Food substances

1. Carbohydrates (diastix: blue to green to brown) 17.1

- glucose, maltose, glycogen, cellulose, sucrose, galactose, starch
- cellulose: structural component of plant cell wall, has a hydrogen bond w/ strong
mechanical strength to maintain shape and support for plant cells
- monosaccharides condense or catalyse (removal of water molecule) to form a glycosidic bond;
di/polysaccharides break down into its components w/ the addition of water (hydrolysis)
- starch (complex) is broken down into glucose, then transported to body cells, used by body cells
to release energy during respiration and support body activities
- sugar (simplest form and readily available) is water-soluble, readily absorbed in alimentary canal and
transported in blood through the body.
- benedict’s test (qualitative vs quantitative)
- principle: reducing sugars (except sucrose) have reducing power: it can donate electrons to the
chemical, so it becomes oxidised.

qualitative semi-quantitative

1. put an excess volume of benedict’s solution into the
test tube with the substance
2. put the test tube in a boiling water bath for 5 minutes
3. observe if brick-red precipitate is formed, or if there
is any color change from blue to green to red.
1. filter solution with filter paper, dry in descicator/oven to
measure the mass of the precipitate or allow it to stand for
15 minutes, the measure the depth of the precipitate settled
in the test tube.

limitation: valid but not accurate error: interpretation of color, observation is subjective

2. Lipids (grease spot test - immerse into organic solvent) 38.9

- triglycerides, phospholipids, unsaturated/saturated fat
- energy reserve if carbs are used up, stored under skin as subcutaneous fat (adipose
tissues) an insulator of heat, visceral fat for protection of organs from mechnical damage,
primary component for forming cell membrane, form steroids without fatty acids, and
regulatory hormones
- phospholipid: surround the triglycerides in a bilayer, with a hydrophobic core
- phosphate bonds with hydrogen, so the hydrophobic tails face each other
- polar because it is negatively charged, attracted to water bc it is bipolar in nature

emulsion test pH test

1. suspend test sample in ethanol (organic solvent) principle: lipid is hydrolyzed into fatty acids and gly,
tube, shake and pour into water tube, if the sample + lipase, fatty acids will be present and pH
2. observe if a milky white cloudy emulsion is formed level will decrease

3. Proteins (albustix paper yellow to green): carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, sulphur 18.2
- major component of body tissues, muscles, bones, skin, hair, blood
- water soluble, lack: kwashiorkor (weak muscles, swollen abdomen, poor phy/men
development)
- raw material for building up body for repair, structure materials for body, keratin to
strengthen, form enzymes, hormones, antibodies, haemoglobin
 - less energy efficient: less yield and has a complex metabolic pathway
- haemoglobin: primary (polypeptide chain) → secondary (coil into spiral/helix) → tertiary (fold
into 3d structure) → quaternary (4 chain link) → form haemoglobin and carry iron
- deamination: breaking down of excess amino group, form urea to excrete through urine

4. Vitamins

Vitamin A (fat) Vitamin C Vitamin D (fat) Vitamin B Vitamin E (fat)

purpose 1. forming visual 1. synthesis and 1. assists uptake group of 1. anti-oxidant,

pigment of rod cells for repair of of calcium and compounds w/ slow aging of cells
night vision connective phosphate ions different functions
2. protecting the cornea tissues from blood into
3. keeping the linings of 2. healing cells
alimentary canal, wounds, keep 2. formation of
breathing system and teeth, gums, skin strong bones and
skin healthy healthy teeth

disease - night blindness, scurvy - rickets (soft - beriberi (weak - anaemia

- dry/thin cornea (connective tissue and bent bones, nervous system/ (excessive
- easy infection of the breaks down, bone fracture) muscle) destruction of red
lining of the lungs teeth are loose - anaemia (loss of blood cells)
and gums bleed) appetite and
tiredness)

facts precursor: carotenoids can be removed in / / /

urine
* water-soluble: readily abosrted into the bloodstream from the gastrointestinal tract and to tissues and organs
fat-soluble: transported through the lymphatic system before entering the bloodstream and stored as tissues/reserve

Calcium Iron Iodine

Functions 1. Build bones and teeth 1. making hemoglobin (a pigment 1. maintaining the functions of the
2. Help blood clotting in red blood cells that carries thyroid gland (thyroxine, thyroid
3. Help sending messages in oxygen) hormones)
the nervous system

Deficiency Rickets (soft bones, legs bend Anaemia (low number of red Goitre: the thyroid gland becomes
diseases under the weight of the body), blood cells): faint easily due to swollen
osteoporosis (porous and brittle lack of haemoglobin to carry
bones) oxygen to the brain

5. Dietary Fibre
- contains cellulose from plant cell walls, cannot be digested by humans, no energy value
- food in the intestine is pushed forward by the contraction of muscles in the intestinal wall, dietary
fibre cannot be digested → adds bulk to food and stimulates peristalsis
- holds water, keeping faeces soft, passed out of body easily, preventing constipation
 6. Water
- component of cytoplasm of cells, medium for chemical reactions
- component of blood, transports substances
- solvent for waste which leaves the body
- makes up body secretions
- regulate our body temperature through the evaporation of sweat

7. Nucleic acids: DNA and RNA, carries genetic information, involved in the synthesis of proteins

Daily energy requirement factors:

1. age: children and teenagers require more energy per kilogram of body mass than older people - they are
more active and are growing rapidly, they need to develop bones, teeth and blood with calcium.
2. gender: men need more energy, more muscle, and support muscle contraction. they have a higher
metabolic rate and thinner subcutaneous fat, rapid heat loss.
3. activity level and occupation: people who do more physical work (eg construction workers) require
more energy than those who do less physical work for muscle contraction
- Overeating: if energy intake continuously exceeds energy output, excess lipids and carbs are stored
as fats, this leads to an increase in body mass → being overweight and obese increases risks of
health problems like high blood pressure, cardiovascular diseases and diabetes.
- Undereating: if energy intake is continuously lower than energy output, stored fats release
energy to support body activities, leading to a decrease in body mass → being underweight or
malnourished lead to poor growth, weak muscles and bones, weak immune system; or even
eating disorders like anorexia due to psychological factors.

Microscope

Light Microscope Transmission Electron Microscope Scanning Electron Microscopes (SEM)

(max 1600x) (TEM) (max 1500000x) (max 200000x)

light passes through a electron beams pass through a thins electron beams scan over the surface of a
specimen or a thin slide lide of a specimen to form an image specimen to form an image
of it to form an image

colored black and white 2d internal black and white 2d external

observe living magnifications and resolution of the /

specimens, can be images produced are higher, so
prepared easily more details can be seen
- eyepiece: magnifying lens we look through, with 5x, 10x, 16x times
- objective: magnifying lens pointing to the specimen
- condenser: focuses light onto the specimen; diaphragm: adjust amount of light
- coarse/fine adjustment: we turn it to raise or lower the stage to get a certain focus, small/large movement
- magnification: size of image/ size of object
Structure of Cells

Animal Cells Plant Cells

cell membrane, cytoplasm, nucleus, rough/smooth endoplasmic reticulum, mitochondrion, ribsome

vacuole cell wall, chloroplast, large central vacuole

- nucleus: spherical structure bounded by nuclear membrane, pores to allow exchange of materials,
contains DNA that carries genetic information, and a nucleolus
- cytoplasm: jelly-like fluid consisting of water and proteins, holds organiells, site for chem reactions
- cell membrane: thin and flexible membrane made of phospholipids and proteins, encloses the cell and
separates the cell contents from the outside environment, differentially permeable, controls movemen
tof substances in and out of the cell, dark line (head of phospholipid) and light middle (fatty acid tail)
- cell wall: thick and rigid outermost layer (cellulose), fully permeable, protects and gives shape
- endoplasmic reticulum: network of interconnected membrane-bounded sacs, continuous with the outer
nuclear membrane and extends throughout the cytoplasm,
- rough: has ribosomes attached, a site for the synthesis of proteins
- smooth: no ribosomes attached, a site for the synthesis of lipids
- proteins transported in vesicles (protein bound structure) pinched off from rough er + golgi
apparatus to form cell membrane
- mitochondrion: double membrane highly folded, main site of respiration (convert chemical energy in
food into energy), more energy requirement, more mitochondrion (eg. synthesis of enzymes,
absorption of nutrients and minerals, contraction or high level metabolic activities
- chloroplast: double membrane, chlorophyll (green pigment) captures light energy and converts into
chemical energy in photosynthesis, starch grains are present inside
- vacuole: fluid-filled sac bounded by a single membrane, contain water, enzymes and food in animal
cells; contain cell sap (water and dissolved substances), plant cells become turgid when the large
ventral vacole is full of water, providing support to the plant.