideration the Subsynchronous
Resonance (SSR) phenomena.
(g) Use of filters to eliminate the harmful harmonic orders.
.6 Preventive Measures of Blackouts in a Typical

31
Large Power System:

The Egyptian power system is taken as an example system. Other
systems have nearly the same conditions of operation and blackouts. A
complete blackout has occurred in the Egyptian system on April 24, 1990.
The system consists of 4 zones in 2 power poles. The main zones are: Aswan
zone, Cairo zone, Delta zone, Alexandria zone and Suez canal zone, in two
pools Aswan pool or Southern Pool "SP" and Northern Pool "NP". The two
power pools are connected by a 500kV, double circuits, 900km line. The
southern pool consists of 12 generators hydraulic plant HD each of 205 MVA
rating and a 6 generator Aswan barrage plant each of 60 MVA rating, together
with Isna hydraulic power station (615=90) MVA and Assiut thermal station
(2300+330=690) MVA and with important load centers at Aswan, Nag-
Hammady, Sammalout and others zone. The northern power pool include
several scattered small generation stations, and several local loads, connected
together with a heavily meshed (220/66/33kV) network. The whole system
capacity is about 12000 MW, its installed capacity is 1600 MVA. Figure
(13.7) shows the Egyptian country map and figure ( 31.8) shows the equivalent
system configuration.
31.6.1 Characteristics of Blackouts of The Typical

Egyptian Power System:
Usually at peak load period, several Egyptian villages suffer from
voltage collapses. Values of (0.85 to 0.95) pu are experienced in the 11kV
distribution networks. Partial blackouts due to overloading or voltage failure
are frequently experienced in some limited regions .Complete blackouts all
over the country occurred on 1979 at morning and on April, 24,1990 at 20:30
evening and lasts for 56 minutes after which power was restored partially then
completely at 3.0hr of April, 25 morning. It was characterized by a rapid
collapse to 0.08 pu, then to a sudden increase followed by a complete voltage
failure as shown in fig. (31.9). All machines power and synchronism were then
lost, allover the country, as shown clearly in fig. ( 31.10), in which angular
velocities deviations are not coincident, one of them deviates very far than the
others, which announced state of system synchronous instability.
Chapter 13 427
Fig. 13.7 Egyptian country map
Fig. 13.8 Egyptian power system equivalent configuration

Fig. 31.9 Voltage magnitude shape before, during and after the blackout
of April, 24, 1990 in the Egyptian network
Fig. 13.10 Time simulation responses of the machines angular velocities,

after a 120 m sec. short-circuit at Aswan bus, recovered by one circuit
opening (8-9) without any compensators
.6.2 Proposed Blackouts Preventive Measures in the

31
Typical Egyptian Power System:

Several measures can be taken to prevent such blackouts. Based on the
studies carried out on the Egyptian power system, they can be summarized in:
13.6.2.1 Control of Reactive Power in Distribution Networks:

Strict control of reactive power flow through all distribution networks
can raise the whole system voltage levels till the 500 kV level. For example
table (31.1) shows load-flow runs results of the 132kV, 500kV and 220kV
nodes voltages levels with the actual loads power factors, with loads power
Chapter 13 429
factors improved to 0.9 and to unity at these UHV level nodes. The results
indicate voltage level increase to the extent that with unity power factors,
voltage levels lie within the 5% limits of their nominal values without any
external means of voltage control. This can be achieved by forcing customers
(domestic and industrial) to improve their loads power factors to nearly unity
at all voltage levels. Compensation should be at all transformation
substations. For the same load power, improvement of the load power factor
raises the operating point to a new V/P curve at positions far from the critical
values of the nose curve of all system nodes.
Table 31.1 Egyptian Network voltage levels with different loads power
factors with and without reactive power injection.
Bus Voltages with (*) Voltages with (**) Voltages with (***)
Actual loads P.F Unity P.F loads 0.9 P.F loads
Number B. INJ. A. INJ. B. INJ. A. INJ. B. INJ. A. INJ.
3 0.000 3.000 3.000 3.000 3.000 3.000
2 3.011 3.011 3.011 3.011 3.011 3.011
1 0...0 0...0 0...0 0...0 0...0 0...0
4 0...0 0...0 3.00. 3.00. 0...0 0...0
5 0.... 0...0 3.0.3 3.0.3 0...0 3.003
6 0..10 0...0 3.01. 3.01. 0..1. 0...0
7 0..01 0..0. 0.... 0.... 0...3 0...1
8 0.... 0.... 0.... 0.... 0.... 0...0
9 0.... 0...1 3.010 3.010 0..0. 0...1
31 0.... 3.00. 3.0.3 3.0.3 3.00. 3.00.
33 3.000 3.001 3.03. 3.03. 3.001 3.001
32 0..0. 0.... 3.03. 3.03. 0...1 0....
31 0...3 3.003 3.0.. 3.0.. 0.... 3.00.
34 3.00. 3.00. 3.011 3.011 3.00. 3.033
(*) Injected reactive power = 73 MVAR at node # 6 NH 500.
(**) No injection of reactive power is required.
(***) Injected reactive power = 38.37 MVAR at node # 6 NH 500.
B. INJ. Before reactive power injection
A. INJ. After reactive power injection
13.6.2.2 Installation of New Transmission Circuits:

Wherever the 500 kV lines feed the northern pool radial to 900-km
long, voltage and machines instabilities exist, even if the northern part
installed power increases and configuration is changed. This is why
installation of new circuits in parallel to the 500kV circuits can decrease
chances of future blackouts. However, a single 500kV circuit extending to
900 km length costs today nearly 200 million dollars while one 220kV circuit
costs nearly 130 million dollars. Usually, there is deficiency in available ways
to install such towers and lines. These reasons make this solution expensive.
13.6.2.3 Alleviation of Load Nodes Voltages Instability by

Appropriate Controlled Reactive Power Injections:
As the blackouts are found to be mainly due to voltage instabilities of
different forms and from different sources, means of alleviation of such
problems are considered. First of all, adjustments of steady-state load nodes
voltage levels are studied using the linear programming technique. With
actual loading conditions and load power factors, the optimum VAR sources
rating and location required to raise the voltage levels to be within  5% of
their nominal values are found by the linear programming to be only 73
MVAR's at node #6. Secondly assuming all loads power factors are improved
to 0.9 lagging, the load flow run shows that some voltage levels doesn't fulfill
the constrains as shown in table (31.1). Injection of 38 MVAR's at Nag-
Hammady (Node #6) together with improving all load power factors to 0.9,
the voltages are addend to be with 45%. Thirdly voltage adjustments with
these voltage sources are shown in table (13.1). Further increase of the loads
power factors to unity, no need of VAR injection, as all nodes voltages lie
within the 5% limit, as shown in table (13.1).
Secondly, system dynamics are considered. Aswan zone bus (node #8)
is assumed to be subjected to a 3-phase short-circuit, cleared by opening one
circuit of the two 500 kV circuits between Aswan (8) and Nag-Hammady (9).
Exactly this is the official announced fault on April 24, 1990. The short
circuit is assumed to be lasted only for the circuit-breaker opening time i.e.
for 120-m sec. The assumed short-circuit may be due to solid lines connection
at Aswan or due to a voltage failure resulting from reaching the critical
voltage point at the peak-load period, i.e. a state of virtual internal system
short-circuit due to load instability at any node on the 500kV line. Figure
(31.11) shows the machines terminal voltages after fault clearing. Machines
pole slipping is occurred. Injection of rapid controlled reactive power
generated by static VAR compensator can stabilize such voltage.
Using a static VAR compensator SVC provided by the controller, and

connecting it successively to nodes # 8, #9, #10 and #15 for each case, search
for the minimum required VARs rating required for just stabilize the system
is firstly made, using different short-circuit periods, over the critical clearing
time of this short-circuit at node #8 (12 m sec.).
Chapter 13 431
Fig. 31.11 Machines terminal voltage response after 120 m sec short-
circuit duration at node # 8 recovered by single line of two circuit
Figure (13.12) shows that the minimum rating of all these minimums is
obtained when the compensator is connected to node #9 (Nag-Hammady).
The figure shows that this rating amounts to 73MVARs, when the short
circuit period is 120 m.sec. This coincides with the linear programming
results obtained with the steady-state conditions. Figure (13.13) shows the
machines angular speeds deviations with 120 m sec fault at Aswan node #8
cleared with one line opening between (8-9), while fig. (13.14) shows the
machines angular terminal voltages response. In these two figures the fault
recovery was made after 120 m.sec and by using a static VAR compensator of
73MVAR rating at nodes #8, #9, #10, and #15 successively.
Figure (31.13), (31.14) show that the compensator stabilizes the system
if, and only if, it is connected to node #9 (Nag-Hammady). Moreover, they
indicate that connecting the compensator to node #15 (northern zone bus)
increases the system instability. This can be explained regarding the voltage
response of the 500kV nodes and Cairo nodes after using 73MVAR static
VAR compensator successively at these nodes as shown in fig. (1 1.14). The
figure shows that voltage instability in the form of voltage oscillations lasts
when SVC was connected to Aswan node #8), or to Sammallout node (#10)
or to Cairo and Delta node (#15).
Fig. 31.12 Minimum required compensator rating for just stabilizing the
system subjected to different short-circuit recovery times when it is
located at different nodes
Voltage instability disappeared when SVC was connected at node #9

(Nag-Hammady). This is reflected in machines angular speed stabilization
shown in fig. (31.13). The mechanism of the system stabilization by controlled
injected VARs at appropriate nodes can be explained by examining the
generator voltage responses fig. (31.14) and fig. (31.15) the increase in the
steady-state and transient stability limits, with connection of static VAR
compensator at node #9. Figure (31.15) shows that a compensator of
73MVARs rating is able to eliminate all machines terminal voltage
oscillations (and consequently their output power oscillations) if, and only if,
it is connected to node #9 (Nag-Hammady).
Damping of power oscillations stabilizes the machines and prevents all

possibilities of blackouts. On the other hand, fig. (31.15) shows that a
compensator of 73MVARs rating located at node #9 (Nag-Hammady)
increases Aswan machines steady-state stability limit from 1738 MW to 1773
MW and increases the transient stability limit from 1546 MW to 1569 MW.
These augmentations contribute in increasing machines output power limit
during peak-load periods and during and after the short circuit recovery. Also,
use of static VAR compensator, will solve load (and voltage) instabilities due
to repetitive induction motors starting of domestic and industrial motors, due
to line opening of circuits feeding loads of main content induction motors,
and after short-circuit recoveries at induction motors loads terminals,
scattered all over these southern regions and along with the 500kV lines
loads. All these factors will minimize the chances of blackouts in future,
during normal peak load conditions and during abnormal conditions.
Chapter 13 433
Fig. 13.13 Time simulation response of the machines angular velocities

deviations with a 73MVARs compensator at different nodes
(Node #8 is subjected to 120 m.sec short circuit recovered by one line
opening between 8-9 nodes)
Fig. 13.14 Time simulation response of the machines nodes terminal

voltage with a 73MVARs compensator connected at different nodes after
120 m.sec. short-circuit recovery at Aswan node
Chapter 13 435
Fig. 13.15 Extensions of steady state and transient stability limits

using VAR compensators with different ratings
13.6.2.4 By Application of Adaptive Controls to the Egyptian

Power System Stabilizers:
Egyptian power system is characterized by two main distinct power
pools, southern zone and northern Zone, connected by a 500 kV, 900km long
AC line. Its capacity is nearly 12000 MW. Enhancement of stability of such
system can be attained by several conventional methods, the more important
of which using power system stabilizers at all generators excitation systems.
Conventional power system stabilizers is modified by adding new nonlinear
elements in order to increase their effectiveness and called global deviation
power system stabilizer (GD-PSS), it appears in fig. (13.16). Neuro-Fuzzy
logic controls in fig. (13.17) are afterwards added to the power system
stabilizer inputs in order to transform such fixed element controller to an
adaptive virtual variable parameters controller.
(a) Effect of Adaptive Controllers of GD-PSS on Oscillations

Damping:
When a three-phase fault is applied to node 8 for 120 m.sec. without
any type of power system stabilizer, the system is found to be unstable. The
effect of the GD-PSS and NFL-PSS on damping the system oscillations and
improving the system transient response when the system is subjected to a
recovered three-phase short circuit fault at Aswan (node # 8) without any
circuit configuration variations is given in figs.13.18 (a) and (b), for without
PSS and for NFL-PSS provided to machines 1,2,3 and GD-PSS for machines
4,5, respectively.
Fig. 13.16 Modified global deviation power system stabilizer (GD-PSS)
Network
Fig. 13.17 Neuro-Fuzzy controller applied to excitation system and to
static VAR compensator
(b) Effect of PSS Adaptive Controls on Critical Clearing Times:

Table (13.2) illustrates the effect of both GD-PSS, and NFL-PSS in
increasing the critical clearing time. The short circuit is solid three-phase and
recovered without any system configuration variation. Increase of critical
clearing time by about 2% upon using NFL-PSS instead of GD-PSS.
Table (13.2) The critical clearing time for short-circuits at different nodes
Location of Node # 8 Node # 9 Node #10 Node #11 Node #3

3-Ph fault (m.sec.) (m.sec.) (m.sec.) (m.sec.) (m.sec.)
Without PSS 5 6 6 7 2
With GD-PSS 147 148 151 141 47
With NFL-PSS 153 149 154 143 49
Chapter 13 437
(a)
(b)
Fig. 13.18 Machines speed deviation responses after 3-phase recovered

short-circuit at node # 8
(a) Without PSS (b) With NFL and GD-PSS’s
(c) Effect of PSS Adaptive Controls on Sudden Subjected

Loads:
To indicate the maximum allowable load to the system without loosing
the stability, sudden jump in electrical load is subjected at the nodes
connected to the load nodes without, and with both GD-PSS, and NFL-PSS.
Table (13.3) depicts the percentage of the allowable load inserted to the
network, without loosing the system stability. These results are obtained by
several successive runs of the written program. Figure (13.19) depicts the
system response when the load is jumped by 6% at node # 15 without and
with GD-PSS and NFL-PSS.
(d) Effect of PSS Adaptive Controls on Generated Power and on

Saved Energy:
In the same time table (13.4) define the extra load power, which can be
added per year without loosing the stabilization. The possible extra-added
energy per year after applying the proposed stabilizers is given in table (13.5).
Table (13.6) presents the saving in Egyptian pounds (equal to 0.2 $) when
applying the proposed adaptive NFL-PSS stabilizer.
(a)
(b)
Fig. 13.19 Machines speed deviation response after a sudden 6% load
jump at node # 15 with and without PSS
Table 13.3 Maximum allowable percentage loading without loosing

system stability steady-state without and with power system stabilizer
Location and Node # 7 Node # 6 Node # 16 Node # 15
Node #
Without PSS 103% 105% 310% 103%
With GD-PSS 364% 143% 381% 107%
With NFL-PSS 371% 149% 387% 110%
Table 13.4 Extra allowable loads power values in MW/year without

loosing system steady-state stability with the adaptive PSS’s
Location and Node Node # 7 Node # 6 Node # 15 Node #16

# of Extra Load (MW) (MW) (MW) (MW)
With GD-PSS 1.927 1.171 2.882 1.025
With NFL-PSS 1.978 1.334 4.117 1.047
Chapter 13 439
Table 13.5 Extra possible yearly added energy in MWhr/year after

applying adaptive PSS’s to all machines
Location and Node Node # 7 Node # 6 Node # 15 Node # 16

# of Extra Load
With GD-PSS 46.248 28.104 69.168 24.600
With NFL-PSS 47.472 32.016 98.808 25.128
Table 13.6Extra possible yearly added energy price in million Egyptian

pound/year after applying adaptive PSS’s to all machines
Location and Node Node # 7 Node # 6 Node # 15 Node # 16

# of Extra Load
With GD-PSS 4.62 2.81 6.92 2.46
With NFL-PSS 4.75 3.20 9.88 2.51
13.6.2.5 By Application of Adaptive Controls to the Static VAR

Compensator Provided to the Egyptian Network:
(a) Optimum Location of Static VAR Compensator:

For damping oscillations in the Egyptian power system; optimum
location is obtained by connecting the SVC successively at all system nodes.
Damping coefficient of the dominant system eigenvalues are used as damping
criteria index. Using several combinations of ratings and control parameters
has proved that the best time constant is 0.05 sec. and gain is 47 and rating is
1.0 pu. Search has proved that the better damping is obtained, for all cases,
when the SVC is connected at Nag-Hammady (Node # 9). Figure (13.20)
shows the SVC damping at the various locations. It is to be noted that locating
the SVC at Cairo or Delta or Alexandria zone will augment oscillations. Its
effect is very weak when located at Sammalout (Node # 16).
(b) Effect of Adaptive Controls on SVC Controller Parameters:

When the SVC is connected at node 9 and its gain is varied between 5
and 100 at several controller time constants and several compensator ratings.
It is found that lower SVC gains yield very low damping. On the other hand
at each gain a certain time constant gives the maximum damping and over this
rating the damping will decay. At gain of (47) the maximum damping is
obtained at all SVC time constants, fig. (16.21). This was also found at all
SVC ratings.
Fig. 13.20 Damping ratio with SVC at various locations and with
adaptive controls
(a)
K=100
K=47
K=25
K=40
(b)
Fig. 13.21 Effect of adaptive controls on optimum SVC controller gains

and time constants
Chapter 13 441
Increasing the gain to 100, the system loci moves towards the unstable
region. Different controller time constants ranging from 0 sec to 2 sec are
used. Figure (13.21) shows the results for range between 0.02 to 0.1 sec. at
different controller gains k. Maximum damping to the system at controller
gain of 47 is clear. On the other hand it was known that lower time constants
give better damping but fig. (13.21) shows clearly that time constants lower
than 0.04 sec and higher thin 0.07 sec. yield lower damping. This result is
new in this domain. Also, damping will be nearly constant for time constants
ranging 0.04 up to 0.07 sec, upon using adaptive controls.
(c) Influence of Adaptive Controllers on SVC Rating:

The SVC location depends mainly on the SVC rating and minorly on
the controller as it is a function of reactive power distribution in the system.
So, SVC optimum location will be considered at node 9 when adaptive
controllers are used. Adaptive pole placement controller is used to determine
its effects on the required SVC rating to introduce certain specified damping
in the system.
Figure (13.22) shows the needed SVC rating to get certain damping
ratio between 0.59 and 0.64 in the system when SVC is provided by a
conventional controller and by an adaptive (pole placement) controller. The
figure shows a very important result that the SVC rating is reduced by a ratio
between 20% and 37% in some cases. This means that using the modern
controller (Pole Placement Controller PPC) saves about (1/5 to 1/3) the SVC
rating, which means that SVC price will be lower and cost of the adaptive
control implementation can be compensated by the saving in the SVC rating.
On the other hand, fig.(13.23) shows that the saving in the SVC rating due to
the adaptive controller use is limited. Very low rating will not be effective
even if adaptive controllers are used. The SVC effective ratings range is
shown in fig. (13.23). Clearly lower ratings are used but the band of effective
ratings is as shown in that figure.
(d) NFL-Control for SVC Adaptive Controls:

NFL-controller is finally applied to control the SVC located at the
optimum located and designed to have optimum rating, optimum controller
gain and controller time constant. Figure (13.24) shows the damping effect on
machine # 1 speed deviation response, with and without NFL-controller.
Fig. 13.22 SVC ratings for certain damping ratio’s of the system
oscillations
(a) Without adaptive controller (b) With adaptive controller
Fig. 13.23 The effective band of SVC ratings
Fig. 13.24 Speed deviation response with SVC-NFL-controller and without

controller for machine # 1
Chapter 13 443
.7 Summary:
31
(a) Prevention of future blackouts is mainly achieved by continuous

stabilization of load-nodes voltages as the voltage stability phenomena is
fast enough than machine excitation or speed controllers response time.
(b) Fast controllable VAR compensation by static VAR compensators at
optimally determined nodes can alleviate successfully voltage instabilities
and preserves machines motion synchronism, i.e. prevent transient internal
instability.
(c) Individual loads components power factor corrections and elimination
of all sorts of customers voltage stabilizers contribute to steady state and
transient voltage stabilization and blackouts prevention.
(d) Use of frequency-based protection relay cannot effectively participate in
blackouts prevention where-if voltage instabilities due to load instabilities
exists and countermeasures to avoid them are not available.
(e) Analysis of the causes of the blackouts in the typical Egyptian power
system showed that they were initiated by steady-state or transient
load/voltage instabilities led to voltage failures. Presence of induction
motors loads contributed to initiation of these blackouts.
(f) Beside the accidental solid material short-circuits, voltage instabilities
behave as virtual short-circuits without any visible connections between
conductors at certain load nodes. These virtual internal short-circuits can
lead to loss of synchronism of alternators or to synchronous instability.
Problems
13.1 Voltage instability can lead to synchronous instability. Explain?
13.2 Synchronous instability is frequently associated with voltage
instability. Illustrate?
13.3 What are the general measures for avoiding voltage instability in power
systems?
13.4 What are the techniques, which can be used for prevention of voltage
instability in distribution systems?
13.5 What are the means of preventing transient voltage instability?
13.6 Explain how load power factors correction can effectively participate in
voltage instability alleviation in developing countries power systems?
13.7 Explain how voltage instabilities can be limited by providing
generators with automatic voltage regulators .
13.8 Minimization of transmission systems impedance’s can improve
voltage stability. Explain?
13.9 Use of cables excessively improve voltage stability to great extent .
Illustrate?
13.10 What are the means of controlling reactive power at load terminals?.
What are the advantages of the recent electronic devices ?
13.11 Booster transformers and tap-changing transformers can alleviate
voltage problems and improve voltage stability. In what conditions?
13.12 Voltage collapse is experienced in several systems. What are the
methods of its elimination?
13.13 Voltage failure or complete blackouts were experienced in many
countries in developed and under developing ones. What were the main
causes of the blackouts and what are the countermeasures taken for
avoiding them in future?
13.14 Recent flexible AC transmission systems (FACTS) are new means for
limitation of chances of voltage instability. Explain?
13.15 Distribution systems suffer from certain voltage stability problems.
Which are?
13.16 Voltage instability creates invisible virtual short circuits at certain
critical nodes. Explain this effect in triggering voltage instability. Was
they led to the complete blackouts of the Egyptian power system?
13.17 What are the effects of the recent adaptive controls in preventing
voltage and synchronous stabilities.
References
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Voltage Failures in the Egyptian Power System", Electric Power
System Research, Vol. 44, No. 3, 1998.
[2] M. Z. El-Sadek, "Voltage Instabilities Subsequent to Short-Circuit
Recoveries", Electric Power Systems Research Journal, Lausanne,
Switzerland, Vol.21, No.1, pp. 9 - 16, 1991.
[3] M. Z. El-Sadek, "Optimization of Static VAR Systems Parameters for
Stabilizing Power System Oscillations", Ph. D. Thesis No. 446, Swiss
Federal Institute of Technology Lausanne, Switzerland, 1982.
[4] M. Z. El-Sadek, N. H. Fetih, F. N. Abdelbar, "Starting of Induction
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[6] R Macaw, "The Great Blackout", Power Engineering, pp. 36a -36c,
Dec. 1965.
[7] Federal Power Commission Report, "Northeast Power Failure", Report
Submitted to the President of USA, Dec. 1965
Chapter 13 445
[8] American Public Power Association Report “Northeast blackout,

November 1965” Dec. 9, 1965.
[9] Hain Y., and I. Schwitzer, "Analysis of Power Blackout of June 8, 1995
in the Israel Electric Corporation", IEEE Transaction on the Power
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[10] Bourgain F. C., Testud B. Heilbronn and J. Verseille, "Present Practices
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[11] Counan C., et al, "Major Incidents on the French Electrical System:
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[12] North America Electric Reliability Council NERC Report, "Survey of
the Voltage Collapse Phenomenon", Princeton, NJ: NERC, 1991.
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in the Israel Electric Corporation", IEEE Transaction on the Power
Systems, Vol. 12, No. 4, Nov. 1997, pp. 1752 - 1758.
[14] IEEE Working Group on Voltage Stability Report, Part 3, "Industry
Experience, Practices and Needs", 1990.
[15] H.M. El-Shaer, “Measures necessary to Improve the Stability of Long
Transmission Systems”, Egyptian Electricity General Corporation
Dispatching Inspectorate Publication, Cairo, 1972.
[16] A. Hemieda, “Power System Transient Stability Enhancement Using
Novel Control Strategies”, Ph.D.Thesis,Assiut University,Assiut,Egypt,
2000.
[17] M. Aboul-Soud, “Static VAR Compensator For Enhancing Power
System Stability using Advanced Control Techniques”, Ph.D. Thesis,
Assiut University, Assiut, Egypt, 1998.
[18] M. Z. El-Sadek, G. El-Saady, A. Hemieda, M. Abolsoud,
“Enhancement of Egyptian Power System Stability Using Adaptive
Fuzzy Logic Control for Power Stabilizers and for Flexible AC
Transmission System (FACTS)", CIGRE Report No. 14-105, 2002
CIGRE Session, Paris, August 2002.
[19] Y. Zhag; G.P. Chen; O.P. Malik and G.S. Hope, “An Artificial Neural
Network Based Adatpive Power System Stabilizer”, IEEE Trans. on
Energy. Conversion, Vol. 8, Mars 1993, pp. 71-77.
[20] Hamid Toliyat, Javad Sadeh, Reta Ghati, “Design of Augmented
Fuzzy Logic Power System Stabilizer to Enhance Power System
Stability”, IEEE Trans. Energy Conversion, Vol. 11, No. 1, pp. 97-103,
1996.
7.10 Effects of Flexibility on System Parameters:
It was shown in paragraphs (7.4, 7.5) that a shunt SVC controlled by
thyristors firing angles () yields shunt virtual variable susceptances BC() at
each firing angle given by BC()=I2()XC/V, with XC the fixed SVC
reactance, I() the actual SVC drawn fundamental current and V its terminal
voltage magnitude. Therefore changing the firing angles by flexible controls
is equivalent to entering shunt reactors or capacitors in and out, according to
the values of BC(), without any mechanical switching process. To show the
effects of such virtual continual variable shunt susceptances BC() on system
parameters, assume a load (P+jQ) is fed (at voltage VR) from a source of
controlled voltage VS through two series feeders (jXa, jXb). The transfer
reactance between the source and the load (fig. 7.32(a)) is then given by:
jX tr  jX a  jX b (7.5)
The maximum transmitted load power is then:
VS V R
Pmax  (7.6)
X tr
Now connecting an SVC FACT of variable controlled susceptance BC() at

the feeders connection as shown in fig. 7.32(b).
X'tr
VS VR
jXa jXb VS VR
jXa jXb
 Load
P+jQ
 XS jBC XR
Load
P+jQ
(a) (b)
Fig. 7.32 (a) System without FACT

(b) System with FACT
Connection of shunt controlled BC() changes the transfer reactance between

the source and the load to X'tr, given by:
X tr'  X a  X b  jX a X b BC   (7.7)
Thus if BC() is capacitive, XSR will be less than Xtr, the maximum power of
eqn. (7.6) will be more than without FACT element. On the other hand if
BC() is inductive (or negative), the transfer reactance X'tr will be more than
Xtr and the maximum transmitted power is less than that drawn without
FACTS. The network configuration is changed by addition of X S and XR at
the source and load terminals respectively. This will change the current
distribution and changes the load voltage VR, if VS is kept constant, according
to:
 P  jQ VR 
VR  VS      jX tr' (7.8)
 VR
* Z R 
Which was without FACTS:
 P  jQ 
VR  VS     j X a  X b  (7.9)
* 
 V R 
Therefore changing BC() by control system changes X'tr and consequently

changes VR continuously.
7.10 FACTS Schemes Actually in Service:

Some FACTS schemes are currently in use in electric power utilities;
such as SVC's, STATCOM and TCSC's and SSC’s or STATCOM. The to day
available schemes are:
7.10.1 Static VAR Compensators (SVC):

SVC's have been in use since the early 1970s, for power factor
correction purposes. The SVC application for transmission voltage control
began in the years of 1970s. Since that time, many SVC's have been applied
worldwide for voltage control and, in some cases for stability enhancement.
By the start of 1980, it was used in several applications. Most power systems
are now provided with SVC's. They replaced the synchronous condensers,
every where. Several applications were studied in Assiut University.
7.10.2 Static Synchronous Compensator:

The most recent STATCOM installation is the 100MVAR
STATCOM that was installed in November 1995 at Sullivan (500kV/171kV)
substation in Johnson City, Tennessee, USA. In 1991 a 80MVAR was
installed at the Inuyama switching station in Japan. In operation also the
100MVAR STATCOM which provide voltage control to the 171kV bus
voltages during daily buildup to minimize the activation of the on load tap
changer of the 500kV/171kV transformers. Furthermore, the STATCOM will
provide adequate voltage support to the 171kV and 500kV buses during light
and peak load conditions.
7.10.3 Unified Power Flow Controller (UPFC):
The first large-scale UPFC consists of a shunt voltage source inverter
(STATCOM) rated at 170MVA to provide 150MVAR reactive power
support and 50MW real powers was installed at Inez, Kentucky, USA. The
series voltage source inverter is rated 170MVA to provide phase shifting
and/or series compensation. Both the STATCOM and series subsystem
consists of a 170MVA-voltage source, multi-pulse, harmonic neutralized
GTO inverter and a magnetic interface. The UPFC was installed on 138kV-
transmission line at Inez substation in, Kentucky, USA, it is in service since
1997.
7.10.4 Thyristor Switched or Controlled Series Capacitor

(TSSC/ TCSC):
Since 1991 there have three installations, in the United States of
America (USA), which thyristor switches to obtain a controllable series
capacitive compensation. The first installation was essentially experimental in
nature, testing the hardware of thyristor switched series capacitor (TSSC). A
thyristor valve was applied across one phase of a capacitor module on a series
capacitive compensated 345kV-transmission line (Kanawa River-Matt Funk),
at Kanawa River Substation in West Virginia, USA. The second installation
was a thyristor controlled series capacitor (TCSC). It consists of a fixed
capacitor shunted by a thyristor-controlled reactor, providing continuously
controlled series capacitive compensation. It was installed in a 300km, 230kV
transmission line at the Kayenta Substation in Arizona, USA. The functions
of this installation are to increase power flow, line impedance, and mitigate
Subsynchronous Resonance (SSR). The third installation, is at the slatt
substation in Oregon, USA. It is also a TCSC. The slatt TCSC comprises six
identical thyristor-controlled capacitor modules connected in series. It is in
service since 1993.
7.10.5 Static Synchronous Compensator First Prototype:
A 1 MVAR prototype SSC based on GTO’s thyristor is now in service.
A 4200F, 800V DC capacitor forms the DC source. This capacitor was
chosen so that when operating at one pu leading output, the peak to peak
ripple voltage is 10% of the DC voltage. A fault current limiting inductor is
connected between the DC capacitor and the inverter. This inductor, which
has a freewheeling diode connected across it, normally assumes the peak
value of the ripple current in the DC capacitor and has no effect on the normal
operation. The inductor is allowed to limit the rate of current build up in the
event of the faults. A DC recharging circuit, connected across the DC
capacitor, is used only during the start up sequence to prevent large transients
when the line voltage is first applied. An active bleeder circuit, consisting of
a GTO switch connected in series with a 0.75 energy-absorbing resistor, is
also connected across the DC capacitor. It provides a fast means of
discharging the capacitor and minimizing over voltages to improve transient
recovery. This GTO, normally off, is triggered on and off at present levels of
voltage slightly above the normal maximum operating level.
4.5
4.3
FLC in (Rec.)
FLC in (Inv.)
4.1
FLC in (Rec. & Inv.)
Id c in p .u
3.9
3.7
3.5
0 0.1 0.2 0.3
Time in sec.
(a)
40
alpha in deg.
30
20
FLC in (Rec.)
10 FLC in (Inv.)
FLC in (Rec. & Inv.)
0
0 0.1 0.2 0.3
Time in sec.
(b)
(c)
20
18
g ama in deg.
16
14 FLC in (Rec.)
FLC in (Inv.)
12 FLC in (Rec. & Inv.)
10
0 0 .1 0 .2 0 .3
Time in sec.
444 Appendix A
Appendix A
Derivation of the Formula of the dZ/dVr Criterion and
the Formula of the dE/dV Criterion
The major parameter to be considered is the impedance Z between the
supply-end infinite busbar and the load. Voltage stability is judged by the sign
of the derivative dVr/dZ. The development of the dZ/dVr, for a two nodes
power system, is as follows: For a system consists of a source E s feeding a
load S=P+jQ, through a short line having Z=Rth+jXth, then:
_
Es  Es  1  c  jd  Es cos 1  jEs sin  1 (A.1)
_
Vr  Vr  2  a  jb  Vr cos 2  jVr sin  2 (A.2)
_ _ _
S  P  jQ  Vr I *
_
_ S *
Pr  jQr
I 
_ a  jb
Vr*
_ _
_
Z
E s  Vr

c  jd   a  jd a  jb  c  a   k d  ba  jb
_ Pr  jQr Pr  jQr
I
_
Z
  
Pr ac  db  a 2  b 2  Qr ad  bc   j Pr ad  bc   Qr ac  db  a 2  b 2   (A.3)
Pr2  Qr2
Having:
_
Z  Rth  jX th
Hence, after substitution from Eqn. (A.1) for a, b, c and d into Eqn. (A.3) and
separation of Rth and Xth, we obtain:
Rth2 

Pr2 ac  bd  a 2  b 2 
2
 
 Qr2 ad  bc 2  2 Pr Qr ac  bd  a 2  b 2 ad  bc 
P r
2
 Qr2 
2
Rth2 

Pr2 E sVr cos 12  Vr2 
2
 
 Qr2 E sVr sin  12 2  2 Pr Qr E sVr cos 12  Vr2 E sVr sin  12 
P r
2
 Qr2  2
Appendix 444
And:
X th2 

Qr2 E sVr cos 12  Vr2 
2
 
 Pr2 E sVr sin  12 2  2 Pr Qr E sVr cos 12  Vr2 E sVr sin  12 2
P r
2
 Qr2 
2
Vr4  E s2Vr2  2Vr3 E s cos 12

Z Rth2  X th2  (A.4)
Pr2  Qr2
Z 
 2
Pr  Qr
2


V
V r
4
 E s2Vr2  2Vr3 E s cos 12 

Vr  P r
2
 Qr2 

Vr4  E s2Vr2  2Vr3 E s cos 12 


V
P r
2

 Qr2 

P r
2
 Qr2  


Z  1 
 
Vr  P 2  Q 2  V 4  E 2V 2  2V 3 E cos 
 r r r s r r s 12 
 E
 2Vr3  VEs2  s Vr2 E s  Vr3 cos 12
Vr
 
 (A.5)


 12 Vr3 E s sin  12  3Vr2 E s cos 12
Vr

Vr4  E s2Vr2  2Vr3 E s cos 12  Pr Qr 
-  P
 r V  Q r 
Pr2  Qr2  r V r 
From Eqn. (A.5), for the system to be stable KZ  0, where:
z

K  2V 3  V E 2 
r r s V
 Es
V 2 E  V 3 cos 
r s r

12

  12 3
 V
V E sin 
r s 12
  
 r r
 V 4  E 2V 2  2V 3 E cos    P 4
 
12  P  Q 
r 
 V 2 E cos   r s r r s
r s 12   r  V  Qr  V    0
 r 
2
P Q 2
 r r r

(A.6)
444 Appendix A
Qr is positive for leading power factor and negative for lagging power factor,
in this analysis.
Ps  12
, are calculated from the load powers/voltage characteristics.
Vr Vr
Ps  12
, can be derived as follows:
Vr Vr
The real and reactive power flows in this circuit may be written as a function
of the circuit variables as follows:
Pl  f1 Vr , Es ,  12  and Ql  f 2 Vr , Es ,  12 

Pr  f 3 Vr  and Qr  f 4 Vr  . Also, Pl  Pr and Ql  Qr
Note that all voltage values are "scalar" quantities. For small increments,
 P   P   P 
Pl   l Vr   l E s   l  12
 Vr   E s    12 
 Q   Q   Ql 
Ql   l Vr   l E s    12

 r
V 
 sE 
 12 
 P   Q 
Pr   r  12 and Qr   r  12
 Vr   Vr 
Using: Pl  Pr and Ql  Qr
Gives:
 Pl   P    P   P  
 E s   l  12    r    l  Vr
 V 
 E s    12    r   Vr  
(A.7)
 Ql   Ql    Qr   Ql  
 E s    12        Vr

 s
E  
 12  
 r   r 
V V
From Eqn. (A.7), by writing in determinant from the expression for Vr, the
equation for Es/Vr can be obtained:
  Pl   Pl  
    E s 
   12   E s  
  Ql   Ql  
    E s 
  12   E s 
 12   
  Pl   Pl  
    E s 
   12   E s  
  Ql   Qr Ql 
     
 
  12   r V V r 
Appendix 444
Therefore:
E s K
 (A.8)
Vr  Pl  Ql   Pl  Ql 
      
  
 s  12   12  s 
E E
Where:
K is the denominator determinant.
For steady-state stability, Eqn. (A.8) has to be positive and the sign of the
numerator and denominator of Eqn. (A.8) will be considered. From fig. (6.1),
the equation for real and reactive power may be written as:
E V  V 2 
P  s r
l  Z   12

 sin δ  α   r  sinα
 Z 
 l   l 
 EsVr  V 2 
Q  
l
 12

 cos      r  cos
Z 
 Zl   l
Giving by differentiation w.r.t. Es, Vr and 12:
Pl  Vr 
   sin  12   
E s  Z l 
Pl  E s   2V 
   sin  12      r  sin 
Vr  Z l   Zl 
Pl E V 
  s r  cos 12   
 12  Z l 
Ql  Vr 
   cos 12   
E s  Z l 
Ql  E s   2V 
   cos 12      r  sin 
Vs  Z l   Zl 
Ql  E sVr 
  sin  12   
 12  Z l 
Ql  E s   2V 
   cos 12      r  cos
Vr  Z l   Zl 
Consider the sign of the denominator of Eqn. (A.8):

454 Appendix A
Pl Ql  E sVr2  2

   2  sin  12   
E s  12  Z 
 l 
And:
Pl Ql  E sVr2  2
  cos  12   
 12 E s  Z l2 
Therefore:
 Pl Ql   Pl Ql   E sVr2 
      
       E    Z 2  (A.9)
 sE 12   12 s   l 
Which is negative in the stable region. Therefore, for Eqn. (A.7) to be

positive, K must be negative in the stable region or Kc, which will be defined
below, must be positive, where:
 Pl   Pr   Pl  

       

 12  
 r   r 
V V
KC   0
 Ql   Qr   Ql 
    
     
 12   r   r 
V V
E sVr   Qr 2Vr   P 2V  E 

KC  cos 12     cos   sin  12    r  r sin    s   0
Zl   Vr Z l   Vr Z l  Zl 
(A.10)
From Eqns. (A.2), (A.6), we can get:
E s K

Vr  Pl Ql   Pl Ql 
      

 sE  12    12 E s 
E s Z l  2Vr 2V E 
  cos cos 12     r sin  sin  12     s  (A.11)
Vr Vr  Z l Zl Zl 
Or:
E s  Z l  '
  K C A.12)
Vr  Vr 
Appendix 454
From Eqns. (A.7), by writing in determinant from the expression for 12, the
equation for Es/12 can be obtained:
 Pl   Pr Pl  

     

 s 
E  r  V  V r 
 Ql   Qr Ql 
    

 s 
E  r  V  V r 
 12  E s 
  Pl   Pr Pl  
      

  12  
 rV V r 
  Ql   Qr Ql 
     

  12   rV  V r 
 Pl   Pr Pl  

     
E s  E s  
 rV V r 
 12 
K  Ql   Qr Ql 
    

 s 
E  rV  Vr 
Therefore:
E s K
 (A.13)
 12 Ql  Pl Pl  Pl  Qr Ql 
     
E s  Vr Vr  E s  Vr Vr 
Where:
K is the denominator determinant
Divide Eqn. (A.11) by Eqn. (A.13) we have:
  Es 
 
  12   Vr   2 Z1  V  E 
 
E V
cos  sin    r
      
s  cos     sin    
 Vr   Es   s r  E V2 
12 12
   s r 
 
 12 
(A.14)
Substituting Eqns. (A.11), (A.14) in (A.6), the voltage stability criterion

criterion (dZ/dVr) can be evaluated numerically.
254 Appendix B
Appendix B
Determination of the Maximum Receiving End Power
and Critical Load Nodes Voltage for Constant Receiving
End Qr
The sending end voltage for two nodes system is given by:
E
2
s
2 2 B
A V 
r r
V
2
2 r r
 r
 
P 2  Q 2  2 AB P cos       Q sin     
r
 (B.1)
r
_ _
Where: A  A and B  B are the line generalized line constants.
2
Multiply both sides of Eqn. (B-1) by Vr , we get:
0E
2
s r r r r
 2
r r
 r

 A V  B P 2  Q 2  2 ABV P cos     Q sin    
2 4 2
 (B.2)
Let:
K  2 ABPr cos     Qr sin    
Eqn. (B.2) will be in the form:
2 4 2
 2
 
A Vr  V K  E 2  B P 2  Q 2  0
r s r r
 (B.3)
From Eqn. (B-3) Vr21, 2 is calculated by:
Vr
2
1,2
 1.0  
  
 2   K  E s 
 2 A  
2  K  Es2 2  4 A2 B 2 Pr2  Qr2  (B.4)

Corresponding to Pmax there is one value of Vr, as the two values are
coincident, then the term under the root must vanishes. i.e, the term under the
root become zero. The two equal values of the voltages Vr21, 2 are thus the first
part only of Eqn. (B.4), i.e
K  Es2 2  4 A2 B 2 Pr2  Qr2 
Or:  r

2 AB P cos      Q sin      E 2
r s
 
2 2 2

 4A B P2  Q2
r r
 (B.5)
Eqn. (B.5) can be rewritten in the general form:
The voltage corresponding to Pmax is the critical voltage, which is given by:
Vcr   
 1 
 2A 
2

 K  E s2  (B.6)
Noting that for a simple two node link system:

A  1,   0 o and B  Z ,    ( the angle of Z ), E s2 should beK.
The Thevenen's equivalent at any node of large power system can be
calculated by the well-known Zbus method and a load flow run.
Appendix 354
Appendix C
Distribution Overhead Lines and Cables Parameters and
Typical Power Systems Data
Table C.1 Impregnated paper insulated power cables parameters
Type Nominal cross Effective Inductive

section (mm2) resistance(Ω/km) reactance(Ω/km)
325 1.410 0.148
335 1.020 0.140
350 0.755 0.125
370 0.522 0.118
Aluminum 395 0.377 0.112
3120 0.298 0.110
3150 0.243 0.105
3185 0.194 0.103
3240 0.149 0.100
3300 0.120 0.098
325 0.785 0.148
335 0.561 0.140
350 0.392 0.125
370 0.279 0.118
Copper 395 0.207 0.112
3120 0.164 0.110
3150 0.131 0.105
3185 0.106 0.103
3240 0.081 0.100
3300 0.065 0.098
Table C.2 Distribution overhead lines parameters
Type Nominal Values taken as abase of calculation

Cross section Effective resistance Inductive reactance
mm2 (r) /km (x) /km
16/2.5 1.833 0.412
25/4 1.200 0.395
35/6 0.833 0.385
50/8 0.600 0.375
ACSR 70/12 0.435 0.370
95/15 0.319 0.350
120/21 0.235 0.340
150/25 0.192 0.335
185/32 0.158 0.330
353 Appendix C
10 1.786 0.435
Copper 16 1.123 0.410
25 0.738 0.400
35 0.525 0.395
Condition Ambient temperature 20C & Frequency 50Hz
Reference German standard taken A base of our calculation
Table C.3 Permissible currents rating in Ampere
Overhead conductors Impregnated paper insulated power

cables
Nominal Permissible Nominal Permissible
Type Cross section current Type Cross section current
mm2 rating (A) mm 2 rating (A)
16/2.5 90 325 82
25/4 125 350 102
35/6 145 370 128
50/8 170 395 154
ACSR 70/12 235 Aluminum 3120 175
95/15 290 3150 197
120/21 345 3185 223
150/25 400 3240 260
185/32 455 3300 293
10 85 325 92
16 115 335 111
25 150 350 131
35 175
370 165
Copper --- --- Copper
395 198
--- ---
3120 224
--- ---
3150 252
--- ---
3185 285
--- ---
3240 330
--- ---
Table C.4 Maximum capacitor bank rating MVAR for HV switchgear
Type Standard Capacitor Voltage

rating (A) rating (A) 3300 6600 11000 33000
MVAR MVAR MVAR MVAR
Oil circuit 400 280 1.6 3.2 5.3 16
breakers 800 560 3.2 6.4 10.6 32
1200 840 4.8 9.6 16.0 48
1600 1120 6.4 12.8 21.3 64
Vacuum 300 210 1.2 2.4 --- ---
contactors 400 280 1.6 3.2 5.3 ---
Note: (1) Capacitor ratings based on standard de-rating factor of 0.7
(2) Capacitive current ratings for other types of switchgear could be similar to above but
the manufacturers advice should be sought
Appendix 355
Table C.5 Active and reactive power losses of distribution transformer

and percentage of resistance and reactance
Transformer Copper Iron Active R% X% Reactive

rating KVA loss KW loss KW loss KW loss KVAR
30 0.705 0.130 0.835 2.35 3.24 0.972
50 1.250 0.210 1.460 2.50 3.12 1.560
63 1.280 0.285 1.545 2.03 3.45 2.174
75 1.700 0.230 1.960 2.27 3.29 2.468
100 2.150 0.340 2.490 2.15 3.37 3.370
125 3.100 0.400 2.900 2.00 3.46 4.325
160 4.100 0.480 3.580 1.94 3.50 5.600
200 4.900 0.570 4.170 1.80 3.57 7.140
250 6.000 0.670 4.770 1.64 3.65 9.125
315 7.150 0.800 5.700 1.56 3.68 11.592
400 9.870 0.960 6.960 1.50 3.71 14.840
500 7.150 1.150 8.300 1.43 3.74 18.700
630 9.870 1.0350 11.200 1.57 3.68 23.184
Table C.6 IEEE 30-bus test system (American Electric Power)
Load data
Bus Load Bus Load
No. MW MVAR No. MW MVAR
1 0.0 0.0 16 3.5 1.8
2 21.7 12.7 17 9.0 5.8
3 2.4 1.2 18 3.2 0.9
4 7.6 1.6 19 9.5 3.4
5 94.2 19.0 20 2.2 0.7
6 0.0 0.0 21 17.5 11.2
7 22.8 10.9 22 0.0 0.0
8 30.0 30.0 23 3.2 1.6
9 0.0 0.0 24 8.7 6.7
10 5.8 2.0 25 0.0 0.0
11 0.0 0.0 26 3.5 2.3
12 11.2 7.5 27 0.0 0.0
13 0.0 0.0 28 0.0 0.0
14 6.2 1.6 29 2.4 0.9
15 8.2 2.5 30 10.6 1.9
Generation data
Bus Voltage Generation MVAR Limits
No. Mag. MW Min. Max.
1 1.06 --- --- ---
2 1.043 40.0 -40.0 50.0
5 1.01 0.0 -40.0 40.0
8 1.01 0.0 -30.0 40.0
10 1.082 0.0 -6.0 24.0
13 1.071 0.0 -6.0 24.0
354 Appendix C
Line data on a 100 MVA base

Bus Bus R X 1/2B Bus Bus R X 1/2B
No. No. pu pu pu No. No. pu pu pu
1 2 0.0192 0.0575 0.0264 16 17 0.0824 0.1923 0.0
1 3 0.0452 0.1852 0.0204 15 18 0.1073 0.2185 0.0
2 4 0.0570 0.1737 0.0184 18 19 0.0639 0.1292 0.0
3 4 0.0132 0.0379 0.0042 19 20 0.0340 0.0680 0.0
2 5 0.0472 0.1983 0.0209 10 20 0.0936 0.2090 0.0
2 6 0.0581 0.1763 0.0187 10 17 0.0324 0.0845 0.0
4 6 0.0119 0.0414 0.0045 10 21 0.0348 0.0749 0.0
5 7 0.0460 0.1160 0.0102 10 22 0.0727 0.1499 0.0
6 7 0.0267 0.0820 0.0085 21 22 0.0116 0.0236 0.0
6 8 0.0120 0.0420 0.0045 15 23 0.1000 0.2020 0.0
6 9 0.0 0.2080 0.0 22 24 0.1150 0.1790 0.0
6 10 0.0 0.5560 0.0 23 24 0.1320 0.2700 0.0
9 11 0.0 0.2080 0.0 24 25 0.1885 0.3292 0.0
9 10 0.0 0.1100 0.0 25 26 0.2544 0.3800 0.0
4 12 0.0 0.2560 0.0 25 27 0.1093 0.2087 0.0
12 13 0.0 0.1400 0.0 28 27 0.0 0.3960 0.0
12 14 0.1231 0.2559 0.0 27 29 0.2198 0.4153 0.0
12 15 0.0662 0.1304 0.0 27 30 0.3202 0.6027 0.0
12 16 0.0945 0.1987 0.0 29 30 0.2399 0.4533 0.0
14 15 0.2210 0.1997 0.0 8 28 0.0636 0.2000 0.0214
6 28 0.0169 0.0599 0.0650
Table C7 A 6-bus Ward-Hall system
Generation and load data in pu

Bus Voltage Generation Load
No. Mag. MW, pu MVAR, pu MW, pu MVAR, pu
1 1.05 --- --- --- ---
2 1.1 0.50 0.50 0.0 0.0
3 --- 0.0 0.0 0.55 0.13
4 --- 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
5 --- 0.0 0.0 0.3 0.18
6 --- 0.0 0.0 0.5 0.05

Bus Bus R X 1/2B
No. No. pu pu pu
1 4 0.080 0.037 0.015
1 6 0.123 0.518 0.020
2 3 0.723 1.050 0.0
2 5 0.282 0.640 0.0
3 4 0.0 0.133 0.0
4 6 0.097 0.407 0.150
5 6 0.0 0.300 0.0
Appendix 354
Table C.8 A 16-bus Egyptian power system state
Load and generation data

Bus Load Bus Generation
No. MW MVAR No. MW MVAR
1 0.0 0.0 1 1647.4 533.5
2 0.0 0.0 2 10000.0 6242.9
3 0.0 0.0 3 0.0 390.16
4 0.0 0.0 4 660.0 247.0
5 0.0 0.0 5 75.0 31.67
6 746.0 308.0 6 0.0 0.0
7 200.0 136.0 7 0.0 0.0
8 0.0 0.0 8 0.0 0.0
9 0.0 0.0 9 0.0 0.0
10 0.0 0.0 10 0.0 0.0
11 0.0 0.0 11 0.0 0.0
12 0.0 0.0 12 0.0 0.0
13 0.0 0.0 13 0.0 0.0
14 0.0 0.0 14 0.0 0.0
15 11280.0 6028.8 15 0.0 0.0
16 100.0 50.1 16 0.0 0.0
17 0.0 0.0 17 12.54 0.85

Bus Bus R X 1/2B G B
No. No. pu pu pu reactor reactor
8 12 0.0010 0.0142 0.5825 0.0 0.0
8 12 0.0010 0.0142 0.5825 0.0 0.0
12 9 0.0010 0.0142 0.5825 0.0 0.0
12 9 0.0010 0.0142 0.5825 0.0 0.0
9 13 0.0015 0.0207 0.8528 0.0 0.0
9 13 0.0015 0.0207 0.8528 0.0 0.0
13 10 0.0015 0.0207 0.8528 0.0 0.0
13 10 0.0015 0.0207 0.8528 0.0 0.0
10 14 0.0009 0.0126 0.5200 0.0 0.0
10 14 0.0009 0.0126 0.5200 0.0 0.0
14 11 0.0009 0.0126 0.5200 0.0 0.0
14 11 0.0009 0.0126 0.5200 0.0 0.0
14 17 0.0 0.00330 0.0 0.0 0.0
15 3 0.0 0.0004 0.0 0.0 -3.135
15 2 0.0 0.0004 0.0 0.0 -1.516
8 1 0.0 0.0057 0.0 0.0 -1.642
8 7 0.0 0.0053 0.0 0.0 0.0
9 6 0.0 0.0026 0.0 0.0 0.0
10 16 0.0 0.0104 0.0 0.0 0.0
11 3 0.0 0.0010 0.0 0.0 0.0
13 4 0.0 0.0066 0.0 0.0 0.0
12 5 0.0 0.0320 0.0 0.0 0.0
854 Appendix D
Appendix D
Required Capacitors Ratings for Improvement of Power
Factors of Electrical Equipment's and Motors
Table D.1 Three-phase transformers to British Electricity Boards
specification T1 (1958)
Iron loss (W) Full load copper Impedance (V% % Magnetizing

KVA loss (W) @ 75oC) currents
rating Voltage ratio Voltage ratio Voltage ratio Voltage ratio
3300/433 6600/4331 3300/433 6600/433 3300/433 6600/433 3300/433 6600/433
1000/433 11000/433 11000/433 11000/433
25P --- 106 --- 700 --- 4.50 --- 3.33
50P --- 165 --- 1180 --- 4.50 --- 3.00
100P 257 277 2000 2000 4.75 4.50 2.30 2.23
200P&S 455 482 3400 3400 4.75 4.50 2.10 2.05
300P/S 649 673 4600 4600 4.75 4.75 2.05 2.03
400 825 --- 5700 --- 4.75 4.75 --- ---
500S 985 1030 6860 6860 4.75 4.75 1.60 1.53
750S 1400 1420 9500 9500 4.75 4.75 1.60 1.54
1000S 1770 1770 11820 11820 4.75 4.75 --- 1.20
1250 --- 1820 --- 12000 --- 4.75 --- 1.00
P- Pole-mounted transformer & S- Substation transformer
Table D.2 Reactive power for typical European distribution transformers
KVA 7.2/12/17.5/23 kV 24 kV 36 kV
rating Off load On load Off load On load Off load On load
VAR VAR VAR VAR VAR VAR
16 1080 1360 --- --- --- ---
25 1500 2130 1740 2470 1950 2980
40 2020 3170 2320 3680 2520 3880
63 2500 4460 3020 5300 3480 5760
80 2760 5340 3560 6540 4280 7260
100 3600 6920 4160 7960 5080 8880
125 4500 8760 5000 9860 6140 11000
160 5000 10580 6050 12390 7500 13840
200 6300 13550 7160 15160 8900 16900
250 7800 16950 8620 18970 10700 21050
315 10000 21700 10300 23800 12600 26100
400 10800 25700 13200 30000 15200 32000
500 13500 32300 15800 36800 18000 39000
630 17000 40700 18800 43600 21200 46000
Appendix 854
Table D.3 Capacitors ratings for direct connection to transformers
Transformer Capacitor rating in KVAR at

nominal voltage of:
rating KVA 5/10 kV 15/20 kV 25/30 kV
25 2.0 2.5 3.0
40 3.0 4.0 5.0
50 4.0 5.0 6.0
63 5.0 6.0 7.0
75 5.0 6.0 7.0
80 6.0 7.0 8.0
100 6.0 8.0 10.0
125 7.0 8.0 10.0
160 10.0 12.0 15.0
200 10.0 15.0 20.0
250 15.0 18.0 22.0
315 18.0 20.0 25.0
400 20.0 22.0 28.0
500 20.0 25.0 30.0
630 30.0 32.0 40.0
750 30.0 35.0 45.0
1000 45.0 50.0 55.0
Table D.4 Capacitor size required to improve power factor to 0.86 and
showing extra powers available by improving the power factor
Initial power factor 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8

Transformer Extra power available if power
rating KVA factor improved to 0.86 expressed
in % of rated power of
transformer 65% 53% 42% 30% 18% 7%
16 13 11 9 7 5 2
25 20 17 15 11 8 3
40 32 28 23 18 12 5
63 50 45 36 28 18 8
80 62 55 45 35 25 10
100 80 70 57 45 30 12
125 Capacitor size in KVAR to obtain a 100 85 70 55 37 15
160 power factor of 0.86 125 110 90 70 45 20
200 155 140 115 90 60 24
250 195 170 140 110 75 30
315 245 215 180 140 95 38
400 310 275 225 175 120 48
500 390 340 280 220 150 60
630 490 430 355 275 185 75
800 620 550 450 350 235 95
1000 775 680 565 440 295 120
864 Appendix D
Table D.5 Recommended capacitor rating for direct connection induction

motors to improve power factor to 0.95 or better at all loads
Capacitor rating in KVAR when motor speed is:

Motor 3000 1500 1000 750 600 500
(hp) (rev/min) (rev/min) (rev/min) (rev/min) (rev/min) (rev/min)
2.5 0.5 1.0 1.0 1.5 1.5 1.5
5.0 1.0 1.5 1.5 2.5 3.0 3.0
7.5 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 4.0 4.0
10.0 2.5 3.0 3.0 4.0 5.0 5.0
12.5 3.0 3.0 4.0 5.0 6.0 6.0
15.0 3.0 4.0 4.0 6.0 6.0 6.0
17.5 4.0 4.0 5.0 6.0 8.0 8.0
20.0 5.0 5.0 6.0 6.0 8.0 10.0
22.5 5.0 5.0 6.0 8.0 8.0 10.0
25.0 6.0 6.0 6.0 8.0 10.0 12.0
27.5 6.0 6.0 8.0 10.0 10.0 12.0
30.0 6.0 8.0 8.0 10.0 12.0 14.0
32.5 6.0 8.0 8.0 10.0 12.0 14.0
35.0 8.0 8.0 10.0 12.0 14.0 14.0
37.5 8.0 8.0 10.0 12.0 14.0 16.0
40.0 8.0 10.0 10.0 14.0 14.0 16.0
42.5 8.0 10.0 12.0 14.0 14.0 16.0
45.0 8.0 10.0 12.0 14.0 16.0 18.0
47.5 10.0 10.0 12.0 14.0 16.0 18.0
50.0 10.0 12.0 14.0 16.0 18.0 18.0
55.0 10.0 12.0 14.0 16.0 18.0 20.0
60.0 12.0 12.0 14.0 18.0 20.0 22.0
65.0 12.0 14.0 16.0 18.0 20.0 24.0
70.0 12.0 14.0 18.0 18.0 22.0 24.0
75.0 14.0 16.0 18.0 20.0 22.0 26.0
80.0 14.0 16.0 20.0 20.0 24.0 28.0
85.0 14.0 18.0 20.0 22.0 24.0 28.0
90.0 16.0 20.0 22.0 24.0 26.0 30.0
95.0 16.0 20.0 24.0 24.0 28.0 30.0
100 18.0 22.0 24.0 26.0 28.0 32.0
105 18.0 22.0 24.0 26.0 30.0 32.0
110 18.0 24.0 26.0 28.0 30.0 34.0
115 20.0 24.0 26.0 28.0 32.0 34.0
120 20.0 26.0 26.0 28.0 32.0 36.0
125 22.0 26.0 28.0 30.0 34.0 36.0
130 22.0 26.0 28.0 30.0 34.0 38.0
135 24.0 28.0 28.0 30.0 34.0 38.0
140 24.0 28.0 30.0 32.0 36.0 40.0
145 26.0 28.0 30.0 32.0 36.0 40.0
150 26.0 28.0 30.0 32.0 36.0 42.0
155 26.0 30.0 30.0 34.0 38.0 44.0
160 28.0 30.0 32.0 34.0 38.0 46.0
165 28.0 30.0 32.0 36.0 40.0 48.0
170 30.0 32.0 32.0 36.0 40.0 48.0
Appendix 864
175 30.0 32.0 34.0 38.0 42.0 50.0

180 30.0 34.0 34.0 38.0 44.0 50.0
185 30.0 34.0 34.0 38.0 44.0 52.0
190 32.0 34.0 36.0 40.0 46.0 52.0
195 32.0 34.0 36.0 42.0 46.0 54.0
200 32.0 36.0 36.0 44.0 46.0 54.0
205 32.0 36.0 38.0 44.0 48.0 56.0
210 34.0 36.0 38.0 46.0 48.0 58.0
215 34.0 36.0 38.0 46.0 50.0 58.0
220 34.0 36.0 38.0 48.0 50.0 60.0
225 36.0 38.0 40.0 48.0 52.0 62.0
230 36.0 38.0 40.0 50.0 52.0 62.0
235 36.0 40.0 42.0 50.0 54.0 64.0
240 38.0 40.0 42.0 52.0 56.0 66.0
245 38.0 40.0 42.0 52.0 56.0 66.0
250 40.0 42.0 44.0 54.0 58.0 68.0
Table D.6 Effect on power factor of installing capacitors equal to 90% of

the magnetizing KVAR of slip ring motors
(based on specific motor characteristics)
% Efficiency Cap. Power factor

Motor Speed Rating Without correction With correction
(hp) (rpm) Full 75% 50% KVAR Full 75% 50% Full 75% 50%
load load load load load load load load load
20 580 87 87 86 9 0.78 0.71 0.60 0.96 0.96 0.96
50 580 89 90 89 12 0.82 0.75 0.64 0.98 0.97 0.97
75 580 90 91 90 21 0.86 0.81 0.73 0.97 0.97 0.97
100 580 91 91.5 91 27 0.86 0.81 0.72 0.96 0.96 0.96
200 580 93 93.5 93 45 0.89 0.85 0.77 0.97 0.97 0.97
20 720 87 87 86 7 0.82 0.76 0.66 0.96 0.96 0.95
40 720 89 89 88 11 0.86 0.82 0.73 0.97 0.97 0.96
80 720 91 91.5 91 21 0.87 0.83 0.74 0.97 0.97 0.96
120 720 92 92 91 32 0.88 0.84 0.75 0.98 0.98 0.97
200 720 93 93.5 93 50 0.89 0.85 0.77 0.98 0.98 0.98
Table D.7 Recommended capacitor ratings for use with typical single-
phase single operator arc-welding transformers
Continuously Average uncorrected Recommended Corrected

rated KVA power factor capacitor KVAR power factor
9 0.35 4 0.550
12 0.35 6 0.625
18 0.35 8 0.580
24 0.35 12 0.620
30 0.35 15 0.620
36 0.35 18 0.620
864 Appendix D
Table D.8 Recommended capacitor ratings for use with three-phase

multi-operator arc-welding transformers
Type Maximum Continuously Uncorrected Recommended Corrected

rating KVA rated KVA power factor capacitor KVAR power factor
350/3 95 57 0.35 16.5 0.48
350/6 190 95 0.35 30 0.49
350/9 285 128 0.35 45 0.51
350/12 380 160 0.35 60 0.53
Table D.9 Rating of capacitor banks for power factor correction of arc
furnaces
Rating of arc-furnace transformer (MVA) Rating of capacitor bank (MVAR)

5.0 1.5 - 2.0
12.5 4.0 - 5.0
25 - 30 7.5 - 12
50 - 60 15 - 25
100 40 - 45
150 60 - 70
Note: The capacitor bank ratings quoted should be used as guidelines only and
should achieve corrected power factor 0.95 and above at peak load periods. It is
normal for arc furnace manufacturers to detail the rating and specification of any
capacitor bank required
Table D.10 Effect of varying power factor on KVA load of alternator
KW load Load power factor KVA load % Overload

2000 0.5 4000 60
2000 0.6 3333 33.33
2000 0.7 2860 14.5
2000 0.8 2500 0
2000 0.9 2222 0
2000 0.95 2105 0
Note: The effects of power factors above the rated value in providing a margin of KVA
load on the alternators of 278 KVA and 395 KVA
Table D.11 Effect of varying power factor on KW load of alternator
KW load Load power factor KVA load % Reduction KW

1250 0.5 2500 37.5
1500 0.6 2500 25.0
1750 0.7 2500 12.5
2000 0.8 2500 ---
2250 0.9 2500 ---
2375 0.95 2500 ---
Note: The effects of power factors above the rated value in providing an increase of load of
250 KW and 375 KW respectively
Appendix 864
Table D.12 Typical power factors encountered in industry
Industry Power factor

Textile 0.65/0.75
Chemical 0.75/0.85
Machine shops 0.4/0.65
Arc welding 0.35/0.4
Arc furnaces 0.7/0.9
Core less induction furnaces and heaters 0.15/0.4
Cement works 0.78/0.8
Clothing factories 0.35/0.6
Breweries 0.75/0.8
Steel works 0.6/0.85
Collieries 0.65/0.8
Brick works 0.6/0.75
Cold stores 0.7/0.8
Foundries 0.5/0.7
Plastics molding 0.6/0.75
Printing 0.55/0.7
Quarries 0.5/0.7
Rolling mills (thyristor drives) 0.3/0.75
Table D.13 The most economic power factor required by electricity

boards
Electricity board Type of Power factor should Type of power

tariff be improved to: factor
Eastern KVA MD 0.97/0.98 Maximum demand
East Midlands KVA MD 0.97/0.98 Maximum demand
London KW MD 0.90 Average
Mersey side and North Wales KW MD 0.93 Maximum demand
Midlands KVA MD 0.97/0.98 Maximum demand
North of Scotland Hydro KW MD 0.90 Average
North Eastern KW MD 0.90 Average
North Western KW MD 0.90 Average
South Eastern KW MD 0.85 Average
Southern KVA MD 0.97/0.98 Maximum demand
South of Scotland KW MD 0.97/0.98 Average
South Wales KW MD 0.95 Average
South Western KW MD 0.90 Average
Yorkshire KVA MD 0.97/0.98 Maximum demand
France KVA MD 0.86 Maximum demand
Egypt KVA MD 0.90 Maximum demand
Table D.14 Average reactive power absorbed by various motors
Rated speed (rev/min) (synchronous)
Appendix
Motor 3000 1500 1000 750 600 500 375
rated Reactive power in KVAR for
Load % F. L. Load % F. L. Load % F. L. Load % F. L. Load % F. L. Load % F. L. Load % F. L.
(hp) 100 75 50 100 75 50 100 75 50 100 75 50 100 75 50 100 75 50 100 75 50
1 0.8 0.7 0.6 0.9 0.8 0.7 1.1 1.1 0.8 1.2 1.1 1.0 --- --- --- 1.5 1.5 1.4 --- --- ---
2 1.2 1.1 1.1 1.5 1.4 1.4 1.5 1.3 1.3 2.1 2 1.9 --- --- --- 2.8 2.8 2.5 --- --- ---
3 1.7 1.6 1.5 2.1 1.8 1.7 2 2 2 2.8 2.5 2.4 3.4 3 2.8 3.9 3.7 3.5 --- --- ---
5 2.6 2.3 2.1 3.2 2.8 2.5 3.2 2.9 2.7 4.4 4.2 3.8 5 4.7 4.4 5.6 5.3 4.9 --- --- ---
7 3.3 2.8 2.5 4.3 3.7 3.6 4.3 3.9 3.6 5.6 5.5 5.1 6.4 5.8 5.6 7.1 6.9 6.5 --- --- ---
10 4.4 3.9 3.3 5.7 4.9 4.5 5.6 5 4.5 7.4 7 6.7 8.2 7.1 6.4 8.6 7.5 6.6 --- --- ---
15 6.7 6 5.2 8.4 7 6 8.2 6.9 6.3 10 9.7 8.7 11 10 9 13 11 10 --- --- ---
20 9 7 6 10 9 7 10 8.8 7.8 12.4 11.9 10.8 15 13 11 16 14 13 --- --- ---
30 13 10 9 14 12 11 15 13 11 18 17 15 20 18 16 22 21 18 --- --- ---
40 16 14 12 17 16 14 19 16 15 21 20 18 26 23 20 27 24 20 --- --- ---
50 20 17 14 21 20 17 23 19 17 29 27 22 31 27 24 32 29 25 36 32 28
60 20 17 16 24 20 17 24 21 19 30 28 25 33 29 25 40 35 30 41 34 31
70 21 17 16 26 22 19 27 25 22 33 28 25 39 35 29 44 37 33 47 40 36
80 24 20 18 30 24 21 31 29 25 37 32 26 41 36 31 50 43 37 53 45 39
90 27 22 21 33 30 26 37 33 28 40 34 29 46 40 35 51 44 38 60 51 44
100 30 25 23 37 33 29 44 38 33 44 38 32 51 44 38 57 49 42 62 54 47
120 --- --- --- 44 39 34 47 41 34 53 45 38 58 51 43 61 53 45 --- --- ---
140 --- --- --- 48 43 37 52 46 38 61 52 42 64 57 47 71 62 52 --- --- ---
160 --- --- --- 56 44 40 59 52 42 66 54 47 69 59 52 84 75 62 --- --- ---
180 --- --- --- 63 50 45 66 59 47 70 58 51 78 67 58 --- --- --- --- --- ---
200 --- --- --- 63 55 46 68 58 48 82 68 58 87 74 62 --- --- --- --- --- ---
464
220 --- --- --- 68 61 50 75 64 53 90 75 64 --- --- --- --- --- --- --- --- ---
250 --- --- --- 77 69 57 86 68 57 103 85 73 --- --- --- --- --- --- --- --- ---
On-Load Tap Changing Transformer
On changing transformers taps, it’s not allowed to interrupt customer
service so, on-load tap changing transformers are used to regulate the
voltage and to keep its level within limits without interrupting the load.
This is actually done by changing the transformation ratio automatically by
a control system. Tap are frequently installed on the high transformer
voltage side since the current on this side is smaller and the current-
carrying parts of the tap changing gear are therefore less bulky and less
difficult to handle, and the tapping on the low voltage side may not give
sufficiently close control of voltage. The block diagram of transformer tap
changing control system is shown in Fig (F-1)
Microcomputer for
Motor calculating Δ t by
linear programming
Fig. (F-1) Block diagram of tap-changing transformer.
A schematic diagram of a tap on-load transformer tap changing is shown by

fig.(F-2). The on load tap changer given in fig.(F-2) has five positions and
the variation from position 1 to position 2 required 17 steps given in table
(F-1). The switches can be relays, power transformers or thyristors.
Where
R, S, T : are transformer switches.
A, B, C, D : are inversion contacts.
1, 2, 3, 4 : are selection contacts.
a and a are the transformer terminals which are connected to the network.
Table (F-2) steps required to change the tap-setting from position 1 to
position 2 of the 5 taps on-load tap-changing transformer of fig. (F-2)
T
R S
a
a’
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17
1 0 0 0 0
2 0 0 0 0 0 0
3 0 0 0 0 0 0
4 0 0 0 0 0 0
5 0 0 0
A 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
B 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
C 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
D 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
R 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
S 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
T 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Table (F-1)
1
T
Transformer
winding S
2
Auxiliary
winding
To illustrate the idea of the required steps of the tap changing, the steps
required to change, for example from tap position (1) to another position (2)
of a two-tap transformer of fig (F-2) are given in table (F-2)
In the first step (initial state), contact 1 and switches R and T are close, and
2, S are open. In the second step, contact 2 is close. Afterwards, switch T is
opened in the third step. Then, switch S is turned to the close position. The
fifth step includes the opening of switch R. Finally, in the sixth step, contact
1 is open and switch T is close. The transformer tap is then changed from
position 1 to position 2 without interrupting the load.
On-load tap changing transformers are generally designed for 15%--
20% voltage change, but in steps, each of 1-2%. These steps are
automatically changed by a control system.
Table (F-2) steps required for changing from one tap to anther of 2 tap
transformers
1 2 3 4 5 6
1 C C C C C 0
2 0 C C C C C
R C C C C 0 0
S 0 0 0 C C C
T C C 0 0 0 C
“C” denotes closing a contact or switch and “O” denotes opening a contact
or switch.
Fig.(F-3) change of tap setting of on-load tap changer.

The equivalent circuit of an on-load tap-changing transformer having a
series admittance Y and off nominal tap ratio “t”, connected between node
“i”, “j” is shown in fig (F-4)
i t : 1 j
Y
Node i Node j
Y/t
Y(t-1)/t2 Y(t-1)/t
Fig. (F-4) Equivalent circuit of a transformer with tap-changer.
Auto-transformers
The auto transformer is a two winding transformer with the secondary
winding is tightly connected to primary as shown in fig. (F-9)
Ideally
V1I1= V2I2
Neglecting the magnetizing current, we must have the mmf balanced

equation as
Which agrees with the current-flow directions shown in figure (F-5) the
apparent power delivered to the load may be written as
In fig. (F-9) the power is considered to consist of two parts:

These power are related to the total power by
And

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Power Systems Voltage

Mohamed Zaki El-Sadek

Flow 33, 172, 256, 269 Limit 11

Numerical 128 Samalout 426

2.13 Compensator Reactive Power sensitivity to System Nodes

4.4 Aspects of Voltage Instabilities 91

8.21 Per Unit System of HVDC Systems Variables 244

10.8 Using Combined Series Capacitors and Static VAR

12.15 Short-Circuits Recoveries at Induction Motor Load Terminals 402

Voltage stability concerns stable loads operation, and acceptable

Voltage instability has been observed in several forms, which was

This book is the effort of fifteen years teaching a course entitled

Chapter 1: displays voltage stability definitions and gives a review of

I am deeply indebted to Dr. Adel E. Hammad, of the "NOK" company,

I feel that my students (in Assiut University, South Valley University,

Special thanks to my sincere students Youssef A. Mubarak and

For Students, Researchers & Field Engineers

Simple criteria for detection of the presence of such phenomena are

General methods of voltage control of both generators, networks nodes

Power Systems Stabilities

1.1 Power Systems Instabilities Types:

electrical power . A necessary condition for satisfactory system operation

1.1.1 Synchronous or Inertia or Angle Stability

1.1.2 Harmonic Stability

1.1.3 Voltage Stability

1.1.3.1 Voltage Instability and Voltage Collapse

complex than simple voltage instability and is usually the result of a

1.2 Conditions Leading to Voltage Collapses and

1.3 Voltage Instability Time Scales:

Transient voltage stability is often inter-linked with transient rotor angle

1.4 Transmission System Participation in Voltage

1.5 Generator Participation in Voltage Stability

Fig. 1.5 Simple system for illustration of impact of loss of regulation of

Fig. 1.6 VR-PR characteristics of the system

1.6 Load Participation in Voltage Stability:

1.7 Power Systems Blackouts and Failures:

Major system failures are rarely the result of a single catastrophic

1.8 Voltage Collapse Preventive Techniques:

1.9 Voltage Stability Classifications:

(a) Large - disturbance voltage stability : is concerned with system's

1.10 Voltage Stability Analysis

1.10.2 Voltage Stability Criteria:

1.10.3 Time Simulations Analysis

1.11 System Protection Role in Voltage Stability

Whenever there is system disturbance and voltage drops to a certain pre-

1.12 Power Systems Islanding:

1.12.1 Systems Response to Islanding Conditions

1.12.2 Under Generated Islands:

under excitation limits and controls may be activated. In extreme situation,

1.13 Cold Inrush Current

1.13.1 What is Cold Inrush Current?

1.13.2 Inrush Currents Effects:

1.13.3 Inrush Current Measurement:

Fig. 1.7 (a) An inrush current control circuit configuration

1.13.5 Loads Inrush Currents Periods and Their Ratio's

1.14 Voltage and Load Stability:

Type of load Inrush Current /Rated Period of inrush current